A   HANDBOOK 


FOB 


.SUPERINTENDENTS  OF  CONSTRUCTION, 

ARCHITECTS,  BUILDERS,  AND 

BUILDING  INSPECTORS. 


BY 

H.  G. 

Superintendent  of  Construction  U.  S.  Public  Buildings; 
Author  of  "  Rickey's  Guide  and  Assistant  for  Carpenters  and  Mechanics.' 


FIRST    EDITION. 

THIRD    THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK  : 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS. 

LONDON:  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED. 

1905. 


Copyright,  1905, 

BY 
H.  G.  RICHEY. 


PRESS  OF 

BRAUNWORTH  &  CO. 

BOOKBINDERS  AND  PRINTERS 

BROOKLYN,  N.  Y. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


PEEFACE. 


IN  preparing  this  volume  it  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author 
to  prepare  a  book  that  will  be  an  every-day  help  to  any  one 
engaged  in  building  construction. 

Building  construction,  like  everything  else,  advances  and 
changes  with  the  times,  and  the  author  has  tried  to  make  this 
work  as  complete  and  up  to  date  as  possible.  He  does  not 
claim  credit  for  all  the  formulas  and  information  given  in  this 
volume,  some  of  it  having  been  compiled  from  various  authors 
and  sources,  a  list  of  which  will  be  given,  and  due  credit  is 
given  to  all  for  anything  that  is  found  compiled  in  this  book 
from  any  other  work. 

Still  there  is  enough  original  matter  and  information  to  be 
found  in  the  following  pages  to  make  the  author  think  that 
it  will  prove  a  valuable  addition  to  any  mechanical  or  technical 
library,  and  taken  altogether  it  is  as  its  title  represents:  A  hand- 
book for  any  one  engaged  in  any  branch  of  building  construc- 
tion, and  most  especially  superintendents  of  construction,  and 
inspectors. 

If  by  his  past  experience  as  carpenter,  contractor,  architect, 
and  superintendent  of  construction,  and  through  the  medium 
of  this  volume,  the  author  is  able  to  render  any  information  or 
assistance  to  those  engaged  in  building  construction,  he  will 
feel  himself  amply  repaid  for  the  labor  expended  in  preparing 
the  following  pages. 

H.  G.  RICKEY. 
iii 

•  >>  o 


WORKS  AND  AUTHORS  CONSULTED  BY  THE  AUTHOR 
IN  PREPARING  THIS  VOLUME,  AND  OF  WHICH 
LIST  ANY  WILL  PROVE  A  VALUABLE  ADDITION 
TO  ANY  LIBRARY. 

Building  Construction,  by  F.  E.  Kidder. 

Architects  and  Builders'  Pocket  Book,  by  F.  E.  Kidder. 

Treatise  on  Foundations,  by  W.  M.  Patton. 

Inspectors'  Pocket  Book,  by  Austin  T.  Byrne. 

Various  Works  of  Fred  T.  Hodgson. 

Bricklaying,  by  Owen  B.  Maginnis. 

Hydraulic  Cement,  by  Frederick  P.  Spaulding. 

Civil  Engineers'  Pocket  Book,  by  J.  C.  Trautwine. 

Carnegie's  Pocket  Book,  by  Carnegie  Steel  Co. 

National  Tube  Company's  Pocket  Book,  by  National  Tube 
Company. 

Mechanics  and  Engineers'  Pocket  Book,  by  C.  H.  Haswell. 

Builders'  Guide,  by  I.  P.  Hicks. 

Stones  for  Building,  by  G.  P.  Merrill. 

Steam,  by  Babcock  and  Wilcox. 

Masonry  Construction,  by  I.  O.  Baker. 

Magazines  from  which  information  has  been  derived: 

Architects  and  Builders'  Magazine,  Engineering  News,  Car- 
pentry and  Building,  Brick  Builder,  Engineering  Magazine, 
Scientific  American,  National  Builder,  Cement  and  Engineer- 
ing News,  Cement. 

Also  catalogues  and  trade  publications  of  the  various  manu- 
factures. 

The  dates  of  the  various  building  codes  from  which  extracts 
have  been  taken  are  as  follows : 

New  York 1901 

Philadelphia 1903 

Chicago 1903 

Baltimore 1904 

Cleveland 1904 

San  Francisco 1904 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters 1904 

iv 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

PAGE 

PERSONALITY    AND    DUTIES    OF    A    SUPERINTENDENT.     EXCAVATING, 

FOUNDATIONS,  PILES,  BUILDING-STONES 1 

PART  II. 

STONE  LAYING,  SETTING,  AND  CUTTING,  MARBLE  AND  SLATE  WORK, 

BRICKWORK  AND  BRICKLAYING,  PAVING,  ETC 46 


PART  III. 

LIME,  SAND,  CEMENT,  MORTAR,  AND  CONCRETE.  CONCRETE  CONSTRUC- 
TION. FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION,  PARTITIONS,  ETC.  ARCHI- 
TECTURAL TERRA-COTTA.  FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  FIRE 
PROTECTION  OF  BUILDINGS 110 


PART  IV. 

LATHING  AND  PLASTERING.  CARPENTRY;  TIMBER.  PLUMBING.  TIN 
AND  SHEET  METAL  WORK.  PAINTING,  GLAZING,  AND  PAPER- 
HANGING.  IRONWORK,  ELECTRIC  WIRING,  ETC.  HEATING 292 


PART  V. 

DRAWING.       LAYING    OUT    WORK.      MENSURATION.       GEOMETRICAL 

MENSURATION.     VARIOUS  ENGINEERING  FORMULAS 533 


PART  VI. 

HYDRAULICS  AND  DATA  ON  WATER.     STRENGTHS,  WEIGHTS,  ETC.,  OP 

MATERIALS.     VARIOUS  MATERIALS  AND  DATA     634 

V 


A  HANDBOOK  FOR   SUPERINTEND- 
ENTS OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


PART  I. 


PEKSONALITY  AND  DUTIES  OF  A  SUPER 
INTENDENT. 


EXCAVATING,  FOUNDATIONS,  PILES, 
BUILDING-STONES. 

Personality  and   Duties  of  a  Superintendent. — 

A  superintendent  should  be  a  man  who  can  command  the 
respect  and  obedience  of  those  under  him.  In  all  his  dealings 
he  should  be  honest  and  just,  demanding  only  what  is  right 
and  insisting  on  what  he  demands  being  done.  He  should  be 
a  sober,  upright,  and  intelligent  man,  well  conversant  with  all 
the  details  of  the  work  or  structure  which  he  will  have  under 
his  supervision;  he  should  study  the  work  in  advance  so  as  to 
forestall  any  point  or  question  which  may  come  up  for  him  to 
decide. 

Before  giving  any  decision  or  deciding  any  point  he  should 
study  the  matter  carefully,  be  sure  he  is  right,  and  then  in  a 
firm  manner  stick  to  it.  Let  a  superintendent  once  give  a 
decision  and  then  by  a  little  argument  on  the  part  of  the  con- 
tractor alter  or  change  it  and  he  will  find  the  contractor  will  be 
sure  to  try  to  make  him  change  others  in  the  future. 

At  the  commencement  of  any  work  or  building  the  superin- 
tendent should  be  if  anything  a  little  more  strict  than  necessary, 
for  then  he  will  have  a  chance  to  relax  a  little  as  the  work 
progresses.  This  refers  to  both  workmanship  and  material. 

The  superintendent  should  examine  all  material  as  it  is 
brought  to  the  work,  and  at  once  reject  any  that  is  of  poor 


2  PERSONALITY  AND  DUTIES. 

quality  or  unfit  for  the  work,  and  all  rejected  material  he  should 
have  removed  at  once  from  the  premises,  for  so  long  as  any  such 
material  is  at  the  job  there  is  danger  of  some  of  it  finding  its 
way  into  the  building  or  structure. 

Regarding  material  the  superintendent  should  be  suspicious 
of  any  change  or  substitute  advanced  by  the  contractor,  for 
it  is  of  no  advantage  to  a  contractor  to  make  a  change  unless 
it  is  to  substitute  something  cheaper,  and  anything  cheaper 
will  be  inferior  in  quality. 

The  superintendent  should  be  at  his  post  of  duty  at  all  hours 
when  any  work  is  being  done,  for  there  are  some  points  of  the 
work  that  in  a  few  hours  can  be  slighted  enough  to  weaken  the 
whole  structure,  and  a  building  or  any  structure  is  only  as 
strong  as  its  weakest  point. 

In  rejecting  materials  they  should  be  marked  and  orders 
given  to  remove  them  at  once.  The  superintendent  should 
keep  a  record  of  all  material  rejected,  giving  the  date  and  cause 
of  rejection.  He  should  be  familiar  with  the  tools  used  by  the 
various  trades  and  methods  of  using  them,  as  he  can  then 
determine  more  quickly  if  a  mechanic  is  doing  good  work  or 
not.  He  should  watch  each  and  every  workman  employed  so 
far  as  possible,  and  any  whom  he  finds  careless  or  unskilful, 
and  whose  work  does  not  come  up  to  the  required  standard, 
he  should  have  removed. 

The  superintendent  should  keep  a  daily  diary  stating  the 
condition  of  the  work,  state  of  the  weather,  materials  received, 
or  anything  which  has  a  bearing  on  the  progress  or  completion 
of  the  work.  He  should  see  that  the  work  progresses  rapidly 
enough  to  insure  its  completion  within  contract  time,  and  if 
there  is  any  delay  or  suspicion  of  delay  he  should  notify  the 
contractor  and  report  the  same  to  his  superiors. 

On  some  work  the  superintendent  is  charged  with  the  duty 
of  making  up  the  estimates  due  the  contractor  as  the  work 
progresses.  To  do  this  correctly  it  is  advisable  to  obtain  from 
the  contractor  at  the  commencement  of  the  work  a  schedule  of 
prices  of  the  various  parts  of  the  work  as  he  has  estimated  them. 
This  should  be  given  both  in  unit  and  in  total.  The  superin- 
tendent in  making  up  these  estimates  should  be  careful  to  do 
justice  to  both  sides,  being  careful  to  give  the  contractor  what 
is  due  him,  but  no  more. 

Of  course  on  work  where  there  are  certain  amounts  to  be  paid 
at  various  stages  of  the  work  this  schedule  is  not  necessary. 


PERSONALITY  AND  DUTIES,  3 

as  the  amounts  to  be  paid  will  be  determined  before  the  work 
is  commenced. 

If  the  superintendent  would  have  a  cost  or  price  book  and 
keep  memoranda  of  the  cost  of  the  various  works  upon  which 
he  is  engaged  it  will  be  a  great  help  to  him  in  making  any 
estimate  of  work. 

The  superintendent  should  study  the  drawings  and  specifi- 
cations carefully  in  advance  of  the  work,  so  as  to  determine 
if  everything  is  working  out  correctly,  as  there  are  often  little 
changes  or  questions  which  will  come  up  as  the  work  progresses 
which  the  superintendent  will  be  called  upon  to  decide,  and  if 
he  keeps  on  the  lookout  for  such  things  he  will  have  time  to 
consult  with  his  superiors  before  rendering  a  decision  to  the 
contractor. 

Contractors  in  different  localities  have  different  methods  of 
executing  work,  and  it  is  advisable  to  leave  the  mode  of  execu- 
tion to  the  contractor  so  long  as  the  desired  end  is  obtained, 
viz.,  a  perfect  and  acceptable  job. 

The  plans  and  specifications  are  his  guide  and  he  should 
insist  on  strict  compliance  with  their  meaning.  He  should 
avoid  any  arguments  or  controversy,  as  his  duty  is  only  to 
see  that  the  work  is  carried  out  according  to  the  meaning  of 
the  plans  and  specifications,  and  not  to  decide  if  any  other 
method  or  material  is  better.  When  he  has  any  complaint  to 
make  he  should  make  it  at  once  and  in  a  firm,  gentlemanly 
manner,  and  insist  on  its  settlement  immediately. 

Any  superintendent  who  acts  in  this  manner  and  who  has 
had  experience  enough  to  make  himself  familiar  with  good 
construction  and  methods  of  executing  work  should  have  no 
trouble  with  any  one  who  is  doing  work  under  his  supervision. 

When  the  superintendent  has  cause  to  submit  materials  to  a 
laboratory  for  testing,  the  following  amount  of  each  material 
should  be  submitted  to  make  a  complete  test: 

Cement not  less  than  15  pounds 

White  lead "     "      "       2       " 

Red  lead "     "       "       2       " 

Varnish "     "       "       1  quart 

Oil "     "       "       1     " 

Shellac "     "       "       1     " 

Tin 3  whole  sheets 

Copper  or  zinc.  ..  pieces  6"X6" 


LAYING  OUT. 


Laying  Out  for  Foundations,  etc.  —  The  superin- 
tendent should  have  the  contractor  or  his  representative  do  all 
the  laying  out,  so  that  he  will  be  responsible  for  all  errors,  but 
the  superintendent  should  go  over  all  lines,  angles,  and  measure- 
ments and  verify  them  as  to  being  correct. 

In  laying  out  work,  turning  angles,  or  running  lines  or  levels 
it  is  advisable  to  do  so  with  a  transit  and  level,  and  if  the  super- 
intendent does  not  possess  or  understand  the  use  of  one  of 
these  instruments  he  should  engage  the  services  of  a  civil 
engineer.  A  convertible  architect's  level,  manufactured  by 
Keuffel  &  Esser  Co.  of  New  York,  is  a  good  instrument  for  a 
superintendent  to  possess,  as  with  it  he  can  do  all  work  such 
as  running  lines,  giving  levels,  and  bench-marks  that  may  be 
desired. 

Fig.  1  shows  how  the  batter-boards  should  be  set  for  the  lines 
of  a  foundation;  the  boards  should  be 
long  enough  to  catch  the  lines  for  both 
inside  and  outside  of  all  walls  and 
footings.  The  lines  shown  in  the  cut 
represent  the  lines  in  place  for  the 
walls  and  piers. 

These  boards  should  be  put  up 
firm  and  well  braced  and  placed  far 
enough  back  from  the  excavation  to  in- 
sure their  being  in  solid  ground;  they  should  also  be  made  high 
enough  for  the  wall  to  be  built  up  to  the  belt  course,  or  ashlar 
course,  without  disturbing  them.  After  the  batter-boards  are 
set  the  superintendent  should  have  the  main  lines  stretched 
and  try  the  distance  from  opposite  corners  to  prove  if  they  are 
laid  out  square.  A  level  or  bench-mark  should  be  put  up  on  a 
solid  stake  or  other  solid  object,  giving  the  height  of  a  certain 
point  in  the  height  of  the  walls  or  building;  then  all  other  heights 
can  be  measured  from  this  point. 

As  the  different  grade  heights  are  usually  given  in  decimal 
parts  of  a  foot  from  a  given  point  a  table  giving  the  various 
fractions  in  feet  and  inches  will  be  found  very  useful;  such  a 
table  will  be  found  on  pages  608  and  609. 

After  the  building  is  up,  say  to  the  belt  course  or  any  other 
level  course,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the  foreman  of  the  building 
prepare  a  pole  giving  the  heights  of  the  various  points  or  courses 
in  the  building,  and  set  them  all  to  this  pole;  in  this  way  after 
the  first  course  is  set  and  levelled,  if  all  the  other  courses  are 


FIG.  1. 


EXCAVATING.  5 

% 

set  to  this  pole  they  will  be  correct  for  height  and  level.  See 
Fig.  83,  page  66. 

The  superintendent  should  go  over  the  drawings  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  work  is  commenced  and  see  that  all  measure- 
ments are  marked  correct,  as  a  little  error  in  marking  sometimes 
makes  a  lot  of  trouble  afterwards.  The  author  knows  of  an 
instance  where  the  foreman  of  a  building  staked  it  out  and 
built  it  two  feet  shorter  in  length  than  the  plans  called  for, 
yet  it  was  never  noticed  by  the  superintendent  simply  because 
he  did  not  take  the  trouble  to  verify  the  foreman's  measure- 
ments in  laying  out  the  building. 

In  laying  out  work  where  a  series  of  points  come  on  the 
same  line  the  tape  should  be  stretched  the  full  length  and  the 
location  of  each  point  marked  by  adding  together  the  various 
distances  from  the  starting-point. 

In  giving  any  point,  such  as  a  bench-mark  or  height,  or 
measurement  of  any  kind,  the  superintendent  should  be  very 
careful  and  be  sure  he  is  correct,  for  he  can  be  held  responsible 
for  any  error  he  may  make. 

In  running  walls,  piers,  etc.,  through  from  story  to  story  the 
superintendent  should  always  check  them  up  at  each  floor-level 
to  see  if  they  are  being  carried  up  plumb. 

Excavating. — When  the  excavating  is  being  done  the 
superintendent  should  see  that  all  excavations,  trenches,  etc., 
are  dug  out  at  least  six  inches  larger  than  the  walls,  so  that 
there  will  be  room  for  pointing  or  cementing,  or  when  concrete 
is  to  be  used,  to  have  room  for  building  the  wood  forms. 

The  superintendent  should  give  height  or  bench-marks  and 
see  that  the  excavating  is  carried  to  the  proper  level,  and  if 
by  chance  any  trench  for  a  footing-course  is  dug  too  deep  he 
should  have  it  filled  up  with  concrete  or  masonry,  and  not  with 
loose  earth. 

If  a  stream  of  water  or  spring  is  encountered,  provision  must 
be  made  to  take  the  water  away;  this  can  be  done  with  a 
broken-stone  or  open  1^le  drain  as  shown  by  Figs.  2  and  3. 

As  soon  as  the  excavation  is  dug  to  the  proper  depth  the 
superintendent  should  have  the  sewer  to  the  building  run  in 
past  the  inside  of  the  wall  and  a  strainer  put  on  so  as  to  carry 
off  any  water  which  may  gather  from  rain,  snow,  or  damp 
soil. 

The  superintendent  should  pay  strict  attention  to  the  work 
during  the  putting  in  of  the  foundation-footing  and  walls,  for 


6 


FOUNDATIONS. 


there  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  some  contractors  to  slight 
this  work,  thinking  it  will  soon  be  covered  up. 


.CONCRETE  FOOTING^ 

SEWER  PIPE  IAID 
WITH  OPEN  JOINTS 

FIG.  2. 


FIG.  3. 


Shrinkage  of  Excavated  Material. — All  materials 
when  first  excavated  will  increase  in  bulk,  but  after  laying 
a  while  will,  with  the  exception  of  rock,  shrink  until  they  will 
occupy  less  space  than  when  originally  in  the  earth. 

The  shrinkage  of  various  materials  has  been  estimated  as 
follows: 

Gravel 8  per  cent 

Gravel  and  sand 9       " 

Clay  and  clay  earths 10       " 

Loam  and  light  sandy  earths 12       " 

Loose  vegetable  soils 15       " 

Puddled  clay 25       " 

Foundations. — One  of  the  first  duties  of  a  superintendent 
after  taking  charge  of  the  erection  of  a  building  or  other  struc- 
ture is  to  determine  the  stability  of  the  ground  upon  which 
it  will  rest.  The  architect  should  ascertain  if  possible  the 
nature  of  the  ground  before  he  makes  his  plans,  as  then  his 
foundations  can  be  made  to  suit  the  material  it  will  rest  upon. 
But  often  this  is  not  done,  and  it  devolves  upon  the  superin- 
tendent to  test  the  stability  of  the  ground,  and  when  it  is  found 
not  to  have  a  sufficient  carrying  capacity  changes  will  have 
to  be  made  in  the  foundation  of  the  structure.  If  there  is 


TESTING  THE  SOIL.  7 

any  other  like  building  in  the  immediate  vicinity  already 
erected  the  superintendent  should  make  inquiry  of  the  architect 
and  builder  of  this  building  and  find  out  all  he  can  as  to  the 
nature  and  formation  of  the  ground,  and  if  any  difficulty  was 
experienced  in  putting  in  the  foundations  of  the  building. 

Testing  the  Soil. — After  the  excavation  is  made,  if  the 
superintendent  has  any  doubt  as  to  the  stability  or  carrying 
power  of  the  ground  on  which  the  foundations  will  rest,  he 
should  test  the  same  by  boring  holes  or  sinking  a  shaft,  and 
if  the  bed  is  found  insecure  he  should  at  once  consult  with  his 
superiors  and  determine  if  the  excavations  are  to  be  carried 
deeper  or  the  plans  of  the  foundation-walls  changed  so  as  to 
obtain  a  greater  breadth  or  surface  resting  on  the  ground. 
There  should  be  several  borings  made  in  different  parts  of  the 
excavation  to  about  the  same  depth  (10  to  15  feet  is  deep 
enough  for  ordinary  tests)  and  if  the  character  of  the  soil  is 
about  the  same  in  all  the  holes  this  test  will  be  sufficient,  but 
if  there  is  a  decided  difference  in  the  borings  of  any  of  the 
holes  as  to  material,  depth  of  stratas,  etc.,  it  is  advisable  to 
sink  other  holes  to  make  a  complete  test. 

It  is  better  to  have  a  little  expense  at  the  commencement  of 
a  building  or  other  structure  to  determine  the  stability  of  the 


FIG.  4. 

foundation  than  to  go  ahead  and  erect  the  structure  and  have 
the  walls  crack  or  perhaps  worse  from  unequal  settlement. 
Like  a  chain,  a  building  is  only  as  strong  as  its  weakest  point. 
After  testing  the  soil  by  borings  as  described,  if  there  should 
be  any  doubt  at  all  as  to  its  carrying  capacity  it  should  be 
tested  by  an  actual  experiment  as  to  what  it  will  carry.  This 


8  BED  OF  FOUNDATIONS. 

can  be  done  by  digging  a  hole  and  setting  up  a  mast  as  shown 
by  Fig.  4. 

The  mast  should  be  set  up  as  shown  and  braced  at  the  top 
to  four  posts  which  must  be  braced  firm  and  secure  as  shown. 
A  platform  should  be  built  on  the  mast  to  carry  the  load.  Before 
loading,  stakes  should  be  driven  radiating  from  the  mast  out 
about  four  feet,  and  the  tops  made  perfectly  level,  and  then  a 
level  should  be  taken  from  them  to  the  mast.  Now  after  the 
load  is  put  on,  a  straight  edge  will  show  if  the  top  of  the  stakes 
remains  in  line  or  if  there  has  been  any  upheaval.  Then  a  level 
should  be  taken  of  the  mast  to  see  if  it  has  settled  any. 

Bed  of  Foundations. — The  superintendent  should  see 
that  the  surface  of  the  foundation-bed  is  dressed  off  at  right 
angles  to  the  thrust  or  weight  which  is  to  bear  upon  it.  Where 
possible  all  foundations  should  be  carried  around  at  the  same 
level,  but  where  this  is  impossible  and  the  footings  have  to  be 
put  in  at  unequal  depths  the  difference  in  height  of  the  different 
levels  should  be  made  in  perpendicular  steps  as  shown  by  Fig  5. 


FIG.  5. 

Where  the  foundations  rest  on  rock  which  has  an  incline  or 
dip  of  not  over  two  inches  in  a  foot,  the  rock  can  be  cut  or 
roughed  off  as  shown  by  Fig.  6,  which  will  prevent  the  build- 
ing or  structure  from  sliding. 


Where  there  are  any  rifts  or  fissures  in  the  rock  they  should 
be  entirely  filled  with  concrete,  as  shown  by  Fig.  7,  or  if  very 
deep,  should  be  arched  over  with  a  masonry  or  concrete  arch 
or  with  I  beams  bedded  in  the  concrete. 

ROCK. — Where  rock  is  used  as  a  foundation-bed  the  superin- 
tendent should  see  if  there  is  any  seepage  or  water;  as  is  often 
the  case  the  water  will  follow  along  the  top  of  the  rock  and 
come  out  in  the  excavation.  In  such  cases  care  must  be  taken 
to  collect  the  water  and  dispose  of  it,  or  by  putting  a  drain 


BED  OF  FOUNDATIONS.  9 

outside  of  the  walls,  catch  the  water  and  carry  it  away  before 
it  enters  the  excavation.  Rock  is  of  course  the  best  foundation 
that  can  be  had  to  build  upon,  as  there  will  be  no  doubt  of  its 
carrying  power,  and  as  the  crushing  strength  of  the  weakest 


FIG.  7. 

sandstone  is  about  3000  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  a  foundation 
of  rock  will  carry  all  that  is  likely  to  be  built  on  it. 

GRAVEL. — This  is  one  of  the  best  materials  to  build  on,  but, 
like  sand,  has  to  be  confined  to  a  certain  extent,  especially  if 
there  is  any  water  present,  as  there  will  be  a  tendency  to  wash 
out  the  sand  and  fine  gravel,  but  if  there  is  no  water  present 
and  the  gravel  is  packed  solid  it  will  carry  the  heaviest  of 
structures. 

SAND. — Sand  makes  a  good  foundation  to  build  on  only  when 
it  is  confined  on  all  sides,  and  is  very  dangerous  to  build  on 
unless  it  is  so  confined  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  water 
penetrating  and  undermining  it. 

CLAY. — This  is  an  excellent  material  for  a  foundation  provid- 
ing it  is  solid,  free  from  water,  and  has  no  large  seams  which 
will  let  the  water  penetrate.  A  clay  foundation  should  be 
tested  thoroughly  if  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  its  not  being  solid 
and  dry,  for  some  clays  are  very  deceptive.  If  there  are  any 
seams  through  which  the  water  can  penetrate,  there  will  be  great 
danger  of  the  structure  slipping. 

SILT  AND  SOFT  SOILS. — No  building  operation  of  any  magni- 
tude can  be  erected  on  these  materials  unless  an  artificial  founda- 
tion is  provided  by  driving  piles,  putting  in  footings  of  timbers 
or  beams  and  concrete  so  as  to  cover  a  large  surface  and  dis- 
tribute the  weight,  or  by  sinking  caissons  and  filling  them 
with  concrete. 

The  table  given  below  will  form  a  guide  as  to  the  bearing 
power  of  soils,  etc.  But,  after  all,  there  is  no  definite  rule  except 
by  experience  and  testing. 


10  PILES  FOR  FOUNDATIONS. 


Name  of  Soil,  etc. 

Rock,  hard,  on  native  bed  .....  250  tons 

Ledge  rock  ...................  36   " 

Hard-pan  .........  .  ..........  8   " 

Gravel  .......................  5   " 

Clean  sand.  .  .  ................  4   " 

Dry  clay  .....................  3   " 

Wet  clay  ..........  .  .........  2   " 

Loam  .......................  1  ton 

Regarding  the  bearing  power  of  soils,  etc.,  the  Chicago  Build- 
ing Law  says: 

Sec.  75.  Load  for  Clay  15  Feet  Thick.  —  If  the  soil  is  a  layer  of 
pure  clay  at  least  15  feet  thick,  without  admixture  of  any 
foreign  substance  excepting  gravel,  it  shall  not  be  loaded  more 
than  at  the  rate  of  3500  pounds  per  square  foot.  If  the  soil 
is  a  layer  of  pure  clay  at  least  15  feet  thick  and  is  dry  and 
thoroughly  compressed,  it  may  be  loaded  not  to  exceed  4500 
pounds  per  square  foot. 

Sec.  76.  Load  for  Sand  15  Feet  Thick.  —  If  the  soil  is  a  layer 
of  dry  sand  15  feet  or  more  in  thickness,  and  without  admixture 
of  clay,  loam,  or  other  foreign  substance  it  shall  not  be  loaded 
more  than  at  ,  the  rate-  of  4000  pounds  per  square  foot. 

Sec.  77.  Load  for  Mixed  Soil.  —  If  the  soil  is  a  mixture  of 
clay  and  sand,  it  shall  not  be  loaded  more  than  at  the  rate  of 
3000  pounds  per  square  foot. 

Sec.  78.  Foundations  in  Wet  Soil  —  Trenches  to  be  Drained.  — 
In  all  cases  where  foundations  are  built  in  wet  soil,  it  shall  be 
unlawful  to  build  the  same  unless  the  trenches  in  which  the 
work  is  being  executed  are  kept  free  from  water  bv  baling, 
pumping,  or  otherwise  until  after  the  completion  of  work 
upon  the  foundations. 

Sec.  79.  Foundation  —  Where  not  Permitted.  —  Foundations 
shall  not  be  laid  on  filled  or  made  ground,  or  on  loam,  or  on  any 
soil  containing  admixture  of  organic  matter. 

Piles  for  Foundations.  —  Piles  are  used  to  a  great 
extent  for  the  foundations  of  structures  which  rest  on  a  soft 
or  wet  soil,  and  the  superintendent  should  be  familiar  with 
the  -methods  of  driving  and  using  them. 

MATERIAL.—  Oak  is  the  best  wood  for  piles,  but  is  not  used 
much  on  account  of  its  scarcity  in  some  localities  and  its  value 
for  other  purposes,  which  makes  the  cost  too  excessive  for  piling. 
Spruce,  Norway  pine,  and  Oregon  pine  make  good  piles. 


SPECIFICATIONS.  11 

Cypress  is  sometimes  used,  but  it  is  not  hard  enough  to  stand 
driving.  The  superintendent  should  inspect  each  and  every 
pile  as  it  is  brought  to  the  work  and  any  rejected  ones  should 
be  so  marked  and  removed  at  once. 

The  following  specifications  for  wood  piles  and  timber  were 
prepared  by  the  American  Railway  Engineering  and  Mainte- 
nance of  Way  Association  and  is  very  complete. 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PILES  AND  TIMBER. 

PILES. — All  piles  of  whatever  kind  shall  be  cut  from  growing 
trees,  free  from  wind  or  heart  shakes,  large  or  unsound  knots, 
decay  or  other  defects  which  would  impair  the  strength  or 
durability  of  the  pile.  Only  butt  cuts,  cut  about  the  ground 
swell  of  the  tree,  and  with  both  ends  cut  square,  will  be  accepted. 
They  shall  be  peeled  of  bark  and  the  knots  trimmed,  and  the 
specified  sizes  shall  be,  after  peeling,  straight  and  uniformly 
tapering. 

OAK  PILES. — Shall  be  of  the  variety  of  white,  burr,  or  post 
oaks,  with  wood  of  close,  firm  grain  and  with  a  sap  ring  not 
over  2  ins.  thick.  They  shall  be  not  less  than  12  ins.  diameter 
at  6  ft.  from  the  butt,  and  when  28  ft.  or  less  in  length  they 
shall  be  10  ins.  diameter  at  the  top  or  small  end,  and  where 
30  ft.  in  length  or  longer  shall  be  not  less  than  9  ins.  at  the  top. 

NORWAY  PINE  AND  TAMARACK  PILES. — These  shall  not  be  less 
than  14  ins.  nor  more  than  18  ins.  diameter  at  the  butt,  and 
where  36  ft.  or  less  in  length  shall  be  not  less  than  10  ins.  in 
diameter  at  the  top,  and  where  over  36  ft.  in  length  shall  not 
be  less  than  9  ins.  at  the  top. 

LONG-LEAF  PINE  PILES. — These  shall  be  strictly  long-leaf 
Southern  or  yellow  pine,  and  no  doubtful  grades  will  be  accepted. 
They  shall  be  hewed  square,  with  all  the  sap  removed.  They 
shall  be  not  less  than  12  ins.  or  more  than  14  ins.  square  at 
the  large  end,  or  8  ins.  square  at  the  small  end,  and  must  be 
smoothly  hewed  without  large  or  deep  score  hacks. 

CEDAR  PILES. — These  shall  be  of  white  or  red  cedar.  White- 
cedar  piles  shall  be  not  less  than  14  ins.  diameter  at  the  butt 
and  9  ins.  at  the  top  where  less  than  30  ft.  in  length.  Where 
over  30  ft.  in  length,  they  shall  be  not  less  than  8  ins.  diameter 
at  the  top.  Unsound  butts  will  be  accepted  if  the  defect  is 
not  more  than  5  ins.  in  diameter,  and  there  must  be  at  least  5  ins. 
of  sound  wood  all  around  the  defect.  Red-cedar  piles  shall 
be  not  less  than  12  ins.  at  the  butt  and  8  ins.  at  the  top. 


12 


PILES  FOR  FOUNDATIONS. 


TIMBER. — All  timber  of  whatever  variety  shall  be  cut  from 
sound  live  trees,  and  shall  be  sawed  full  size,  square  in  section 
and  out  of  wind.  It  shall  be  free  from  wind  shakes,  large  or 
unsound  knots,  pitch  seams,  decay  or  any  other  defects  which 
would  impair  its  strength  and  durability,  and  shall  generally 
be  free  from  sap. 

LONG-LEAF  PINE. — This  shall  be  of  the  variety  known  as 
long-leaf  Southern  or  yellow  pine,  and  no  loblolly  or  other 
doubtful  grades  will  be  accepted.  The  wood  must  be  close, 
firm  grained,  and  free  from  red  heart  or  red-heart  streaks; 
sound  knots  not  over  1^  ins.  diameter  will  be  allowed,  but 
knots  must  not  be  in  groups.  Sap  wood  will  be  allowed  on 
one  or  more  of  the  four  sides  to  an  extent  of  not  more  than 
15  per  cent  of  the  surface  of  any  one  side,  and  at  any  one  point 
throughout  the  length  of  the  piece. 

FIR. — This  shall  be  of  the  variety  of  Douglas  fir,  sometimes 
called  Oregon  or  Washington  fir,  and  may  be  the  yellow  or 
red  variety,  preferably  the  first.  It  shall  not  have  at  any 
point  of  its  length  and  at  any  edge  sap  wood  more  than  2  ins.  in 
width,  and  shall  be  free  from  knots  over  1£  ins.  diameter,  except 
that  in  long  stringers  sound  knots  not  over  2^  ins.  diameter  will 
not  be  cause  for  rejection  if  not  more  than  4  ft.  from  the  end. 

POINTING. — In  silt  and  very  soft  soils,  piles  are  usually 
driven  with  a  square  end,  but  in  the  harder  soils  they  will 
have  to  be  pointed,  and  in  some  cases  pro- 
vided with  an  iron  shoe.  There  are  several 
kinds  of  these  shoes  made,  but  those  which 
are  made  with  a  socket  and  flat  surface 
for  the  pile  to  set  on  will  drive  the  best 
and  not  be  so  liable  to  split  the  pile  as 


FIG.  8.  FIG.  9.  FIG.  10. 

some  others.     Figs.  8,  9,   10  show  very  good  styles  of  shoes 
and  ones  that  will  drive  well. 


SPECIFICATIONS. 


13 


DRIVING. — When  the  piles  are  being  driven  the  superin- 
tendent should  see  that  the  large  end  is  cut  off  square  so  that 
the  hammer  will  strike  it  square  and  solid;  he  should  see  that 
rings  are  used  on  the  head  of  the  pile  to  keep  it  from  splitting 
or  brooming.  It  is  customary  in  driving  piles  to  lay  the  ring 
on  the  top  of  the  pile  and  let  the  hammer  at  the  first  blow 
sink  the  ring  into  the  wood.  This  is  all  right,  providing  the 
ring  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  pile,  but  if  a  small  ring  is  used 
in  this  way  it  causes  large  layers  or  splinters  to  split  off  the 
pile  five  or  six  feet  in  length.  The  superintendent  should  see 
that  rings  of  different  sizes  are  used  or  have  the  head  of  the 
pile  chamfered  off  to  suit  the  ring.  A  patent  cap  shown  in 
Fig.  13  is  now  taking  the  place  of  rings  in  driving  as  .shown.  It 
is  made  to  fit  over  the  top  of  the  pile  B  and  is  lifted  with  the 
hammer  after  the  pile  is  driven.  Before  driving,  the  pile  should 
be  stripped  of  all  the  bark,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  promote 
decay. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  bottom  end  of  the 
piles  are  perfectly  square  if  they  are  being  driven  with  a 
square  end,  or  if  pointed,  see  that  the  point  is  made  true  and 
in  the  centre  of  the  pile;  if  the  point  is  not  true  or  the  end 
not  square  it  will  cause  the  pile  to  glance  when  being  driven. 

Piles  when  driven  in  salt  water  should  be  thoroughly  impreg- 
nated with  creosote  or  some  other  preservative  to  protect 


FIG.  11. 


FIG.  12. 


them  from  the  ravages  of  the  teredo.     The  life  of  a  pile  where 
exposed  to  these  mollusks  is  from  three  to  five  years,  and  when 


14 


PILES  FOR  FOUNDATIONS. 


impregnated  with  a  preservative  it  lengthens  their  life  about 
three  years.  Fig.  11  shows  the  appearance  of  a  pile  eaten  by 
the  teredo,  and  Fig.  12  shows  a  pile  eaten  off  by  limnoria. 


FIG.  13. 

During  the  driving  of  piles  the  superintendent  should  watch 
the  penetration  at  each  blow,  and  if  a  hard  strata  is  en- 
countered and  the  pile  drives  hard  he  should  have  the  lift 
of  the  hammer  reduced  and  a  shorter  fall  given  or  there  will 
be  danger  of  splitting  the  pile.  He  should  keep  a  close  look- 
out for  short  piles  and  see  that  each  pile  is  long  enough  to 
give  the  desired  penetration. 

TESTING. — The  only  reliable  way  to  ascertain  the  carrying 
power  of  a  pile  is  by  actual  experiment  with  a  pile  driven  in 
the  foundation  where  they  are  to  be  used.  To  do  this  several 
piles  should  be  driven  in  the  foundation  and  four  of  them  left 
up  high  enough  to  build  a  platform  on,  as  shown  in  Fig.  14. 
The  platform  should  then  be  evenly  loaded  with  the  desired 
weight  or  until  the  piles  move.  In  this  way  a  reliable  test 
can  be  made,  and  where  a  structure  of  any  importance  is  to 
rest  on  a  foundation  of  piles  the  superintendent  should  insist 
on  a  complete  test  being  made. 


SPECIFICATIONS. 


15 


The  following  table  and  formula  taken  from  Engineering  News 
has  been  used  by  a  number  of  engineers  and  has  been  pronounced 


FIG.  14. 


very  reliable.  The  table  is  for  spruce  piles  and  average  penetra- 
tion during  last  five  blows  of  a  1200-pound  hammer  dropping 
15  feet. 

BEARING  VALUE  OF  PILES. 


Nature  of  Soil. 

Length 
of  Pile 
in  Feet. 

Average 
Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 

Penetra- 
tion in 
Inches. 

Load  in 
Tons. 

Silt 

40 

10 

6 

2  75 

Mud  

30 

8 

2 

6 

Soft  earth  with  boulders  and  logs  .  .  . 
Moderately  firm  earth  or  clay  with 
boulders  and  logs  
Soft  earth  or  clay. 

30 

30 
30 

8 

8 
10 

1.5 

1 
1 

7.2 

9 
g 

Quicksand.  .           

30 

8 

5 

12 

30 

8 

5 

12 

Firm  earth  into  sand  or  gravel  
Firm  earth  to  rock. 

20 
20 

8 
8 

.25 

o 

14 

18 

Sand  

20 

8 

0 

18 

Gravel.  . 

15 

8 

0 

18 

The  formula  is: 


Safe  load  in  pounds  = 


2WH 

s+r 


in  which  W  equals  weight  of  the  hammer  in  pounds,  H  its 
fall  in  feet,  S  average  penetration  in  inches  during  last  five 
blows. 


16  CONCRETE   PILES. 

The  following  from  the  New  York  building  code  will  be  a 
good  guide  for  the  superintendent: 

"Sec.  25.  No  pile  shall  be  used  of  less  dimensions  than  5 
inches  at  the  small  end  and  10  inches  at  the  butt  for  short  piles, 
or  piles  20  feet  in  length,  and  12  inches  at  the  butt  for  long  piles, 
or  more  than  20  feet  in  length.  No  pile  shall  be  loaded  with 
a  load  exceeding  40,000  pounds.  When  a  pile  is  not  driven  to 
refusal,  its  safe  sustaining  power  shall  be  determined  by  the 
following  formula:  Twice  the  weight  of  the  hammer  in  tons 
multiplied  by  the  height  of  the  fall  in  feet  divided  by  least 
penetration  of  the  pile  under  the  last  blow  in  inches  plus  one." 

There  have  been  cases  where  piles  which  were  driven  for  a 
railroad  trestle  and  which  supported  a  moving  load  were  driven 
in  sand  and  gravel,  and  to  a  depth  and  resistance  which  figured 
an  ultimate  load  of  60  tons;  after  a  few  weeks  of  use  under  an 
engine  load  of  about  30  tons  the  piles  settled.  This  no  doubt 
was  caused  by  the  vibration,  and  the  piles  resting  on  a  wet  sand 
or  gravel  caused  the  water  to  collect  and  act  something  like  a 
water  jet,  thus  causing  the  piles  to  settle.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  there  are  cases  where  no  formula  will  give  definite  results, 
and  this  is  where  the  superintendent  must  use  good  judgment 
in  testing  a  pile  and  its  foundation. 

Concrete  Piles. — Concrete  piles  are  now  being  used  with 
good  success.  One  form  of  pile,  Fig.  15,  is  made  by  casting 
the  concrete  and  reinforcing  it  with  steel.  After  they  are 
thoroughly  set  and  dry  they  are  driven  like  an  ordinary  pile, 
except  a  special  cap  is  used  to  prevent  shattering  the  head 
of  the  pile.  Another  type  called  the  Raymond,  Fig.  16, 
has  been  used,  which  consists  of  a  thin  shell  of  metal  with  a 
strong  core  inside  to  take  the  shock  of  driving;  after  the  shell 
and  core  are  driven  to  the  desired  depth,  the  core,  which  is  col- 
lapsible, is  withdrawn  and  the  shell  filled  with  concrete.  These 
piles  are  usually  made  with  a  large  taper,  as  this  gives  them 
a  large  bearing  area  and  permits  the  core  to  be  taken  out  easily; 
about  6  inches  at  the  bottom  and  20  inches  at  the  top  is  the 
usual  size.  By  a  test  made  in  Chicago,  one  of  these  piles  carried 
as  much  as  three  wooden  ones  having  the  same  diameter  at 
the  point.  And  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  they  were  loaded  with 
from  32,000  to  48,000  pounds  per  pile  without  settlement.  The 
soil  was  a  soft  fill. 

Figs.  17  and  18  show  what  is  known  as  the  Simplex  Pile. 
A  wrought-iron  or  steel  cylinder  with  a  concrete  point  is  driven 


STEEL  SHEET-PILING. 


17 


like  any  ordinary  pile,  then  the  reinforcing  is  put  inside  the 
shell  and  it  is  filled  with  concrete,  the  shell  being  drawn  as 
the  concrete  is  filled  up. 

There  have  been  used  in  the  building  of  the  wharves  in  San 
Francisco  harbor  concrete  piles  made  by  forcing  down  a  shell 


'•-iY 

<$$ 


FIG.  15. 


FIG.  16. 


W$ 


FIG.  18. 


of  wood  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter  and  after  pumping  it  out  filling 
it  with  concrete.  The  wooden  shell  is  left  on  and  by  the  time 
it  decays  or  the  teredo  has  destroyed  it  the  concrete  is  hard 
and  a  concrete  pile  is  the  result.  (See  page  165  as  to  mixing 
concrete,  etc.) 

Steel  Sheet-piling. — Fig.  19  shows  a  section  of  a  sheet- 
piling  made  by  the  Friestedt  Interlocking  Channel  Bar  Co.  of 


18 


STEEL  SHEET-PILING. 


Chicago;  the  piling  is  built  up  of  channels  and  Z  bars  and  locks 
together  as  driven. 


L-V-—-- « * -12% ->, 


Straight 


H  Rivets' 


Sheeting 
FIG.  19. 


Another  type  of  sheet-piling  shown  by  Fig.  20  is  manu- 
factured by  the  H.  Wittekind  Interlocking  Metal  Piling  Co. 
Piles  of  this  kind  are  valuable  for  use  in  foundation- work,  as 
they  can  be  driven  around  the  space  to  be  excavated  and  the 


Sheeting  interlocked 
FIG.  20. 


interior  then  taken  out,  the  piling  holding  up  the  embankment 
and  tending  to  keep  out  any  water. 

Fig.  21  shows  a  new  style  of  steel  sheet-piling  which  has 
recently  been  introduced,  in  which  each  pile  is  a  single  piece, 
complete  in  itself  without  rivets,  bolts,  or  other  attachments. 
The  piles  are  of  a  special  rolled  section,  consisting  of  a  flat  web 
with  a  cylindrical  rib  on  each  edge,  the  outer  end  of  each  rib 


CAPPING  OF  PILES.  19 

being  slotted,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut.  The  ribs  are 
not  of  the  same  diameter,  but  the  smaller 
rib  of  one  pile  fits  easily  within  the  larger 
rib  of  the  adjacent  pile,  while  the  slot 
admits  the  web.  This  allows  some  flex- 
ibility in  changing  the  direction  of  the 
line  of  piling,  but  for  turning  corners 
there  is  a  special  section  of  pile  having 
the  web  bent  in  a  curve  or  at  an  angle. 
The  joints  can  be  made  water-tight  by 
packing  them  with  suitable  material.  The 
cut  shows  piles  for  a  spacing  of  12  inches, 
weighing  40  pounds  per  foot,  but  they 

are  rolled  in  several  sizes,  according  to  the  length  and  character 
of  the  work. 

This  form  of  sheet-piling  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Samuel  K. 
Behrend,  and  is  manufactured  and  sold  by  the  United  States 
Steel  Piling  Co.,  135  Adams  Street,  Chicago. 

Capping  of  Piles. — After  the  piles  are  driven,  the 
superintendent  should  see  that  they  are  cut  off  below  low-water 
line.  They  should  be  cut  off  level  and  on  a  line  so  that  the 
capping  will  have  a  true  and  equal  bearing  on  each  pile. 

WOOD-CAPPING,  OR  GRILLAGE. — Where  wood-capping  is  used 
the  piles  must  be  cut  off  low  enough  so  that  the  timber  in  the 
grillage  will  be  below  low-water  line,  otherwise  it  will  decay. 
The  timbers  are  usually  laid  longitudinally  on  top  of  the  piles 
and  these  timbers  in  turn  crossed  with  short  timbers,  forming 
a  floor  to  start  the  masonry  on.  In  putting  in  these  timbers 
the  superintendent  should  pay  close  attention  to  see  that  the 
timbers  have  a  bearing  on  each  and  every  pile  and  are  fastened 
to  them  with  long  drift  bolts.  The  timbers  should  be  strictly 
No.  1,  free  from  any  decay  or  other  imperfection. 

STEEL  GRILLAGE.  —  Steel  beams  are  used  extensively  for 
capping,  being  bedded  in  concrete;  where  they  are  used,  the 
superintendent  should  see  that  the  beams  rest  on  each  and  every 
pile  and  that  the  beams  are  heavily  coated  with  asphalt,  or  that 
concrete  or  cement  mortar  is  put  around  them  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  beams  will  be  thoroughly  coated  with  cement,  other- 
wise they  will  rust. 

CONCRETE  CAPPING. — Concrete,  which  is  much  used  for  cap- 
ping of  piles,  is. one  of  the  best  materials  for  this  purpose,  for 
when  it  is  put  in  properly  it  forms  one  continuous  stone  having 


20  CAPPING   OF  PILES. 

a  solid  bed  on  all  the  piles.  The  superintendent  should  see  that 
the  piles  are  cut  off  square  and  the  dirt  cleaned  away  so  the 
concrete  can  be  rammed  around  the  top  of  the  pile  to  a  depth 
of  a  foot  or  more.  He  should  also  pay  strict  attention  to  the 
mixing  of  the  concrete  and  the  ramming  of  it  as  described  on 
pages  174  and  178,  as  this  work  is  very  often  slighted  unless 
the  workmen  know  there  is  some  person  watching  them. 

Concrete  capping  is  very  often  reinforced  with  steel  beams 
or  railroad  rails.  These  should  be  free  from  rust  or  dirt  and 
coated  with  asphalt,  or  close  attention  given  to  covering  them 
with  a  coat  of  cement  mortar  or  concrete.  If  the  concrete  is 
rammed  solid  enough  around  the  beams  it  will  in  itself  form 
a  protection,  but  this  takes  much  care  and  time  and  will  require 
the  strict  attention  of  the  superintendent.  The  New  York 
building  code  says: 

"The  tops  of  all  piles  shall  be  cut  off  below  the  lowest  water 
line.  When  required,  concrete  shall  be  rammed  down  in  the 
interspaces  between  the  heads  of  the  piles  to  a  depth  and  thick- 
ness not  less  than  12  inches  and  for  1  foot  in  width  outside 
the  piles.  Where  ranging  and  capping  timbers  are  laid  on 
the  piles  for  foundations,  they  shall  be  of  hard  wood  not  less 
than  6  inches  thick  and  properly  joined  together,  and  their 
tops  laid  below  the  lowest  water  line.  Where  metal  is  incor- 
porated in  or  forms  part  of  the  foundation  it  shall  be  thoroughly 
protected  from  rust  by  paint,  asphaltum,  concrete,  or  by  such 
materials  and  in  such  manner  as  may  be  approved  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Buildings.  When  footings  of  iron  or  steel 
for  columns  are  placed  below  the  water  level,  they  shall  be 
similarly  coated  or  enclosed  in  concrete  for  preservation 
from  rust." 

When  concrete  is  used  for  capping  it  should  be  allowed  to 
harden  before  any  additional  weight  is  built  upon  it,  or  the 
ground  may  give  between  the  piles  and  the  piles  will  act  like 
a  series  of  punches  forcing  their  way  up  through  the  concrete. 

GRANITE  CAPPING. — When  granite  capping  is  used  the 
superintendent  should  see  that  the  piles  are  driven  in  such  a 
manner  and  the  granite  blocks  are  of  such  a  size  that  a  stone 
will  not  rest  on  more  than  three  piles,  as  it  is  hard  to  get  a 
stone  to  rest  evenly  on  more,  as  shown  by  Fig.  22. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  bottom  bed  of  the 
stones  is  cut  true,  and  in  setting  them  it  is  well  to  put  a  bed 
of  strong  cement  mortar  on  top  of  the  piles,  as  this  will  insure 


CAPPING  OP  PILES. 


21 


a  solid  bearing  on  each  pile,  The  granite  blocks  should  be  of 
such  sizes  that  they  will  break  joints  as  much  as  possible,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  22.  On  top  of  this  capping  the  footing-course 


0 
0 

0 

Lo  o 

o 

0 
0 

0 

o 

0 
0 

o 
o 

o 
o 

0    0 

FIG.  22. 


FIG.  23. 


should  be  laid,  each  stone  extending  beyond  the  lines  of  the 
wall  as  shown  by  Fig.  23. 

SPREAD  FOOTINGS. — In  many  instances  the  footings  of  a 
structure  have  to  be  spread  or  extended  out  so  as  to  cover 
ground  enough  to  insure  the  carrying  of  the  building,  and  in 
some  cases  the  entire  area  of  the  foundation  is  covered  with  a 
grillage  of  steel  or  iron  beams  bedded  in  concrete.  The  superin- 
tendent should  see  that  the  surface  of  the  foundation  which 
it  is  intended  to  cover  is  carefully  levelled  off  and  the  concrete 
laid  in  layers  of  not  more  than  8  inches  in  thickness,  and 
that  the  beams  are  coated  with  asphalt  or  covered  with  cement. 
It  has  been  demonstrated  that  iron  or  steel  bedded  in  concrete, 
where  the  iron  or  steel  was  completely  covered  and  the  cement 
and  iron  in  contact  at  all  points,  that  the  iron  or  steel  will  not 
rust.  Only  the  best  Portland  cement  and  clean  sharp  sand 
should  be  used  for  this  work.  See  page  168. 

The  Chicago  Building  Law  says:  "If  steel  or  iron  rails  or 
beams  are  used  as  parts  of  foundations,  they  must  be  thoroughly 
imbedded  in  a  concrete  the  ingredients  of  which  must  be  such 
that  after  proper  ramming  the  interior  of  the  mass  will  be  free 
from  cavities.  The  beams  or  rails  must  be  entirely  enveloped 
in  concrete,  and  around  the  exposed  external  surfaces  of  such 
concrete  foundations  there  must  be  a  coating  of  a  standard 
cement  mortar  not  less  than  1  inch  thick." 

The  foundation  should  be  prepared  by  first  laying  a  bed  of 
concrete  to  a  depth  of  from  4  to  12  inches  and  then  placing 
upon  this  a  row  of  I  beams  at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the 
wall.  In  the  case  of  heavy  piers  the  beams  may  be  crossed  in 
two  directions.  Their  distances  apart,  from  centre  to  centre, 


I   BEAMS  IN   FOUNDATIONS. 

may  vary  from  9  to  24  inches,  according  to  circumstances,  i.e., 
length  of  their  projection  beyond  the  masonry,  thickness  of 
concrete,  estimated  pressure  per  square  foot,  etc.  They  should 
be  placed  at  least  far  enough  apart  to  permit  the  introductiou 
of  the  concrete  filling  and  its  proper  tamping  between  the 
beams.  Unless  the  concrete  is  of  unusual  thickness,  it  will  not 
be  advisable  to  exceed  20-inch  spacing,  since  otherwise  the 
concrete  may  not  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  properly  transmit 
the  upward  pressure  to  the  beams.  The  most  useful  applica- 
tion of  this  method  of  founding  is  in  localities  where  a  thin  and 
comparatively  compact  stratum  overlies  another  of  a  more 
yielding  nature.  By  using  I  beams  in  such  cases,  the  requisite 
spread  at  the  base  may  be  obtained  without  either  penetrating 
the  firm  upper  stratum  or  carrying  the  footing  courses  to  such 
a  height  as  to  encroach  unduly  upon  the  basement  room. 

I  Beams  as  Used  in  Foundations. — METHOD  OF  CAL- 
CULATION.— The  following  cuts  and  tables  which  have  been 
prepared  by  The  Carnegie  Steel  Co.  give  the  strength  and 
safe  projection  of  beams  used  in  foundations  and  footings. 
The  same  precautions  should  be  taken  with  these  beams  as 
described  on  page  19. 

The  known  quantities  in  this  calculation  are  the  load  (L) 
on  the  column  in  tons,  the  allowable  bearing  capacity  per 
square  foot  of  ground  in  tons  (6),  and  the  projections  p,  p', 
p"  in  feet  for  the  various  tiers  of  beams. 

Figure  the  separate  areas  covered  by  the  successive  tiers 
of  beams  and  divide  the  load  on  the  column  by  these  areas. 
The  quotients  will  give  their  respective  pressures  b,  b'',  b" 
per  square  foot.  Assume  any  spacing  in  inches,  generally 
greatest  for  the  lowest  tier  of  beams  and  about  9  inches  for 
the  top  course. 

Find  the  corresponding  figure  for  such  spacing  and  pres- 
sure in  the  table  on  page  23  and  multiply  it  by  the  correspond- 
ing projection.  This  product  will  give  the  modulus  M. 

In  the  table  of  moduli  find  the  beam  corresponding  to  this 
product. 

For  any  other  spacing  or  pressure  than  those  given  find  M 

from  the  formula  M  =  p    i— . 

A/12 

C  Assume  p=3  ft.  6  in.,  p'  =  5ft. 
. — Let  L  =  588  tons  )      „  .          „  _ .   , ,    Q  . 
Let  6=     3  tons)  '  "          "'  y 

(  Then  b'  =  6  tons  and  b"  =  24  tons. 


I  BEAMS  IN  FOUNDATIONS. 


23 


Use  15  in.  spacing  for  lowest  tier  of  beams. 
«    -^  "          «        C{   2d  "     "       " 

«      9  «          «        «   3d  "     "       " 

Now  using  the   above   method   of   calculation   we   have  for 
the  respective  tiers: 

3.5  X  1.937  =  6.78  =mod.  corresponding  to  12-in.  31.5-lb.  beam. 
5.25 X 2.450  =  12.86  =mod.  corresponding  to  20-in,  75-lb.  beam. 
1.75X4.243=7.43=mod.  corresponding  to  12-in.  40-lb.  beam. 

TABLES  GIVING  THE  SIZE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  BEAMS  FOR  s  = 
9,  12,  15,  18,  24  INCHES,  6  =  1  TO  50  TONS  PER  SQUARE  FOOT, 
AND  p  =  VARIABLE  IN  FEET. 


a 

^ 

Spacing  of  I  Beams. 

03 

£4 

1 

a 

"1      &. 

Mg 

Is 

11 

"3 

£~     11 

"9 

J  = 

ad 

<r 

.Svy 

1 

1    Q,  C3       *^  f 

&'~    & 

I 

jw 

9" 

12" 

15" 

18'' 

24" 

24 

100 

16.263 

12    50.008.210 

1 

0  866 

1.000 

1.118 

1.225 

1.414 

24 

90 

15.772 

j    12    40.007.730 

2 

1.225 

1.414 

1.581 

1.732 

2.000 

3 

1.500 

1.732 

1.937 

2.121 

2.450 

24 

80 

15.231 

:    12    35.007.122 

4 

1.732 

.000 

2.236 

2.450 

2.829 

20 

100 

14.858 

i    12   !31.  50'6.  925 

5 

1.936 

.236 

2.500 

2.738 

3.162 

6 

2.121 

.450 

2.739 

3.000 

3.464 

20 

90 

14.412 

10    40.006.505 

7 

2.291 

.646 

2.958 

3.240 

3.742 

20      80 

13  983 

10    30.00  5.  982 

8 

2.450 

828 

3   162 

3.463 

4.000 

1 

9 

2  .  598 

.000 

3.354 

3.674 

4.243 

20  !   75 

13  .  007 

10    25.005.706 

10 

2  .  738 

.162 

3.536 

3  .  872 

4.472 

20 

65 

12  .  488 

9 

35.005.755 

11 
12 

2.872 
3.000 

.317 
.464 

3.7084.061 
3.  873|  4.  242 

4.690 
4.899 

18 

70 

11.683 

9    25.00!5.220 

13 

3.122 

.606 

4.031 

4.415 

5  .  099 

18 

60 

11.168 

9  ,21.005.016 

14 

3.240 

.742 

4.1844.582 

5.292 

15 

3.354 

.873 

4.331 

4.743 

5  477 

18 

55 

10.857 

8   ;25.50 

4.776 

16 

3  .  464 

4.000 

4.4724.898 

5.657 

15 

100 

12.653 

8    20.50 

4.494 

17 

3.571 

4.123 

4.6105.050 

5.831 

18 

3  .  674 

4  .  243 

4.744 

5.196 

6.000 

15 

90 

12.259       8    18.004.354 

19 

3.775 

4.359 

4.874 

5  .  338 

6.164 

15 

80 

11.892       7  120.004.009 

20 

3.873 

4.472!5.000'5.477 

6.325 

21 

3.969 

4.583 

5    124 

5.612 

6.481 

15 

75 

11.085 

!     7 

15.003.715 

22 

4  .  062 

4.690 

5.2445.744 

6  633 

15 

70 

10.862 

6 

17.25j3.412 

23 

4.153 

4.796 

5.362 

5  873 

6.783 

24 

4.243 

4.899 

5.477 

6.000 

6  928 

15 

60 

10.405 

6 

12  .  25 

7.112 

25 

4  330 

5.000 

5  .  591 

6.123 

7.071 

15 

55 

9  532 

i     5 

14.75 

2.842 

30 

4.743 

5.4776.124 

6  707    7.746 

35 

5   124 

5.916'6  615 

7.245 

8  366 

15 

50 

9.270 

5 

9.75 

2.539 

40 

5.4776.3257.071 

7.746 

8  945 

15 

42 

8.861 

|     4 

10.50 

2.182 

45 

5.810|6.7087.5008.215 

9.487 

50 

6.124 

7.07117.906 

8.660 

10.000 

12 

55 

8.445 

4 

7.501.994 

I  Beams  Used  in  Wall  Foundations. — METHOD  OP 

CALCULATION  : 

Let  L  —  weight  of  wall  per  lineal  foot  in  tons  and 

6  =  assumed  bearing  capacity  of  ground  per  square  foot 
(usually  from  1  to  3  tons) ; 


24 


I  BEAMS  IN  FOUNDATIONS. 


then  —  —  W=  required  width  of  foundation  in  feet; 
o 

w=  width  of  lowest  course  of  footing-stones; 
p  =  projection  of  beams  beyond  masonry  in  feet; 
s  =  spacing  of  beams  centre  to  centre  in  feet. 

Evidently  the  size  of  beams  required  will  depend  upon  their 
strength  as  cantilevers  of  a  length  p  sustaining  the  upward 
reaction,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  uniformly  distributed 
load. 

Thus  pb=  uniformly    distributed    load    (in    tons)    on    canti- 
levers per  lineal  foot  of  wall 

and  p6s=uniform  load  in  tons  on  each  beam. 

The  table  on  page  25  gives  the  safe  lengths  p  for  the  vari- 
ous sizes  and  weights  of  beams  for  s  =  l  ft.  and  6  ranging 
from  1  to  5  tons  per  square  foot.  For  other  values  of  s, 
say  15  in.  or  1|  ft.,  the  table  may  be  used  by  simply  consider- 
ing 6  increased  in  the  same  ratio  as  s  (see  example  below). 
As  regards  the  weight  of  beams,  it  is  advantageous  to  assign 
tos  as  great  a  value  as  is  warranted  by  the  other  considerations 
which  obtain. 

Example. — The  weight  of  a  brick  wall  together  with  the  load 
it  must  support  is  40  tons  per  lineal  foot.  The  width  of  the 
lowest  footing-course  of  masonry  is  6  ft.  Allowing  a  pressure 
of  2  tons  per  square  foot  on  the  foundation,  what  size  and 
length  of  I  beams  18  in.  centre  to  centre  will  be  required? 

Answer. — Z/  =  40,  6=2,  w=Q,  s  =  lj. 

Therefore  W  =  40-^2  =  20  ft.,  the  required  length  of  beams. 
The  projection  p=$  (20-6)  =7  ft. 

In  order  to  apply  the  table  calculated  (for  s  =  l  ft.)  we  must 
consider  b  increased  in  the  same  ratio  as  s,  i.e.,  6  =2X  1|  =3  tons. 


In  the  column  for  3  tons  we  find  the  length  7  ft.  to  agree 
with  20-in.  I  beams  65.0  Ibs.  per  foot. 


FOOTING-COURSES. 


25 


Basement  Floor  Line 


Concrete 


TABLE  GIVING  SAFE  LENGTHS  OF  PROJECTIONS  p  IN 
FEET  (SEE  ILLUSTRATION)  FOR  8  =  1  FOOT  AND  VALUES 
OF  6  RANGING  FROM  1  TO  5  TONS. 


Sj 

i; 

6  (Tons  per  Square  Foot). 

fl 

II 

1 

II 

I* 

2 

2ft 

2* 

3 

3* 

4 

41 

5 

Q 

& 

24 

80.00 

15.231 

13.61 

12.43 

10.77 

10.16 

9.63 

8.79 

8.14 

7.62 

7.18 

6.81 

20 

80.00 

13  .  983 

12.50 

11.41 

9.89 

9.32 

8.84 

8.07 

7.47 

6.99 

6.59 

6.25 

20 

65.00  12.488 

11.16 

10.20 

8.82 

8.33 

7.90 

7.21 

6.68 

6.24 

5.89 

5.58 

18 

55.00J  10.  857 

9.71 

8.86 

7.68 

7.23 

6.87 

6.27 

5.80 

5.43 

5.12 

4.86 

15 

80.00  11.892 

10.63 

9.71 

8.41 

7.937.52 

6.86 

6.365.95 

5.61 

5.32 

15 

60.00  10.405 

9.30 

8.49 

7.36 

6  .  94  6  .  5S 

6.01 

5.56 

5  .  20  4  .  90 

4.65 

15 

42.00 

8.861 

7.92 

7.23 

6.27 

5.91 

5.60 

5.12 

4.74 

4.43 

4.18 

3.96 

12 
12 

40.00 
31.50 

7.730 
6.925 

6.91 
6.19 

6.31 
5.65 

5.47 
4.90 

5.154.89 
4.554.38 

4.46 
4.00 

4.133.87 
3.703.46 

3.64 
3.26 

3.46 
3.10 

10 
9 

25.00 
21.00 

5.706 
5.016 

5.10 

4.48 

4.66 
4.09 

4.03 
3.55 

3.80 
3.34 

3.61 
3.17 

3.29J3.052.852.69 
2.  90l2.68;2.  51|2.36 

2.55 
2.24 

8 

18.00 

4.354 

3.89 

3.55 

3.08 

2.902.75 

2.51 

2.33,2.18 

2.05 

1.95 

7 

15.00 

3.715 

3.32 

3.03 

2.63 

2.48 

2.35 

2.14 

1.98 

1  .  86  1  .  75 

1.66 

6 

12.25 

3.112 

2.78 

2.54 

2.20 

2.0711.97 

1.80 

1.66 

1.56  1.47 

1.39 

5 

9.75 

2.539 

2.27 

2.07 

1.80 

1.69!  1.61 

1.47 

1.36  1.271.20 

1.14 

4 

7.50 

1.994 

1.78 

1.63 

1.41 

1.33 

1.26 

1.15 

1.07 

1.00 

0.94 

0.89 

The  size  of  beam  for  any  other  pressure  is  found  by  multiplying  the  pro- 
jection by  the  square  root  of  the  assumed  pressure  and  finding  the  beam 
having  a  projection  corresponding  to  this  product  under  the  one-ton  column. 

Footing-courses. — Footing-courses  are  usually  made  of 
concrete  or  large  flat  blocks  of  stone  or  granite.  If  of  concrete 
they  should  not  be  less  than  12  inches  in  thickness,  but  this 
thickness  should  be  governed  by  the  width  or  area  covered, 
and  where  stepped  up,  the  offset  should  not  be  more  than 
one-half  the  height  of  the  respective  course;  if  not  reinforced 
with  steel  beams  they  should  not  be  loaded  with  more  than 
8000  pounds  per  square  foot.  If  reinforced  by  beams  the  load 
may  be  increased  to  from  12,000  to  16,000  pounds.  The  same 
precaution  should  be  taken  with  the  beams  as  described  under 
Spread  Footings.  When  concrete  is  used  for  footings  the 


26  FOOTING-COURSES. 

superintendent  should  see  that  wood  forms  are  used  where 
the  earth  is  not  firm  enougli  to  cut  square  to  form  the  sides, 
and  that  all  trenches  are  dug  out  square  and  bottoms  trimmed 
level;  the  concrete  should  be  put  down  in  courses  not  more 
than  6  or  8  inches  thick  and  rammed  solid.  After  the  footings 
are  in  the  superintendent  should  see  that  they  are  thoroughly 
wet  every  day  for  a  week  and  covered  to  keep  off  the  sun. 

STONE  FOOTINGS. — Where  stone  or  granite  is  used  for  foot- 
ings, it  should  be  of  blocks  large  enough  to  extend  the  full 
width  of  the  footing,  and  from  4  to  8  feet 
in  length;  where  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain 
stone  large  enough  to  extend  through  the 
footing  they  may  be  jointed  under  the 
centre  of  the  wall  and  a  second  course  of 
single  stone  put  on  top,  as  shown  by  Fig.  24. 
The  stone  should  have  uniform  beds,  and 
where  two  or  more  courses  are  used  the 
offset  should  not  be  more  than  three-quarters  of  the  height 
of  the  under  course.  The  stone  should  be  set  in  strong  cement 
mortar  and  on  a  full  bed  under  the  entire  stone;  stone  in 
footings  should  not  be  subject  to  a  pressure  of  more  than  10,000 
to  14,000  pounds  per  square  foot. 

In  setting  stone  footings  the  superintendent  should  see  that 
each  stone  is  squared  off  so  they  will  fit  close  together,  and 
no  spalls  used  to  fill  up  the  joints;  the  top  and  bottom  beds 
should  be  dressed  off  and  set  in  a  full  bed  of  mortar  and  all 
vertical  joints  slushed  full.  Unless  the  superintendent  is  on 
the  lookout  the  mason  is  liable  in  levelling  the  stone  to  raise 
it  up  and  wedge  it  with  a  spall  and  then  try  to  slush  the  mortar 
beneath  the  stone;  this  should  not  be  allowed,  but  when  a 
-stone  has  to  be  raised  any,  have  it  lifted,  a  new  bed  of  mortar 
spread,  and  the  stone  reset  and  beat  down  until  it  comes  to 
a  solid  bearing. 

BRICK  FOOTING. — When  brick  is  used  for  footings  the  bottom 
courses  should  be  double,  or  composed  of  three  separate  courses, 
and  the  outside  courses  in  a  step  footing  should  all  be  headers, 
so  as  to  keep  the  joints  back  as  far  from  the  face  of  the  footing 
as  possible.  The  superintendent  should  see  that  only  the 
hardest  bricks  are  used,  and  that  they  are  laid  in  the  best  of 
cement  mortar,  and  that  all  joints  are  slushed  full.  In  some 
cases  where  piers  carrying  a  heavy  weight  rest  on  the  footing- 
course  it  is  advisable  to  turn  inverted  arches  from  pier  to  pier, 


FOUNDATION-WALLS. 


27 


as  shown  by  Fig.  25.  The  concrete  should  be  put  in  and  shaped 
to  the  desired  circle  and  several  concentric  courses  of  brick 
built  in  as  shown. 


FIG.  25. 

Foundation-walls.— STONE. — Where  stone  is  to  be  used 
for  foundation-walls,  it  should  come  from  a  quarry  that  is  well 
known  and  the  stone  such  as  has  been  tested  by  use.  It  should 
be  a  hard  compact  stone  and  one  which  can  be  quarried  in  large 
blocks;  care  should  be  exercised  at  the  quarry  to  get  out  the 
stone  in  such  sizes  as  is  desired,  and  so  that  they  will  lay  in  the 
wall  on  their  natural  bed. 

The  specifications  usually  mention  how  close  headers  or 
bond  stone  are  to  be  built,  as:  "One-sixth  of  the  face  surface 
of  the  wall  shall  consist  of  bond  stone  or  headers  extending 
through  the  wall." 

For  ordinary  structures  the  walls  are  usually  built  as  shown 
in  Fig.  26,  1,  1,  1  representing  the  bond  stone  and  2,  2,  2  the 
headers  at  a  jamb  or  opening. 

For  large  and  more  important  structures  the  stone  should 
be  large  blocks  and  laid  in  courses  as  shown  by  Fig.  27;  every 
alternate  course  should  have  headers  as  indicated  by  1,  1,  1. 
The  superintendent  should  pay  close  attention  to  the  mason 
when  at  work  and  see  that  every  stone  is  set  in  a  full  bed  of 
mortar  and  all  joints  slushed  full.  A  mason  usually  if  let 
alone  will  set  a  stone  down  and  wedge  up  under  with  spalls 
until  the  stone  will  not  rock,  then  plaster  some  mortar  around 
it  and  call  it  set.  The  superintendent  must  also  watch  the 
filling  of  any  cavities  between  the  stone  and  see  that  they  are 
filled  solid  with  small  stone  and  mortar.  Wherever  pipes 
of  any  kind  are  to  pass  through  the  wall,  openings  of  a  suita- 


28 


STONEWORK. 


ble  size  should  be  left  so  that  there  will  be  no  weight  of  the 
wall  resting  on  the  pipes.  Or  a  better  method  is  to  build  pipe- 
sleeves  in  the  wall  large  enough  for  the  pipe  to  pass  through. 
FILLING. — The  filling  around  the  outside  of  the  wall  should 
never  be  permitted  until  after  the  wall  has  been  built  long 


FIG.  26. 


FIG.  27. 


enough  for  the  mortar  to  harden,  and  the  beams  of  the  first 
floor  put  in  place,  so  as  to  prevent  the  walls  from  being  shoved 
in  by  the  pressure  of  the  earth.  In  filling  the  superintendent 
should  see  that  nothing  but  clean  solid  material  is  used  and 
put  in  in  layers  of  about  12  inches  and  well  rammed,  or, 
as  is  better,  "puddled"  into  place.  Where  there  is  danger  of 
dampness  the  walls  should  be  plastered  as  shown  and  described 
on  page  6. 

Stonework. — NATURAL  STONES. — The  duty  of  selecting 
the  stone  or  any  other  building  material  usually  devolves 
upon  the  architect  or  engineer  who  prepares  the  plans  and 
specifications,  and  unless  the  stone  comes  from  a  well-known 
and  tried  quarry  it  should  be  given  thorough  tests,  and  for  a 
structure  of  any  importance  a  new  stone,  or  one  that  has  not 
been  in  use  any  length  of  time,  should  not  be  used,  unless  by 
making  severe  tests  the  architect  or  the  superintendent  is  con- 
vinced it  will  stand,  as  to  strength  and  weathering  qualities. 
Time  and  exposure  to  the  elements  are  the  best  test  for  any 
stone. 

Granite  and  Allied  Rocks. — Granite  as  a  rule  can  be  quarried 
in  any  size  that  can  be  handled,  and  when  coming  from  an 
old  quarry  the  durability  of  it  will  be  known,  but  if  from  a 
new  quarry  it  should  be  tested.  The  usual  color  of  granite  is 
a  light  or  dark  gray,  although  different  shades,  from  light 


STONEWORK.  29 

pink  to  red,  are  found  in  different  localities.  The  color  of 
granite  is  generally  determined  by  the  color  of  the  feldspar  in  it, 
01  by  the  color  of  the  mica  which  it  contains. 

Granite,  being  so  hard  to  work  and  thus  being  more  expen- 
sive than  the  softer  rocks,  is  not  used  much  except  for  the 
more  expensive  buildings,  or  in  places  where  other  stones  are 
not  desired  and  where  great  strength  must  be  had. 

Gneiss,  which  is  a  sort  of  bastard  granite,  has  much  the  same 
composition  as  granite,  but  lays  in  the  quarry  in  layers.  It 
can  be  easily  quarried  and  makes  good  footings  or  foundations 
and  street  curbs  or  crossings.  The  superintendent  should 
make  himself  familiar  enough  with  gneiss  to  tell  it  from  granite, 
for  some  contractors  will  try  to  substitute  it  for  granite. 

During  the  construction  of  the  dry-dock  at  the  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  navy  yard  the  United  States  Navy  Department  rejected 
the  stone  sent  for  constructing  the  dock,  on  account  of  it  being 
gneiss,  when  granite  was  specified. 

Syenite. — This  is  a  rock  which  resembles  granite,  but  con- 
tains no  quartz.  It  is  very  little  used,  the  principal  quarries 
being  in  Arkansas. 

Trap  and  Basalt. — These  rocks  are  very  hard,  compact,  and 
tough  and  are  used  for  road-making  and  street-paving. 

The  principal  granite  quarries  are  found  in  the  New  England 
States.  The  table  on  page  30  will  show  the  location  of  some 
of  the  best  known  quarries  and  buildings  in  which  the  granite 
was  used. 

A  good  granite  should  last  from  75  to  200  years  without  show- 
ing any  signs  of  discoloration  or  disintegration. 

When  using  granite,  the  superintendent  should  examine 
all  stones  as  they  are  brought  to  the  building,  both  as  to 
quality  and  workmanship,  as  granite  is  usually  cut  at  the 
quarry  and  will  come  to  the  job  ready  to  set.  He  should 
watch  to  see  that  there  is  not  too  much  contrast  in  the  color 
of  the  stones,  as  in  some  granites  there  is  quite  a  difference 
in  the  color  of  the  stone  coming  from  different  parts  of  the 
same  quarry.  He  may  find  "knots"  which  are  lumps  of  a 
different  color  from  the  body  of  the  stone.  They  are  usually 
much  lighter  or  darker,  and  when  found  the  stone  should  be 
rejected.  "Sap,"  which  is  a  stain  in  the  stone,  and  "shakes," 
which  are  cracks  or  seams,  should  be  sufficient  cause  to  reject 
any  stone  containing  them. 

The  table  on  page  31  shows  the  load  per  square  inch  at  which 


30 


SANDSTONE. 


Location  of  Quarry. 

Building  Used  in. 

Color. 

Concord,  N.  H  

National  Library,  Washington,  D.C. 
N   H   State  House.  .  .                  . 

Light  gray 
Light  gray 

State  Capitol,  Albany,  N.  Y  

Light  gray 

Quincy   Mass  . 

King's  Chapel,  Boston  

Dark  gray 

U   S   Court-house   Boston.  . 

Dark  gray 

Dedham,  Mass  
Vinalhaven,  Mass  
Red  Beach,  Maine.  .  . 

Masonic  Temple  
Stairway,  pilasters,  etc.,  City  Hall, 
Philadelphia,  Pa  
Trinity  Church,  Boston  
Masonic  Temple,  Philadelphia.  .  .  . 

Dark  gray 

Dark  gray 
Pink 
Gray 
Red  &  pink 

Red  &  pink 

Dix  Island,  Maine  
Cape  Ann,  Mass 

New  York  Post-office  
Post  office,  Boston 

Milford,  Mass  
North  Conway,  N.  H. 

City  Hall,  New  York  
Union  Depot,  Portland,  Me.  .  .  . 

Red  &  green 

Lynn,  Conn  
Grindstone,  N.  Y  

Chaney    Memorial    Church,    New- 
port, R.  I  
Columns,    State    Capitol,    Albany, 
N.Y  

Deep  red 

Westerly,  R  I  .  . 

Light     gray 

Richmond,  Va  
Georgia 

State,  War,  and  Navy  Department 
buildings,  Washington,  D.  C.  .  .  . 

and  pink 

Gray 
Light      and 

Graniteville  Mo.  .  . 

dark  gray 
Red  mottl'd 

St   Cloud   Minn 

with  gray 
Gray  &  red 

Gunnison,  Colo  
Little  Cottonwood  Canyon 

Colorado  State  House  
Utah  Mormon  Temple,  Salt  Lake 
City  

Blue  gray 

various  granites  fail  by  crushing.  It  is  not  safe  to  use  more 
than  one-tenth  for  a  working  strength. 

The  New  York  Building  Code  gives  the  working  strength  of 
granite  at  1000  to  2400  pounds  per  square  inch,  according  to 
test. 

The  table  on  page  32  gives  the  analysis  of  granites  from  some 
of  the  most  prominent  quarries. 

The  table  on  page  33,  prepared  by  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey,  shows  the  amount  of  granite  produced  in  the 
United  States  and  for  what  purpose  used  during  the  year 
1901. 

Sandstone. — Sandstones  are  stratified  rocks  composed  of 
small  grains  of  crystal  quartz  which  are  cemented  together  by 
argillaceous,  calcareous,  silicious,  or  ferruginous  material, 
and  from  this  material  often  derive  the  name  of  argillaceous, 
calcareous,  etc.,  stones.  The  strength,  durability,  and  color 
of  the  stone  rests  with  this  cementing  material  to  a  great 
extent. 


SANDSTONE.  31 

STRENGTH  AND  WEIGHT  OF  VARIOUS  GRANITES. 


State. 

Location. 

Strength 
per  Sq. 
Inch. 

Weight 
per  Sq. 
Foot. 

Arkansas  

Pulaski  Co.  (gray  granite)  
Fourth  Mountain  (syenite) 

14,000 
30  740 

167 

California  

Rocklin  

30,740 

167 

Colorado  

Gunnison  
Platte  Canyon  (red).  .  . 

12,976 
14  585 

165 
168 

Connecticut  .  >  .    . 

Middleton.  .  . 

21,460 

Waterford  

23  510 

f             

Meriden  (trap  rock)  
Kirkland  rocks.  .  .  . 

34,920 
35  000 

1(36 

,            

Lord's  Island  
Mystic  River.  . 

24,000 
22  250 

164 

« 

New  H/iTen  

9,750 

* 

Millstown  Point  
Milford  

16,187 
22,600 

169 

< 

New  London  

12,500 

166 

Lithonia 

25  630 

Maine.  .  . 

Hurricane  Isle  

19,538 

167 

Jonesboro  (red).  .  . 

24  507 

23  111 

•    .    • 

North  Jay  (red).  .  .  . 

22367 

Dix  Island  

15  000 

166 

Fox  Island  (blue) 

15  000 

164 

Sharkey's  Quarry. 

22  125 

170 

Vinalhaven  (gray)  

17,000 
20  296 

164 

Milford  (pink)  

30  888 

< 

Milford  (Norcross  Bros  ). 

20  883 

t 

Quincy  (dark)  

17  750 

166 

i 

Quincv  (light) 

14  750 

166 

t 

15  937 

Huron  Island.  . 

18  125 

164 

24  181 

East  St.  Cloud.  . 

28  000 

168 

Duluth  (dark)  

17  631 

175 

<  < 

Duluth  (light) 

19  000 

New  Hampshire 

Troy  

17  950 

168 

Keene  (blue  gray).  .  . 

12  000 

166 

New^York  

Goshen  
Staten  Island  (blue).  .  . 

23,500 
22  250 

178 

M 

Tarrytown  

18  250 

162 

New  Jersey  

Scotch  Plains  (trap  rock)  
Passaic  Co.  (gray)  

17,950 
24  040 

1  1 

Jersey  City.  . 

20  750 

189 

Rhode  Island.  .  .  . 

Westerly  (gray)  

17*500 

165 

South  Carolina 

Carlisle. 

29  150 

Texas  

Burnet   Co  

11  891 

176 

Vermont  .  . 

Barre  (dark).  .  . 

19  975 

Barre  (light) 

17  856 

Virginia 

Peters 

25  100 

"    "    * 

Richmond      .  . 

25  520 

The  argillaceous  is  a  soft  stone  cemented  with  a  clayey  matter 
and  disintegrates  very  easily. 

The  calcareous  stone  is  cemented  with  carbonate  of  lime. 
This  stone  is  soft  and  easy  to  work,  but  does  not  weather  well. 

In  ferruginous  stone  the  cementing  material  is  composed 
of  iron  oxides,  which  cause  the  red  or  brown  color.  This  stone 
is  harder  than  the  two  last  mentioned;  does  not  work  so  easy, 
but  stands  the  weather  well. 


32 


SANDSTONE. 


Ot^     •  IN  00  00  CO  O  1C  CO  CO  I-H  •*  00  b-  GO 
COCO      •05t^COCOOOCl^O)cr!COiO^ 


ZOOM'S  4,0      B-^"^ 

Illillr  £|jr  § 


g-s-  ilfililijl 

tfrt*  H^IJ^CQPipHtf^CQ 


«. 

'in. 


fi 


SANDSTONE. 


33 


PRODUCTION    AND    USE   OF  GRANITE   IN   U.  S.    DURING   THE 
YEAR  1901. 


State. 

Sold  in  the  Rough. 

Dressed 
for 
Build- 
ing. 

Dressed 
for  Mon- 
umental 
Work. 

Made 
into 
Paving 
Blocks. 

Build- 
ing. 

Monu- 
mental. 

Other. 

$2,627 
46,300 
5,750 
29,533 
32,191 
328,087 

401,189 
51,637 
364,721 

20,002 
40,651 

112,581 
87,933 
33,025 
10,862 

15,7  1  2 
27,666 
8.276 
52,089 

California  
Colorado  
Connecticut  

$24,057 
45,650 
108,959 
9,069 
54,321 
100 

}     2,340 

407,418 
181,608 
333,047 

13,215 
550 

1 

$38,755 
7,562 
26,267 

'  22,315 
5,000 

24,475 
20,180 
236,327 

42,197 
17,406 

52,231 
2,515 
1,325 
4,105 
250 
1,050 
92,974 
23,433 

'  ll,52i 
3,300 
534,755 
8,300 
2,250 
79,175 

$6,815 

$358,832 
60,835 
94,611 
1,750 
57,207 

7,800 

1,501,797 
188,568 
455,535 

55,017 

15,600 

363,957 
19,888 
97,350 
68,975 
3,900 
18,916 
160,190 
165,594 
1,650 
243 

$72,257 
1,787 
70,894 
400 
14,526 

76,276 
7,800 
236,273 

'  96,902 

3,500 
171,239 

6,283 
6,813 
1,116 
227 
198,831 
12,789 

10,400 

24,384 
2,678 
2,725 

27,447 
1,500 
118,567 

1,550 
2,095 

9,797 

6,150 
2,212 
1,590 
4,538 
110 
5,730 
2,159 

Georgia  
Idaho 

Indian  Territory. 
Kansas  .  . 

Maine  

Maryland  
Massachusetts.  .. 
Michigan  
Minnesota  
Missouri  

Montana  

Nevada  
New  Hampshire. 
New  Jersey  
New  York  
North  Carolina  .  . 
Oregon  .  . 

156,832 
60,905 
24,312 
27,464 
3,748 
63,568 
9,722 
56,831 
25,106 
2,652 
2,288 
208,825 
40,763 
9,100 
3,575 
2,810 

Pennsylvania.  .  . 
Rhode  Island.  .  . 
South  Carolina.  . 
South  Dakota.  .  . 
Texas  

Utah  
Vermont  
Virginia  
Washington  
Wisconsin  
Wyoming  

Total  

101,779 
230 

28,6  15 

16,343 
45,737 
3,000 
17,999 

354,563 
52,404 

62,277 

16,304 
17,253 
3,360 
113,682 

1,878,835 

1,257,668 

350,071 

3,781,294 

1,457,557 

1,821,431 

The  silicious  stone,  being  cemented  with  silica,  which  has  about 
the  same  composition  as  the  grains  of  sand  of  which  the  stone  is 
composed,  makes  a  stone  very  hard  and  one  which  will  weather 
well.  The  color  of  the  stone  is  usually  due  to  the  amount  of 
iron  contained  in  it.  The  more  iron  the  darker  the  stone.  The 
iron  oxides  in  the  stone  do  no  harm,  but  iron  pyrites  or  sulphate 
of  iron  in  light  sandstones  is  sure  to  stain  or  rust  the  stone. 

Sandstone  being  of  a  sedimentary  formation,  it  is  usually 
found  in  the  quarry  in  layers,  or  there  is  a  well-defined  grain 
to  the  stone  in  the  direction  of  its  natural  bed,  which  causes 
it  to  split  readily.  In  working  the  stone,  the  superintendent 
should  see  that  the  stone  is  cut  so  it  will  set  in  the  wall  as  it 
lay  in  the  quarry,  or  on  its  natural  bed.  If  it  is  set  on  edge 
it  is  sure  to  scale  off  as  the  frost  and  moisture  penetrates  it. 

As  nearly  all  the  sandstones  are  very  soft  when  first  quarried 


34 


SANDSTONE. 


the  superintendent  should  see  that  too  much  weight  is  not  put 
on  them  until  they  have  had  time  to  season  or  harden  after 
being  taken  from  the  quarry. 

The  defects  usually  found  in  sandstones  are  "drys"  (seams 
which  are  not  cemented  together),  and  holes  or  cavities  filled 
with  sand  or  clay  or  uncemented  material. 

Sandstones  are  of  great  variety  and  color,  and  are  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  country,  the  different  colors  coming  from 
different  localities.  Dark  brown  is  found  near  Portland,  Conn. ; 
Hummelstown,  Pa.;  Marquette,  Mich.;  West  Virginia;  North 
Carolina;  Indiana;  Arizona,  and  Colorado.  Red  is  found  at 
East  Longmeadow,  Mass. ;  Potsdam,  N.  Y. ;  Fon  du  Lac,  Minn. ; 
Manitou,  Col. ;  Glenrock,  Wyoming,  and  Portage  Entry,  Mich. 
(Lake  Superior  sandstone).  Perhaps  the  most  extensively 
used  sandstone  comes  from  Ohio,  near  Cleveland,  and  is  of  a 
light  buff  or  gray  color. 

Missouri  has  several  quarries  of  a  gray  sandstone  which  has 
been  used  extensively  in  St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City. 

The  following  table  shows  some  of  the  principal  quarries  and 
buildings  in  which  the  stone  has  been  used. 


State. 

Location  of 
Quarry. 

Building  Used  in. 

Color  of  Stone. 

Conn.  , 

Portland  

Technology  Building,  Boston.  .  .  . 

Brown 

1  ' 

Astor  Library,  New  York  City.  .. 

Brown 

*  * 

Music  Hall    Buffalo    N    Y 

Brown 

«« 

Union  League  Club  B'ld'g.  Pbila. 

Brown 

•  i 

Savings  Bank  of  Baltimore  

Brown 

«« 

Residence  of  W.  H.  Vanderbilt, 

New  York  

Brown 

Colo.  . 

Fort^Collins.  .  . 

Grace  Methodist  Church,  Denver 

Dark  red 

Union  Pacific  Depot  ,  Cheyenne, 

Wyoming  

Dark  red 

Mass.  . 

Longmeadow.  . 

Union  League  Club,  Chicago  

Red 

Trimmings  Trinity  C'ch,  Boston.. 

Red 

Mich.  . 

Portage  Entry 

New  Waldorf-Astoria  Hotel,  N.Y. 

Red 

(  Lake  Superior) 

«« 

Do.  do. 

U.  S.  Post-office,  Rockford,  111  ... 

Red 

'  • 

Marquette  .... 

Court  House,  Muskegon,  Mich  .  .  . 

Brown 

Minn.  . 

Kettle  River  .  . 

Library  Bldg.,  Univ.  of  Illinois.  .. 

Cream 

Fond  du  Lac.  . 

Presbyterian    Church,    Minneap- 
olis, Minn  

Reddish  brown 

N.  Y.  . 

Potsdam  

Parliament  B'ld'gs,  Ottawa,  Ont. 

Red 

Medina  

Columbia  College,  New  York  City. 
U.  S.  Government  Building,  Roch- 

Red 

ester,  N.  Y  

Pink 

Ohio.  . 

Amherst  

Palmer  House,  Chicago  

Buff 

State  Capitol,  Lansing,  Mich  .... 
State  Historical   Library,  Minne- 

Buff 

apolis,  Minn  

Buff 

<« 

«  « 

Wood  Co.,  Ohio,  Court  House.  .  .  . 

Gray 

«• 

Berea.  .  '.'.'.'.'.'. 

U.    S.     Post-office,    Minneapolis, 

Minn  

Blue-gray 

Pa.  ... 

Hummelstown 

U.   S.    Marine  Barracks,   League 

Island  

Brown 

SANDSTONE.  35 

The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  the  sandstone  produc- 
tion in  the  United  States  from  1897  to  1901,  inclusive,  by 
States. 


VALUE  OF  SANDSTONE  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
FROM    1897   TO   1901,   INCLUSIVE,   BY   STATES. 


State. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

Alabama  
Arizona  

$3,000 
15,000 

$27,882 
57,444 

$71,675 
4,168 

$7,132 
64,000 

$8,680 
202,500 

Arkansas  
California  
Colorado  
Connecticut.  .  . 
Georgia  

3,161 
4,035 
60,847 
364,604 

24,825 
358,908 
89,637 
215,733 

73,616 
261,193 
129,815 
271,623 

104,923 
200,090 
119,658 
192,593 
600 

62,825 
301,028 
237,331 
146,814 

Idaho  .  . 

438 

20  843 

Illinois  

14,250 

13,758 

16,133 

19,141 

12,884 

Indiana  .  . 

35,561 

45,342 

35,636 

45,063 

34  959 

Iowa  
Kansas  
Kentucky.  .  .  . 
Louisiana.  .  . 

14,771 
20,953 
40,000 
8,000 

7,102 
19,528 
72,525 
2J0.500 

24,348 
49,629 
119,982 
1  226,503 

19,063 
55,173 
56,178 
2  118,  192 

14,341 
49,901 
108,259 

13  646 

'    24  428 

6  655 

4  546 

Massachusetts. 
Michigan  
Minnesota.  .  .  . 

194,684 
171,127 
158,057 
57  583 

91,287 
222,376 
175,810 
48,795 

131,877 
320,192 
294,615 
57,662 

153,427 
238,650 
267,000 
53,401 

247,310 
290,578 
246,685 
42  170 

Montana  

25,644 

3,682 

26,160 

59,630 

60,719 
515 

New  Jersey.  .  . 
New  Mexico  .  . 

190,976 

257,217 
3,500 

147,768 
1,829 

193,234 
2,500 

244,512 

New  York.  .  .  . 
N.  Carolina.  .  . 
Ohio  
Oregon 

544,514 
11,500 
1,600,058 

566,133 
9,100 
1,494,746 
7,864 

1,218,053 
10,300 
1,775,642 
4  153 

1,467,496 
27,210 
2,233,596 
5  450 

1,331,327 
11,682 
2,576,723 
531 

Pennsylvania. 
South  Dakota. 

380,813 

478,451 
9,000 

3717,053 
18,325 

1,050,248 
12,675 
11  300 

2,063,082 
17,647 
10  342 

Texas  
Utah  

30,030 
7,907 

77,190 
15,752 

35,738 
29,091 

37,038 
66,733 

111,568 
38,919 

Virginia 

8  000 

6  000 

5  303 

Washington.  .  . 
West  Virginia  . 
Wisconsin.  .  .  . 
Wyoming  

16,187 
47,288 
33,623 
11,275 

15,575 
14,381 
80,341 
6,382 

58,395 
33,860 
132,901 
32,583 

68,133 
72,438 
81,571 
27,671 

89,174 
106,710 
90,425 
54,145 

Totals.  .  .  . 

4,065,445 

4,721,412 

6,362.944 

7,149,300 

8,844,978 

1  Includes  small  amounts  for  Idaho  and  Nevada. 

2  Includes  Mississippi. 

3  Includes  bluestone. 

The  following  table  gives  the  crushing  strength  per  square 
inch  and  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  sandstones  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  country. 

The  working  strength  of  any  stone  should  not  be  more  than 
one-tenth  of  its  crushing,  strength.  The  New  York  Building 
Code  gives  the  working  strength  of  sandstones  at  400  to  1600 
pounds  per  square  inch,  according  to  test. 


36 


LIMESTONE. 


STRENGTH  AND  WEIGHT  OF  SANDSTONES. 


State. 

Location. 

Color. 

Strength 
per  Sq. 
Inch. 

Weight 
per  Sq. 
Foot. 

Arizona  
California 

Flagstaff.  . 

Chocolate  

5,857 
8,880 
11,500 
11,707 
11,000 
10,871 
6,950 
16,890 
6,000 
6,090 
6,805 
7,500 
15,160 
11,595 
9,687 
10,700 
17,000 
6,250 
6,019 

6,776 
7,450 
18,401 
17,250 
12,677 

142 

i49 
140 
140 
148 

156 

152 

154 
149 
164 
139 
145 

126 
158 
162 
150 

Colusa 

Colorado  
Connecticut.  .  .  . 
Indiana 

St.  Vrains  
Fort  Collins 

Red  
Gray. 

Manitou  
Portland.  . 

Red  

Middletown  
Cromwell  
Riverside 

Brown  
Gray. 

Iowa  
Kansas  
Kentucky  
Massachusetts.  . 
Missouri  
Minnesota  

Michigan  

La  Grande 

Blue  

Valley  Falls  
Langford 

East  Longmeadow. 
Warrensburg  
Kasota  
Kettle  River  
Frontenac  
Redrock  
Portage  Entry  (Lake 
Superior)  
Marquette 

Red.  .  
Blue  gray  
Pink.   . 
Pinkish  buff.  .  . 
Buff  

Red  

New  York.  .... 

Potsdam  

Red.  . 

Medina 

Pink  
Blue  .  . 

New  Jersey  .... 

North  Carolina  . 
Ohio  

Oxford  

Warsaw 

Blue 

19,868 
13,500 
9,850 
4,350 
11,700 
13,310 
12,750 
5,000 
5,950 
9,450 
9,510 
6,800 
8,850 
8,750 
13,097 
22,250 
29,250 
6,914 
11,452 
6,116 
1(1,276 
6,237 
10,883 

167 
157 

133 
147 
148 

134 

133 
134 
140 
135 

iee 

i38 

Albion  
Little  Falls.  . 

Brown  
Brown.  . 

Haverstraw  
Belleville                    .    . 

Red  

Gray. 

Carthage.  . 

Brown  

Seneca  

Reddish  brown 

Lancaster  

Amherst  
Berea  
Cleveland  

Buff  
Dark  drab.  .  .  . 
Olive-green.  .  .  . 
Drab  
Yellow-drab.  .. 
Brown  

<  < 

1  1 

Verrr.illion.  .                .  . 

Pennsylvania.  . 
South  Dakota  .  . 

Washington.  .  .  . 
Wisconsin  
Wyoming  

Massilon  

Hummelstown  

Laurel  Run 

White  Haven  
Hot  Springs 

Rapid  City  

Gray  
Red.  . 

Chuckanut  
Fon  du  Lac  
Rawlins  

Purple  

The  table  on  the  page  opposite  gives  the  chemical  analyses 
of  some  of  the  principal  sandstones. 

Limestone. — The  varieties  of  limestones  used  for  building 
purposes  are:  Oolitic,  limestones  which  are  composed  of  small 
round  grains  that  have  been  cemented  together  with  lime  to 
form  a  solid  rock;  magnesian  limestones,  which  contain  10  per 
cent  or  more  of  carbonate  of  magnesia;  dolomite,  limestones 
which  are  an  aggregation  of  the  mineral  dolomite;  the  latter  is 


LIMESTONE. 


37 


•O5     -CO     •     -I-HCO     -O     -Oi-H     -T-I     -COO     -i-iN.     -d     • 
-05     -00     •     -J>05       O     -«<N     -10     -00     -COCO     •§!     • 


d^O5O5COCOM'^OOOiOCCt--(NiOiO'^1     •  O  W  O  iO  >O  (N     -t^-OOiOCDOOO     •  O  »O 
t-  GO  O  O  --1  --I  O  r-i  —i  i-i  iO  t^  (N  -^  O5  CO  CO     •  00  O3  GO  i-H  O --I     •  rH  rt  I-H  O5  00  >O  ^5  O     •  «O  CN 


CO          -CO       I-H  i 


^^^^^?§  :  :^^S^  :$Z 

•    •        'coi-i 


O5     •  ^O  CO  O  00     •  t-H  O  W  O  IO  O5  O5  <N  GO  iO  CD  CO  c""> 
lO     •COrtCOCO     -iOOiOOOt>OrtOO5i-i^-iO5O 


SiO     •     -CO Oi-iO     •     •     •     -O 
rn     •     -«3 COCO(N     •     •     •     -CO 


*          ^^ 


•    •     -t^^<NO     •     -O 

..      -rHT}1(NO      •      -N. 


i-HTfcOCOi-l  <N^'       OOO5iO^HOkOOO5'*'|>     .     -(N       <N--HC<it^Tti-<*icO     -C<icO     'cC 


*••#::&*&  mm  \m 

:  ;i  -s  ill  !•  & 


:  g  : 


.  a   •  bo 


^ 


il  wsl 


:  :«.?d 

:6&  :» 

•         (H      .  fli 


:   S- 


38 


LIMESTONE. 


usually  of  a  light  color  and  is  generally  much  harder  and  heavier 
than  the  other  limestones. 

The  most  extensive  quarries  of  limestone  are  near  Bedford, 
Ind.,  from  where  stone  is  shipped  to  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
country.  At  Carthage,  Mo.,  are  several  quarries  of  limestone 
of  a  coarse  crystalline  nature  and  which  takes  a  good  polish; 
this  stone  is  found  in  layers,  and  the  largest  clear  stone  which 


PRODUCTION    OF    LIMESTONE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 
1900  BY  STATES  AND  USES. 


IN 


State  or 
Territory. 

Building 
Purposes. 

Paving  and 
Road-mak- 
ing. 

t 

Pi 

% 

Made  into 
Lime. 

Stone  Sold 
to  Lime- 
burners. 

I 

£ 

& 

|g 

r 

JL 

$533,608 
165 
71,407 
407,489 
160,587 
148,060 
128,381 
54,451 
34,587 
1,881,151 
2,344,818 
586,410 
339,466 
178,252 
691,312 
317,207 
209,359 
425,636 
441,554 
1,079,343 
141,093 
107,305 
170,006 
1,730,162 
1,969,387 
25,586 
10,900 
3,800,318 
16,828 
38,415 
47,762 
238,505 
124,728 
12,749 
188,100 
403,318 
249,163 
53,701 
989,085 
3,065 

Ala.  .  . 
Ariz.   . 
Ark.  .. 
Cal.  .. 
Colo.  . 
Conn.  . 
Fla.  . 

$83,380 
165 
5,994 
1,937 



$14,697 

$139,090 

$296,241 

$200 

$665 
87,128 
1,274 
25 
6,988 
10,735 
9,000 

"325 
97,023 

64,038 
297,810 
96,055 
145,490 
24,370 
39,492 
25,587 

$200 
316 
75 

Y.os'o 

62,413 
2,545 

510 

18,893 
770 



Ga.  .  .  . 
Idaho 
111.... 
Ind.  .. 
Iowa.  . 
Kan.  . 
Ken.   . 
Maine 
Md.  .. 
Mass.  . 
Mich.  . 
Minn.  . 
Mo.     . 
Mon.  . 
Neb  .. 
N.  J.   . 
N.  Y.  . 
Ohio.  . 
Okla.  . 
Ore.  .. 
Penn.  . 
R.  I  .  . 
S.  Car 
S.  Dak 
Tenn.  . 
Texas. 
Utah.  . 
Vt.  ... 
Va.  .  .  . 
Wash  . 

1,200 

2,000 

1,024 

499,739 
1,639,985 
248,883 
203,304 
21,623 

859,602 
239,913 
153,929 
113,952 
115,730 

96,900 
11,451 
58,493 
7,58f 
12,500 

246,575 
227,343 
110,589 
3,192 
8,393 
629,545 
281,717 
199,645 
94,789 
42,480 
398,010 
19,000 
590 
105,902 
676,324 
661,869 

"580 
1,125 

'  '4,218 
3,726 

'65,  000 
400 

'  '7,088 
286 
40,838 
14,939 

114,849 
168,692 

'17,728 
883 
3,867 
1,539 
3,200 
300 
8,28S 
117,000 
13,125 
54,564 
71,408 
422,407 

i;949',859 
113 
1,595 
33,082 
60,564 
18,942 

63,486 
57,434 
13,936 
10,307 
2,278 
56,666 
1,645 

124,220 
13,996 
18,189 

'  5,016 

190.284 
138,424 

163,117 

'  '  100 
375 

11,385 
8,175 
32,362 
323,688 
362,344 
3,000 
39,556 
6,955 
244,738 
217,399 
2,672 

"  128',  997 

14,343 

524 

105,266 
27,778 
235,489 
2,093 
31,442 
1,299 
484,902 
466,819 
22,914 

'  '684',983 
500 

799 
32,912 
57,023 

'id,  488 
1,000 
21,668 
47,530 

'  '  660 

10,525 
910,903 
16,715 
36,320 
14,380 

375 

21,799 

300 
22,800 
15,681 
11,979 
193 
5,070 

26,490 
9,821 

"'82 

8,721 
240 
40 
231,356 

396 
250 

116,263 

128,035 
79,659 
770 
187,075 
151,687 
239,022 
36,677 
445,193 
2,640 

120 

'  '5,85l 
3,630 

'2'3'7',840 
6,643 
1,742 
15,861 

800 
'  '3,258 
5,996 

W.Va. 
Wis.  .  . 
Wy.  .. 

9,391 

177,386 
425 

Totals 

4,330,706 

3,953,469 

582,488 

6,797,496 

172,566 

3,687,394 

829,900 

20,354,019 

1  Includes  North  Carolina. 


LIMESTONE. 


39 


can  be  got  out  is  20  inches  in  thickness.  The  United  States 
Post-office  at  Joplin,  Mo.,  was  built  of  this  stone,  which  gave 
very  good  satisfaction.  The  stone  is  very  dense,  heavy,  and 
does  not  absorb  moisture.  At  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  is  quarried  a 
gray  limestone  which  is  used  much  in  the  east  for  trimmings. 
Ohio,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  and  Wis- 
consin also  produce  much  limestone  for  building  purposes. 

All  limestones  should  be  set  with  non-staining  mortar  made 
of  non-staining  cement,  as  other  cements  will  generally  stain 
right  through  the  stone  or  stain  dark  around  the  joint. 

In  some  limestones  are  found  pieces  of  flint,  and  when  these 
are  of  any  size  and  appear  on  an  exposed  surface  of  the  stone, 
the  stone  should  be  rejected.  The  other  defects  of  limestone 
are  about  the  same  as  those  found  in  sandstones  and  require 
the  same  inspection. 

The  table  on  page  38  shows  the  value  of  the  limestone  pro- 
duction in  1900  by  States  and  uses. 

The  following  table  gives  the  crushing  strength  per  square 
inch  and  the  weight  per  cubic  foot  of  limestones  from  various 
parts  of  the  country. 


N 

Q)  O 

Id 

&S 

State. 

Location. 

State. 

Location. 

I1 

£   . 

2o5 

•so 

£02 

'So 

02 

? 

02 

JJ 

Ark.    . 

Johnston  

15,500 

Mich. 

Lime  Island  .... 

18,000 

Ill  

Kankakee  

13,544 

'ies 

Mo.  .  . 

Carthage  (white) 

14,950 

'185 

Joliet  (white)  . 

14,775 

160 

•  ' 

Cooper  Co.  (dark 

*  * 

Ouincv 

9,687 

160 

drab)  

6  650 

141 

«' 

Grafton  

17,000 

N.  Y. 

Glens  Falls  

11,475 

168 

Ind.  .  '. 

Bedford.     .  .  . 

6,000 

i54 

*  • 

Lake  Champlain 

25,000 

171 

Bioomington.  . 

4,100 

" 

North  River.  .  .  . 

11,475 

169 

f  *'•'.']'. 

Salem  

9,000 

'ise 

1  ' 

Canajoharie.  .  .  . 

20,700 

168 

•  < 

Stinsville  

5,600 

4  ' 

Erie  Co.  (blue).  . 

12,250 

165 

Iowa.  . 
Kan.'  . 

La  Grande.  .  .  . 
Stone  City  
Marion  

10,825 
11,250 
12,364 

136 
168 

Ohio. 

Kingston  
Garrison  
Marbleh'd(w'e). 

13,900 
18,500 
12,600 

168 
165 
150 

Ky.  .. 

Warren  Co  
Bardst'n  (da'k). 

6,795 
16,250 

'i68 

Wis..  . 

Sturgeon  Bay 
(blue).  ..... 

21,500 

174 

Minn.. 

Winona  

16,250 

160 

•  ' 

Waukesha  

8,880 

Stillwater  

15,000 

172 

Pa...". 

A  von  dale  (gray) 

18,000 

" 

Redwing  

23,000 

162 

"... 

(fight) 

12,112 

'  '.  '.  '. 

Conshohocken.  ' 

15,000 

.... 

The  following  table  gives  the  chemical  analysis  of  the  lime- 
stone from  some  of  the  various  quarries, 


40 


MARBLE. 


CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS   OF   VARIOUS   LIMESTONES. 


State. 

Location. 

Quarry. 

Carbonate  of 
Calcium. 

Carbonate  of 
Magnesia. 

Ox.  Iron  & 
Alumina.  | 

1 

OQ 

15.90 
15.90 

Oxide  of 
Calcium. 

Ill  

Ind.'  .'  ' 

Iowa.  . 
Kan.  . 
Ky. 

Mich!  '. 
Minn.  . 

Mo.  . 

N.4  Y.  . 

Ohio.  . 

Quincy  
Lemont  

F.  W.  Menke  Stone  Co.  . 

92.77 
45.80 

6.75 

.27 
9.30 

'  .39' 
.49 
.91 
.13 

1.25 

1.24' 

.22 
.39 
.06 
1.09 
.78 
.67 
.21 
.97 
1.08 
.23 
.10 
.58 
?0 

: 

Joliet  .. 

Bedford  'Quar.'  Co..'  '. 
"  (blue) 

Acme  Stone  Co  
J.  N.  Hurtz   
L.  B.  Stewart  Co.  ..... 
I.  Kuhn  &  Co  
Caden  Stone  Co  

98.20 
97.26 
96.80 
97.37 
52.90 
57.54 
91.50 
54.80 
95.31 
98.53 
49.16 
50.22 
54.78 
98.57 
41.90 
42.64 
54.05 

92.40 
5470 

'  '.39 
.37 
.11 

.78 
38.94 
41.51 
1.62 

1.12 
.53 
37.53 
37.39 
42.53 
.65 
1.65 

44.94 
40.36 
1.10 
4493 

Bedford  

Spencer  
Clear  Creek.  .  .  . 
Peru  
Monmouth.  .  .  . 
Marion  
Warren  Co.  ... 
Bowling  Green 
Trenton 

.63 
1.69 
.70 
.84 
4.05 
.42 
5.51 
.76 
1.42 
.60 
13.  Ofi 
8.74 
2.73 
.69 
4.31 
3.82 
.49 
1.61 
1.70 
.10 

.10 

51.05 
52.46 

57.44 

Sibly  Quarry  Co   

Kasota  
Stillwater  
Frontenac  
Carthage  
Cobbleskill  
Amsterdam.  .  . 
Cold  Springs.  .  . 
Tiffin 

Mvers  Stone  Co  
Cobbleskill  Quarry  Co.  . 

Casparis  Stone  Co  ..... 

"    .  . 

Dayton  . 

Soringfield.  .  .  . 

Pa.  .  .  . 

R.  I  .  . 
W.  Va 

Wis.  .  . 

Youngstown  .  . 
Norristown.  .  . 
Lime  Rock.  .  . 
Marlow  
Hamilton.  .  .  . 

Carbon  Limestone  Co.  . 
Wm.  Rambo  
Herbert  Harris   
G.  C.  Ditto  
Hamilton  Stone  Co  

96.43 
53.49 

88.23 

54.25 

.40 
45.76 
8.79 
.98 
44.48 

1.60 

'.32' 

.26 
.10 

1.50 
.70 
2.74 
.18 
.67 

98.44 

Marble. — Marble,  which  is  a  crystallized  limestone,  or  a 
pure  form  of  carbonate  of  lime,  is  an  earlier  formation  of  lime- 
stone which  was  formed  with  a  pressure,  and  which  retained  the 
carbonic  acid.  Marble  is  the  name  usually  given  to  any  lime- 
stone which  will  take  a  good  polish.  The  marble  quarries  of 
the  U.  S.  are  fast  being  developed,  and  are  now  furnishing  the 
larger  part  of  the  marble  used  in  this  country.  The  table  on 
page  41  will  show  the  value  and  purposes  for  which  produced, 
of  the  various  marble-producing  States  for  the  year  1901. 

The  most  used  marbles  of  this  country  are  the  white,  blue- 
grays,  and  greenish  grays  of  Vermont,  used  mainly  for  interior 
and  monumental  work;  the  red  or  chocolate  and  white-mottled 
dolomitic  varieties  ("Winooski"  marble),  which  come  from 
Mallet's  Bay,  Vt.  A  white  granular  dolomitic  marble  from 
Lee,  Mass.,  is  used  for  building  purposes.  The  United  States 
Capitol  at  Washington  is  built  of  this  marble.  A  coarse  "snow- 
flake"  marble  comes  from  Westchester  County,  N.  Y.,  and  is 


MARBLE. 


41 


PRODUCTION  AND  USE  OF  MARBLE  QUARRIED  IN  THE  U.  S. 
DURING   1901. 


State. 

Rough 

Build- 
ing, 

Orna- 
m'tal. 

Ceme- 
tery. 

Inte- 
rior. 

Other. 

Total. 

Alaska 

-$i  500 

$4,500 
300 
300 

6,642 
936,549 
68,100 
126,545 
2,100 
1,500 
10,600 
379,159 
500 
157,547 
494,637 
320 
2,753,583 
22,816 

Arizona  
Arkansas  
California  
Georgia  
Maryland  

300 
200 
3,280 
268,761 
8,100 
63,556 

$100 
1,812 
16,500 

'  '3,700 

'  '  300 
4,900 

$1,550 
241,683 
45,000 
26,220 

$207,305 
15,000 
9,560 
2,100 
1,500 
3,100 
204,289 
500 
25,060 
14,000 

iJ452,  434 
14,044 

$16'6',305 
15,051 

$36,666 
'  '8,459 

Massachusetts.. 

Montana. 

New  Mexico.  .  .  . 
New  York.  . 

4,200 
2,367 

18,078 
162,513 
320 
53,892 
1,600 

3,000 
132,943 

'28',600 

'  '6,660 

Oregon  
Pennsylvania  .  . 
Tennessee  
Utah  
Vermont  
Washington. 

111,069 
13,000 

'  '659,266 
2,358 

400 
305,124 

'  '493,607 

2,940 

94,450 
4,814 

Totals  

591,667 

1,238,023 

126,576 

1,948,892 

1.008,482 

54,059 

4,965,699 

much  used  for  building.  Pink,  gray,  and  chocolate- brown 
and  white-mottled  varieties  are  found  in  Tennessee,  and  are 
used  much  for  interior  work.  A  coarse  white  and  white- 
clouded  marble  comes  from  Georgia,  which  is  used  much  for 
building  and  inside  work.  A  black  marble  is  quarried  at 
Glens  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Georgia  Marble. — The  Georgia  marble  known  as  "Kenne- 
saw"  is  a  white  marble  whose  separate  crystals  are  nearly 
transparent. 

The  "Etowah"  marble  is  formed  of  very  small  crystals,  but 
in  other  respects  has  quite  a  similar  structure  to  the  "Kennesaw  " 
marble.  Every  crystal  in  it,  however,  instead  of  being  white 
is  tinted  a  taint  shade  of  amethyst,  making  a  tinted  marble. 

The  "Creole"  is  a  banded  or  gray  marble. 

The  following  table  gives  the  composition,  strength,  and 
weight  of  some  of  the  various  marbles. 

Onyx. — Onyx  is  the  name  given  to  a  stone  of  the  same 
composition  as  marble,  but  which  was  formed  by  chemical 
deposits. 

The  name  is  given  on  account  of  the  resemblance  to  the 
true  onyx,  which  is  a  variety  of  agate.  This  stone  is  found  in 
Mexico,  Arizona,  and  California,  and  is  of  various  shades  and 
colors.  It  is  used  entirely  for  ornamental  purposes. 

Testing  Stone. — When  a  stone  comes  from  a  well-known 
quarry,  and  the  stone  is  known  by  its  past  use  to  be  what  is 


42 


TESTING  STONE. 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION,  WEIGHT,  AND  CRUSHING  STRENGTH 
OF  VARIOUS  MARBLES. 


State. 

Location. 

Car- 
bonate 
of 
Lime. 

Iron. 

Car- 
bonate 
of 
Mag- 
nesia. 

Insol- 
uble. 

W'ght 
per 
Square 
Foot. 

Crush- 
ing 
Str'ng'h 
per 
Square 
Inch. 

Cal 

Inyo. 

78  36 

017 

21  79 

2  6 

29,000 

Ga..    '. 

Colton  
Beulah  
Cherokee  

92.9 
98.00 
98.96 

"'.04' 

4.5 
.05 
.13 

2.6 
.06 
.61 

"in 

9,350 
'  10.970 

Creole. 

98. 

.26 

.50 

172 

12,078 

Ill  .  '. 
Md.  .. 

Mass.  . 

Etowah  
Mill  Creek  
Cockysville  
Lee  
Westfield  

97.32 

69  64 
79.68 

.26 

1.60 

'27  '98 
19.68 

.62 

'i'.oo 

.20 

169 
172 
178 

10,642 
9,687 
23,500 
18,047 
21,820 

' 

Great  Barrington.  .  .  . 
Hastings 

98  34 
52  82 

.14 

.50 

45  78 

.38 

10,910 
18,941 

N.§Y.  . 

South  Dover  
East  Chester 

77.29 

20.25 

.90 

179 

18,836 
13,500 

' 

Pleasantville  
Sing  Sing.  . 

54.12 
53  24 

45.04 
45  89 

.10 

12,692 

Pa.    .. 

Tenn. 

Vt 

Annville  
Montgomery  (blue).  . 
East  Tennessee  

95.10 
98.15 
98.78 
98  37 

.23 
.54 
.26 
03 

3.96 
.50 
.67 

77 

1.07 

.77 
.08 
63 

"  180  ' 

12,210 
18,000 
15,750 

Rutland  (white).  .  .  . 
Rutland  (green)  .  .  .  . 

97.73 
85.45 

.59 

14.55 

1.68 

166 

10,746 

« 

Dorset.  .  .  : 

165 

7,612 

Va 

8,950 

Wis.  . 

North  Bay  

175 

20,025 

desired,  there  is  no  need  of  a  test,  but  if  it  is  from  a  new  quarry, 
or  is  a  stone  that  has  not  been  tested,  by  use,  it  should  be  tested 
thoroughly  before  being  used  in  any  extensive  work.  This 
can  be  done  by  analysis,  to  find  its  composition,  but  some  of 
the  more  simple  tests  are  given  below  which  will  be  of  much 
benefit  to  the  superintendent.  As  a  rule  the  most  dense  and 
compact  stones  will  prove  the  best  for.  building  purposes  and 
to  withstand  the  effects  of  the  weather.  If  the  stone  absorbs 
much  moisture,  then  it  will  be  subject  to  the  effect  of  frost 
or  freezing.  To  ascertain  the  absorption  powers  of  a  stone, 
take  cube  specimens  of  the  stone  which  have  been  thoroughly 
dried  and  weighed;  immerse  them  in  clear  water  for  three  or 
four  days,  then  take  them  out,  wipe  them  dry,  and  re-weigh 
them.  The  increased  weight  indicates  the  amount  of  water 
absorbed. 

EFFECT  OF  FREEZING. — Take  cube  specimens  of  the  stone, 
dry  and  weigh  them,  and  then  repeatedly  saturate  them  with 
water  and  freeze  them.  The  loss  in  weight  will  indicate  the 
loss  of  stone  by  integration.  A  test  can  be  made  by  immersing 


TESTING  STONE. 


43 


RATIO    OF    ABSORPTION. 


Kind  of 
Material. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Aver- 
age. 

Kind  of 
Material. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Aver- 
age. 

Granites  
Marbles  

Vl50 

^50 

0 
0 

V-f.n 

VT50 
1/300 

i'oa 

Sandstones.  .. 
Bricks  
Mortars  

& 

H 

%40 

Vso 

VlO 

.  Vs-t 

VlO 

M 

the  stone  in  a  concentrated  boiling  solution  of  sulphate  of 
soda,  and  hanging  them  up  in  the  air  for  a  tew  days.  The  salt 
crystallizes  in  the  pores  of  the  stone  and  acts  about  the  same 
as  frost  or  freezing.  The  stone  is  to  be  weighed  before  immers- 
ing and  after  drying,  and  the  difference  indicates  the  amount 
lost  by  integration. 

To  see  if  a  stone  will  withstand  the  atmosphere  and  gases 
of  cities,  soak  a  sample  several  days  in  a  solution  of  water 
containing  1  per  cent  of  sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acids.  If 
there  is  any  composition  in  the  stone  that  will  be  dissolved 
by  the  atmosphere  the  water  will  become  discolored. 

To  see  if  a  stone  contains  clay,  or  earthy  matter,  pulverize 
a  piece,  put  the  powder  in  a  bowl  of  clear  water,  and  shake 
well;  if  the  water  becomes  discolored  it  indicates  the  presence 
of  clay  or  earthy  matter  in  the  stone. 

A  fresh  fracture  of  a  stone  should  show  bright  and  clean.  A 
dull-looking  fracture  indicates  a  "dry"  or  a  stone  that  is  liable 
to  decay.  The  superintendent  should  notice  all  stone  when  be- 
ing worked,  and  by  the  sound  can  usually  tell  if  the  stone  is 
sound;  if  there  is  a  clear  ring  when  the  stone  is  struck  it  is  sound, 
but  a  dull  sound  indicates  cracks  or  seams.  In  some  stone  are 
found  "crowfoots,"  which  are  veins  running  through  parallel  to 
its  bed,  but  which  are  not  cemented  tight,  being  rilled  with  a  sort 
of  earthy  material,  the  stone  being  held  together  by  the  "dove- 
tail" nature  of  the  seam.  This  is  the  main  fault  found  with 
the  limestone  quarried  at  Carthage,  Mo. 

The  superintendent  should  examine  all  stone  before  being  set 
and  reject  any  that  contains  seams  or  cracks.  Where  stone 
is  quarried  by  blasting,  the  superintendent  must  be  on  the 
lookout  for  "powder"  cracks,  or  shakes,  as  they  do  not  show 
up  very  distinctly  at  first,  and  are  hard  to  find 

Ths  following  regarding  testing  of  stone  is  taken  from  the 
annual  report  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  for 
1898-99 


44  TESTS  AND  ANALYSIS   OF  STONE. 

Tests  and  Analyses  of  Stone. — In  the  selection  of  all 
kinds  of  material  for  structural  use  it  is  becoming  more  and 
more  customary  to  test  such  material,  and  to  make  the  final 
selection  on  the  basis  of  results  so  secured.  It  is,  of  course, 
unnecessary  to  state  that  if  a  given  material  has  already  demon- 
strated its  fitness  for  a  certain  use  by  years  of  experience  with 
it  in^that  capacity,  no  results  of  scientific  test  should  be  con- 
sidered as  in  any  way  capable  of  offsetting  these  results  of 
actual  experience;  but  in  a  country  as  young  as  the  United 
States  enough  time  has  not  yet  elapsed  in  the  use  of  stone  as 
a  building  material  to  afford,  in  more  than  a  few  cases,  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  such  knowledge  as  results  from  long-continued 
use.  As  an  example  of  a  stone  already  sufficiently  well  known 
not  to  require  further  special  tests,  Quincy  granite  may  be 
cited.  This  stone,  by  its  hardness  and  susceptibility  to  high 
polish,  and  the  contrast  offered  between  polished  and  hammered 
surface,  has  demonstrated  its  fitness  for  use  as  a  monumental 
stone.  Similar  statements  might  be  made  in  regard  to  Westerly 
granite  and  other  long-quarried  and  well-known  materials. 

When,  however,  a  new  material  comes  up  for  consideration 
it  is  desirable  to  learn  of  its  qualities  by  quicker  processes  than 
those  which  depend  upon  actual  use.  There  have,  therefore, 
been  devised  a  number  of  methods  of  testing  stone  which  may 
be  quickly  carried  out  and  which  are  of  various  degrees  of 
value,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  stone  tested  and  the  use 
to  which  it  is  to  be  put.  The  practice  of  making  these  tests  of 
stone  is  of  such  comparatively  recent  date  that  it  can  hardly 
be  said  that  the  particular  tests  are  so  well  understood  as  to 
be  beyond  criticism  either  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  test 
itself  or  in  the  method  of  carrying  it  out.  There  is,  moreover, 
a  great  lack  of  agreement  among  testing  experts,  both  as  to 
what  tests  should  be  applied  to  a  given  stone  and  as  to  details 
in  the  methods  of  applying  these  tests.  In  some  cases  physical 
tests  seem  to  be  all  that  are  necessary  to  furnish  the  needful 
information  without  any  chemical  analysis  whatever.  In  other 
cases  it  is  quite  generally  conceded  that  physical  tests  should 
be  supplemented  by  more  or  less  complete  chemical  analyses. 
At  the  present  time  the  uses  to  which  stone  is  put  are  quite 
different  from  those  involving  it  as  a  structural  material.  Thus, 
limestone  is  used  in  enormous  quantities  for  burning  into  lime 
and  as  a  flux  in  metallurgical  operations.  Limestone  for  such 
uses  may  be  taken  from  the  same  quarry  that  furnishes  building 


TESTS  AND  ANALYSES  OF  STONE.  45 

stone,  and  is  thus  quarried  by  the  same  methods  as  apply  to  the 
production  of  the  building  stone.  It  cannot  therefore  well  be 
considered  apart  from  that  which  is  devoted  to  structural  use. 
If  limestone  is  to  be  burned  into  lime,  it  is  of  course  evident 
that  the  physical  strength  of  the  stone  so  used  is  of  no  moment 
whatever,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  chemical  composition  is 
absolutely  essential.  The  same  idea  applies  to  limestone  to 
be  used  as  a  blast-furnace  flux. 

Again,  although  a  stone  to  be  used  for  structural  purposes 
may  show  great  physical  strength,  it  may,  nevertheless,  con- 
tain minerals  which,  by  decomposition  from  atmospheric  agencies, 
may  develop  in  the  entire  mass  weaknesses  that  would  in  course 
of  time  make  the  use  of  the  stone  undesirable.  To  detect  the 
presence  of  such  minerals  chemical  analysis  may  be  resorted 
to  in  some  cases,  or,  better  still,  this,  together  with  a  micro- 
scopical examination  of  thin  sections,  by  which  it  is  possible 
to  detect  minerals  as  such,  even  though  the  amount  present 
may  be  extremely  minute.  The  application  of  microscopical 
examination  as  a  means  of  studying  stone  in  relation  to  its 
technical  applications  is  of  recent  date  and  as  yet  is  used  only 
to  a  limited  extent. 

Among  the  tests  most  commonly  applied  to  stone  which  is 
to  be  used  for  structural  purposes  is  the  crushing-strength  test. 
This  gives  in  general  a  good  idea  not  only  of  the  power  of  the 
stone  to  support  without  fracture  the  superstructure  that  may 
rest  upon  it,  but  also  of  the  homogeneity  and  all-round  durability 
of  the  material.  Other  tests  of  value  include  transverse  strength, 
porosity,  corrodibility,  specific  gravity,  and  resiliency. 


PART  II. 

STONE  LAYING,  SETTING,  AND  CUTTING, 
MAEBLE  AND  SLATE  WORK,  BRICK- 
WORK AND  BRICKLAYING,  PAYING, 
ETC. 


Stone  Laying,  Setting,  and  Cutting-,— RUBBLE- 
WORK. — This  is  the  cheapest  and  most  common  of  stonework,  but 
is  only  used  for  foundation-,  or  cellar-walls,  retaining-walls,  and 
such  like;  stone  suitable  for  this  work  can  be  obtained  in  almost 
any  locality.  Fig.  28  shows  a  piece  of  random  rubblework 
in  which  there  is  no  attempt  made  to  lay  the  stone  in  courses. 


FIG.  28.— Random  or  Broken  FIG.  29.— Rubble  work  Laid  in 

Rubble.  Courses. 

Fig.  29  shows  a  style  of  random  rubble  laid  in  courses 
from  16  inches  to  30  inches  in  height.  This  is  a  good  way 
to  have  a  mason  build  any  rubble  wall  where  much  weight  is 
to  rest  on  it,  as  he  will  have  to  level  up  at  the  top  of  each 
course,  and  start  anew,  and  in  this  way  he  will  build  the  wall 
more  solid,  and  get  more  headers  or  bond-stones;  also  at  each 
course  he  is  sure  to  get  level  beds. 

Fig.  30  shows  a  rubble  wall  laid  in  courses,  with  a  bonding 
course  A  A  between  each  course  of  wall;  this  makes  a  very 

46 


STONE  LAYING,  SETTING,  AND  CUTTING.        47 

strong  wall,  as  the  bond  course  extends  through  the  wall  and 
ties  it  together. 

Fig.  31  shows    random-range  work  laid  in  level  and  broken 
courses.     This  is  an  improvement  on  the  ordinary  rubble  wall; 


FIG.  30. — Broken  Rubble,  with  Bond      FIG.  31. — Random  Range  Laid  in 
Courses  A  A  Extending  through  the  Level  and  Broken  Courses. 

Wall,  Makes  a  Very  Strong  Wall. 


in  this  the  stones  are  dressed  nearly  square  and  with  level 
beds,  and  do  not  require  spalls  for  filling  out  the  joints,  as  in 
ordinary  rubble. 

Fig.  32  shows  the  same  work,  but  laid  in  courses,  as  in  coursed 
rubble. 


FIG.  32. — Coursed  Random  Ranged. 


FIG.  33.— Block  Coursed. 


Fig.  33  shows  block-coursed  work,  which  makes  the  strongest 
of  stone  walls,  as  all  the  stones  must  be  dressed  to  a  given 
thickness  and  with  level  beds. 

Fig.  34  shows  a  wall  built  of  stone  dressed  in  irregular  form, 
with  close  joints,  giving  the  wall  a  sort  of  rustic  appearance; 
this  is  used  only  in  dwellings  or 
places  where  something  "odd"  or 
unusual  is  desired;  it  is  expensive 
and  requires  great  care  in  working, 
so  that  the  joints  will  all  have 
different  directions,  and  not  more 
than  three  to  five  centre  at  one 

place.     The    stone    should    all    be  FIG.  34. —Stone  of  Irregular  Form 

,  .  .       .  and  Dressed  to  Make  Joints, 

about  the  same  area  on  the  face, 

and  dressed  so  that  all  joints  will  be  the  same  size.    This  is 


48  CUT-STONE  WORK. 

one  of  the  hardest  designs  of  stonework  to  build,  and  will 
require  the  strict  attention  of  the  superintendent  to  get  a  satis- 
factory job. 

Rubblework  is  often  specified  as  " one-man"  or  " two-man" 
rubble,  according  to  the  size  of  the  stone  desired  to  be  used  and 
the  number  of  men  required  to  handle  them. 

In  all  rubble-  or  range-work  the  superintendent  should  see 
that  a  through  stone  or  header  is  used  to  every  six  superficial 
square  feet  of  wall,  or  one-fourth  the  face  of  the  wall,  consisting 
of  bond-stone  extending  two-thirds  of  the  distance  through 
the  wall  from  opposite  sides  and  overlapping  each  other.  The 
superintendent  should  watch  the  masons  to  see  that  each  stone 
is  bedded  in  a  full  bed  of  mortar,  and  that  all  cavities  and 
spaces  are  filled  solid.  The  way  a  mason  usually  fills  up  these 
holes  is  to  gather  up  the  spalls  and  dirt  at  his  feet,  throw  this 
in  the  hole,  and  spread  a  little  mortar  on  top.  The  only  way 
to  prevent  this  will  be  for  the  superintendent  to  pay  close 
attention  to  the  work,  and  as  soon  as  he  catches  a  mason  at  this 
have  him  take  down  that  part  of  the  wall  and  build  it  over  again. 
When  the  mason  has  to  do  his  work  over  several  times  he  will 
learn  that  it  is  best  to  do  it  right  in  the  first  place. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  stones  are  "hammer- 
dressed,"  so  as  to  have  a  face  which  does  not  project  too  far 
from  the  wall-line,  and  also  see  that  the  joints  are  such  as 
can  be  pointed  neatly;  he  should  also  see  that  all  stones  have 
a  flat  top  and  bottom  bed,  and  that  no  round  boulders  or 
"nigger  heads"  are  built  in  the  wall.  In  building  rubble  the 
mason  often  tries  to  set  the  stone  on  edge,  and  fill  in  between 
with  spalls,  as  he  can  build  faster  in  this  way  than  if  he 
took  the  time  to  lay  every  stone  on  its  flat.  This  way  of 
building  should  never  be  permitted,  as  it  makes  a  very  poor 

wall. 

The  Chicago  Building  Code  says: 

Sec.  85.  Rubble  foundations  and  rubble  walls  -must  be 
built  of  approximately  square  and  flat  bedded  stones,  well 
and  thoroughly  bonded  in  both  directions  of  the  walls,  each 
stone  thoroughly  bedded  in  mortar  under  its  entire  area. 
Wherever  walls  of  any  kind  are  used  as  curb  walls,  their  ex- 
terior surfaces  'must  be  rendered  approximately  water-tight 
by  a  coating  of  a  standard  cement  mortar. 

Gut-stone  Work.— ASHLAR. — The  facing  of  a  wall  in 
stone,  without  any  regard  to  the  design  or  style  of  cutting,  is 


CUT-STONE  WORK. 


49 


called    ashlar.     The   following   cuts   show   the   most    common 
methods  of  laying  the  stone.  » 

Fig.  35  is  regular  coursed  ashlar,  in  which  the  stones  are  all 
the  same  height.  In  all  coursed  ashlar-work  the  specifications 
should  mention  if  the  joints  are  to  be  carried  plumb  or  not, 


FIG.  35. — Regular  Coursed  Ashlar. 

for,  if  it  is  not  specified,  there  is  a  chance  for  argument  on  the 
part  of  the  contractor.  He  may  insist  on  the  vertical  joints 
being  placed  at  random,  as  it  is  much  cheaper,  but  does  not 
make  as  nice  a  looking  wall  as  when  the  joints  are  kept  plumb. 


Coursed. Ashlar,  two  sizes 
FIG.  36. 


Irregular  coursed  ashlar 
FIG.  37. 


Fig.  36  shows  coursed  ashlar  of  two  sizes.     This  is  one  of  the 
cheapest  methods  of  ashlar,  as  the  large  courses  are  usually  but 


Level  and  Broken  Ashlar.    Three  sizes  of  stones. 
FIG.  38. 

4  inches  in  thickness  and  the  small  courses  8  inches,  so  as  to 
get  4  inches  bond  in  the  wall. 

Fig.  37  shows  ashlar  of  irregular  courses. 


50 


CUT-STONE  WORK. 


Fig.  38  shows  level  and  broken  courses.  In  this  style  of 
ashlar,  care  should  betaken  to  keep  the  horizontal  joints  as 
short  as  possible;  they  should  not  be  more  than  3  or  4  feet 
in  length. 


FIG.  39.— Random  Ashlar. 

Fig.  39  shows  random  ashlar,  in  which  the  plumb  joints  are 
set  at  random. 


FIG.  40.— Random  Ashlar,  Plumb  Joints. 

Fig.  40  shows  the  same  work  improved  by  keeping  the  vertical 
joints   plumb. 


FIG.  41. — Random  Ashlar  in  Courses. 

Fig.  41  shows  the  ashlar  divided  into  courses,  16  or  20  inches 
in  height.     To  get  a  nice  appearing  wall  in  all  random  ashlar- 


CUT-STONE  WORK. 


51 


work,  the  superintendent  must  see  that  the  different  sizes  of 
the  stone  are  scattered  through  the  wall  as  much  as  possible, 
and  not  have  a  lot  of  small-size  stones  or  a  lot  of  large  ones 
built  in  at  one  place  and  adjoining  each  other.  In  all  ashlar 
there  should  be  a  bond-stone  to  every  6  square  feet  of  face  of 
wall,  or  in  coursed  work  every  alternate  course  should  be  a 
bond  course. 

Fig.  42  shows  regular  coursed  ashlar  with    chamfered   and 
rusticated  quoins. 


I     I 


FIG.  42. — Regular  Coursed  Ashlar,  with  Chamfered  and  Rusticated  Quoins 
and  Chamfered  Base. 

Fig.  43  shows  rusticated  ashlar  with  moulded  base  and  sill 

course.       In     ashlar-work     the      ^  .N 

stones  are  usually  sawed  or 
dressed  at  the  quarry  to  the 
different  heights  or  thicknesses, 
leaving  them  to  be  cut  to  length 
at  the  job.  Where  the  ashlar 
is  in  courses,  it  is  customary  in 
large  work  to  have  a  working 
plan  showing  the  size  of  each 
stone  and  the  position  of  all 
joints.  When  such  a  plan  is 
not  provided  or  approved  at 
the  commencement  of  the  work  the  size  of  the  stone,  location 
of  the  joints,  etc.,  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  super- 
intendent. 

MEASUREMENT  OF  STONEWORK. — Rubble  stonework  is  usu- 
ally done  by  the  perch,  which  is  24|  cubic  feet,  or,  as  is  more 
convenient,  25  feet;  however,  in  some  localities  custom  has 
made  it  a  rule  to  call  any  number  of  feet  from  16  to  25  a  perch, 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  locality;  so  it  is  best  when  work 


FIG.  43. 


52  STONE-CUTTING. 

is  done  by  the  perch  to  have  an  understanding  at  the  com- 
mencement how  many  feet  are  to  be  considered  a  perch.  It 
is  also  well  to  have  an  understanding  as  to  what  openings  are 
to  be  counted  as  solid  or  what  are  to  be  left  out  in  measuring 
the  wall. 

In  measuring  stonework  always  measure  from  the  out- 
side, thus  measuring  all  the  angles  twice. 

All  walls  under  18  inches  are  counted  same  as  18  inches. 

Ashlar  and  dimension  or  block  stone  are  usually  measured 
by  the  cubic  foot;  mouldings,  belt  courses,  etc.,  by  the  lineal 
foot;  flagging  and  such  like  by  the  square  foot. 

One  and  one-quarter  barrels  of  lime  and  1  yard  of  sand  will 
lay  100  feet  of  stone  rubble  work. 

One  man  with  one  tender  will  lay  150  feet  per  day. 

One  and  one-quarter  barrels  cement,  f  yard  sand,  will  lay 
100  feet  stone  rubble  work. 

Stone-cutting. — This  is  a  branch  of  work  in  which 
the  superintendent  should  familiarize  himself  with  the  various 
tools  used  by  the  cutters,  and  the  method  of  using  them,  so  to 
more  readily  determine  between  good  and  bad  work,  and 
also  to  know  what  tools  should  be  used  to  produce  the  result 
desired.  The  stone  when  cut  at  the  job  will  usually  come  in 
slabs,  sawed  on  two  sides,  or  perhaps  in  lengths,  sawed  four 
sides,  giving  a  smooth  surface  to  the  beds  and  face,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  44. 


FIG.  45. 

Fig.  45  shows  the  names  of  the  different  faces  of  the  stone. 
Fig.  46  shows  the  various  tools  used  by  masons  and  cutters  in 
dressing  stone.  B  is  the  mason's  or  spalling  hammer  and  is 
used  to  roughly  square  or  dress  a  stone  for  rubble  work.  C  is 
the  mash-hammer  used  by  cutters  when  using  the  point  in 
roughing  off  and  in  working  the  harder  rocks  such  as  granite. 
D  is  the  peen-hammer,  which  is  used  to  smooth  off  the  sur- 
face of  a  stone  after  using  the  point;  it  is  sometimes  used  on 


STONE-CUTTING. 


53 


granite  in  place  of  patent  hammer,  but  does  not  give  as  desir- 
able a  finish.  E  is  the  pick,  which  is  used  for  dressing  off 
stone  for  rough  work,  such  as  rubble  or  block  course  work 


FIG.  46. 

(Fig.  47).  F  shows  the  tooth-axe,  which  is  used  to  bring  the 
rough  surface  of  soft  stones  to  the  desired  plane,  ready  for 
the  crandall,  or  tool;  it  is  used  also  for  dressing  the  beds  of 


54 


STONE-CUTTING. 


stones.  G  is  the  crandall,  which  has  a  series  of  points  fastened 
in  a  handle  with  a  key;  this  is  used  on  sandstones  after  the 
tooth-axe,  and  gives  a  smoother  surface.  Fig.  48  shows  the 
appearance  of  a  stone  dressed  with  the  crandall.  The  tool 
should  be  used  in  different  positions,  giving  the  appearance 
shown  at  B.  H  shows  the  patent  hammer,  composed  of  thin 


Crandalled 


Cross-Crandalled. 
FIG.  48. 


blades  of  sharpened  steel  bolted  together.  The  fineness  of  the 
work  is  regulated  by  the  number  of  blades  used  to  the  inch, 
and  is  specified  as  4-cut,  6-cut,  or  8-cut,  as  the  case  may  be. 
This  tool  is  used  only  for  finishing  granite  and  hard  limestones. 
The  patent  chisel  shown  by  /  is  used  on  surfaces  where  the 
patent  hammer  cannot  be  used.  In  finishing  surfaces  with 
the  patent  hammer  the  tool  should  be  held  so  the  blades  of 
the  hammer  are  always  in  the  same  direction  on  the  stone, 
thus  giving  the  stone  the  appearance  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  49, 


..Finished  with  the  Patent  Hamnre^ 
FIG.  49. 


Bush  Hammered. 

FIG.  50. 


J  is  the  bush-hammer,  which  is  a  square  prism  of  steel  whose 
ends  are  cut  into  a  number  of  pyramidal  points.  The  points 
vary  in  number  and  size  according  to  the  work  to  be  done. 
This  tool  is  used  after  the  point  or  crandall  and  before  the 
chisel  in  "drove"  or  "tooled"  work.  Fig.  50  shows  the  appear- 
ance of  a  stone  after  being  bush-hammered.  K  is  the  mallet, 
which  is  used  on  the  point  or  chisel  when  working  limestone, 
sandstone,  or  any  other  soft  stone.  L  is  the  point,  which  is 


STONE-CUTTING. 


55 


used  to  roughly  dress  off  a  stone,  and  is  also  sometimes  used 
to  dress  the  face  of  a  stone  as  shown  by  Fig.  51.     Fig.  52  shows 


Rough  Pointed  with  Draft 
FIG.  51. 


Fine  Pointed 


FIG.  52. 


the  same  style  of  finish  but  on  which  more  pains  have  been 
taken,  giving  it  a  smoother  surface.  M-0  are  tooth-chisels, 
which  are  used  in  working  soft  stones,  as  they  cut  faster  than 
the  ordinary  chisel.  P  and  Q  are  chisels,  which  are  made  of 
various  widths  for  different  parts  of  the  work.  Fig.  55  shows 


a  stone  with  a  rock  face  and  a  draft  run  around  the  edge  with 
a  chisel.  Fig.  54  shows  a  stone  on  which  a  wide  chisel  has 
been  used  over  its  entire  face;  this  is  done  before  "droving" 
or  "rubbing,"  and  in  limestone  and  sandstone  the  face  is  often 
finished  in  this  manner. 


Bock  Face  with  Draft 
FIG.  55. 


Fig.  56  shows  what  is  called  "djove"  work  and  is  done  with 
a  wide   chisel   after  the   stone  has  been  tooled  and  the  char- 


56 


STONE-CUTTING. 


acter  or  fineness  of  the  work  regulated  by  the  number  of  "bats," 
or  blows,  given  the  chisel  to  each  inch  in  the  length  of  the 
stone,  usually  4. 

The  chisel  is  generally  used  across  the  stone,  or  lengthwise 
in  the  case  of  mouldings,  etc.,  care  being  takeen  to  keep  the 
cuts  of  the  chisel  parallel,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  56.  B,  Fig.  56, 
shows  the  appearance  of  bad  workmanship  on  the  part  of  the 
cutter,  as  the  tool-marks  are  all  irregular  and  not  straight  and 
parallel. 

Fig.  57  shows  a  piece  of  drove-work,  showing  the  cuts  of  the 


FIG.  57. 


tool.  Where  the  cutting  is  done  at  the  quarry  this  work  is 
usually  done  on  a  machine,  and  is  always  regular,  but  when 
done  by  hand  requires  great  care. 

Parallel  lines  should  be  marked  out  on  the  stone,  as  a  guide 
to  hold  the  chisel;  one  line  to  each  two  "bats"  is  sufficient. 
A  template  made  of  sheet  iron  or  zinc  is  shown  in  Fig.  58, 


FIG.  58. 

and  is  a  very  convenient  tool  for  marking  the  stone  for  this 
kind  of  work.     It  is  made,  as  shown,  of  a  series  of  bars,  A,  sol- 


STONE-CUTTING  57 

dered  or  riveted  to  an  angle,  B,  and  is  laid  on  the  stone  like  a 
square  and  the  lines  marked  off. 

Where  possible  to  do  so,  the  superintendent  should  examine 
the  stone  in  the  rough,  before  being  cut,  so  as  to  detect  any 
flaws  or  imperfections,  but,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  cutting  is 
done  at  the  quarry,  and  the  stone  shipped  ready  to  set;  in 
such  cases  he  should  examine  the  stone  as  soon  as  it  arrives, 
and  promptly  reject  any  which  are  not  perfect  as  to  quality 
or  workmanship.  He  should  see  that  the  stones  are  being 
cut  to  the  desired  shape  and  size,  and  all  mouldings  and  pro- 
jections are  cut  as  per  detail. 

In  cutting  mouldings,  the  cutter  will  very  often  change  the 
shape  or  contour  of  the  mould  a  little  so  as  to  make  it  easier  to 
cut,  and  the  superintendent  must  be  on  the  lookout  for  any- 
thing of  this  kind.  He  should  examine  the  stone  for  cracks 
or  "drys"  which  may  have  been  cemented  up  by  the  cutter, 
or  patches  cemented  on  where  a  corner  has  been  knocked  off. 
In  every  stone-yard  will  be  found  a  bottle  of  shellac  which  is 
used  for  this  purpose ;  in  some  of  the  white  stones  a  little  plaster 
of  Paris  will  fill  a  crack  or  hole  so  that  it  is  hardly  discernible  to 
the  eye  until  the  weather  eats  it  out,  and  the  superintendent 
should  bear  these  points  in  mind  when  inspecting  stone. 

In  regard  to  the  cutting  he  should  see  that  the  finished  face 
of  the  stone  does  not  show  marks  from  the  tools  used  in  rough- 
ing out  the  stone  previous  to  finishing,  for  if  the  stone  is  not 
gradually  brought  to  the  desired  finish  by  using  the  proper 
tools  in  succession,  the  marks  of  the  rough  tools  will  show 
through  the  finished  face.  In  tooled  work,  if  it  is  tooled  with- 
out using  the  bush-hammer,  the  marks  of  the  point,  tooth-axe, 
or  crandall  will  show,  and  in  droved  work,  if  it  is  not  tooled 
before  being  drove,  the  marks  of  the  bush-hammer  will  show. 

In  stone-cutting,  the  tools  all  should  be  used  with  moderate 
force,  for  with  the  tooth-axe,  crandall,  bush-hammer,  etc.,  if 
the  blow  is  struck  too  heavy,  it  causes  the  mark  of  the  tool  to 
penetrate  the  stone,  causing  a  "sting." 

In  granite  or  hard  stones,  where  the  patent  hammer  is  used, 
the  superintendent  must  see  that  the  finish  is  as  fine  or  smooth 
as  is  desired.  Often  coarse  work  done  with  a  coarse  patent 
hammer,  or  with  a  peen-hammer,  is  sent  to  the  job  in  place  of 
fine  patent-hammer  work,  and  the  superintendent  should  be 
able  to  readily  judge  between  the  two.  He  should  examine 
all  stones  and  see  that  the  beds  are  cut  at  right  angles  to  the 


58 


STONE-CUTTING 


face;  the  tendency  of  the  cutter  is  to  cut  the  beds  slack  on 
the  back,  sometimes  half  an  inch  or  more.  This  should  not  be 
allowed  for  the  mortar-joint  will  then  be  one-fourth  of  an  inch  at 
the  face  and  an  inch  and  a  quarter  at  the  back  of  the  stone,  and 
will  make  a  poor  wall,  for  there  will  be  more  shrinkage  in  one 
and  a  quarter  than  in  one-quarter  inch  of  mortar. 

The  workmanship  on  all  stone  should  be  uniform,  but  at 
times  the  contractor  will  employ  a  poor  workman,  so  the  super- 
intendent must  see  that  all  stones  have  a  uniform  appearance, 
and  reject  any  not  found  perfect. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  all  stones,  where  required, 
are  cut  with  the  proper  wash,  and 
where  necessary  have  a  drip  cut 
to  throw  off  the  water.  In  Fig.  59 
at  A,  by  undercutting,  as  shown, 
the  arris  will  form  a  drip  so  all  water 
will  drop  off  at  this  point ;  if  this  is 
not  done,  the  water  will  course 
down  over  the  face  of  the  stone  to 
B  before  dropping  off,  and  will 
always  keep  the  stone  covered  with 
dirt  and  stain. 

The  wash  on  top  of  the  stone, 
as  shown  at  C,  Fig.  59,  while  it 
need  not  be  rubbed,  as  is  the  case 
with  washes  where  exposed  to  view,  it  should  be  cut  com- 
paratively smooth,  so  that  the  dirt  will  not  accumulate  to  be 
washed  off  with  the  rain,  and  if  a  wind  is  blowing,  blow  it  against 
the  face  of  the  wall. 


FIG.  59. 


FIG.  60. 


FIG.  61. 


Figs.  60  and  61  show  how  the  wash  and  drip  should  be  cut 
on  window-sills. 


STONE-CUTTING. 


59 


In  ordinary  work  the  wash  is  run  the  full  length  of  the  stone, 
as  the  work  can  then  all  be  done  with  the  saw,  but  on  good 
work  it  should  stop  at  the  jamb  as  shown,  having  the  top  of 
the  stone  level,  thus  giving  a  level  seat  for  the  brickwork,  which 
is  not  obtained  when  the  wash  runs  the  full  length  of  the  sill. 

Figs.  62  and  63  show  how  the  wash  should  be  cut  on  a  sill 


FIG.  62. 


Fio.  63. 


or    belt    course    where    the    projections    vary.     These    washes, 
where  exposed  to   view,  should  always  be  rubbed  smooth. 

LINTELS. — In   forming  lintels   over   wide   windows   or  other 
openings,  it  is  advisable  instead  of  using  one  long  stone  to  use 


FIG.  64. 

three  stones,  as  shown  by  Fig.  64,  which  forms  a  sort  of  an 
arch.     Or  the  stone  can  be  notched  over  and  hung  on  an  I  beam, 


FIG.  65. 


FIG.  66. 


as   shown   by   Fig.    65.     Over  very   wide   openings  the   stone 
should  be  cut  to  form  a  jack-arch,  as  shown  by  Fig.  66. 


60 


STONE-CUTTING. 


In  cutting  stone  for  an  arch  of  any  kind,  or  any  stone  on 
which  a  great  pressure  will  be  exerted,  the  stone  should  be 
cut  so  that  the  vein  or  natural  bed  of  the  stone  will  be  at  right 
angles  to  the  pressure,  as  shown  by  Fig.  66  at  A. 

If  the  stone  is  cut  with  the  vein  parallel  with  the  direction  of 
the  pressure,  it  is  liable  to  split  or  scale  off.  In  cutting  stone 
for  a  jack-arch,  the  under  side  or  soffet  should  be  cambered 
one-half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  as  shown  by  Fig.  66  and 
Fig.  67,  as  it  is  more  pleasing  to  the  eye.  If  it  is  cut  perfectly 
straight  it  has  the  appearance  of  having  a  sag  in  the  centre, 
especially  if  the  keystone  drops  below  the  arch-stone. 


1 


r    D 


FIG.  67 


FIG    68. 


In  springing  a  jack-arch  over  a  lintel,  as  shown  by  Fig.  67, 
the  arch-stone  should  be  notched  over  the  lintel,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  68,  thus  leaving  the  lintel  free  and  nothing  to  carry  but  its 
own  weight. 

The  superintendent  should  watch  when  this  is  done,  that,  in 
backing  up  the  arch,  the  mason  does  not  fill  up  the  space  between 


FIG.  69. 


FIG.  70- 


the  arch  and  the  lintel  with  mortar.  If  this  should  happen  and 
there  should  be  a  slight  settlement  in  the  arch,  the  lintel  would 
be  broken. 


STONE-CUTTING. 


61 


STEPS. — Steps  should  be  cut  with  a  droop  or  wash  of  one- 
eighth  or  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch,  as  shown  by  Fig.  69; 
this  prevents  the  water  from  laying  on  them  and  makes  them 
much  easier  to  ascend  than  if  they  were  level. 

AREA  COPING. — In  cutting  area  coping,  or  any  cap  where 
there  is  any  pressure  from  the  side,  it  should  be  cut  at  the  angle, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  70,  as  this  prevents  the  stone  from  moving. 

CURBS. — In  cutting  curbing,  the  superintendent  should  see 
that  the  proper  bevel  or  wash  is  cut  on  them,  so  that  when  set, 
the  top  of  curb  will  have  the  same  incline  as  the  sidewalk.  If 
cut  square  and  set  with  an  incline  on  the  face,  then  the  top  of 
the  curb  will  slope  in  the  wrong  direction  and  cause  a  valley 
to  hold  the  water,  as  shown  by  Fig.  71. 


FIG.  71. 


FIG.  72. 


FLAGGING. — When  cutting  flagging,  the  superintendent  should 
see  that  the  stones  are  cut  square  on  the  edges,  so  there  will 
be  the  same  width  joint  the  full  thickness  of  the  stone.  At 
times,  instead  of  being  particular  about  this,  the  cutter  will 
pinch  off  the  stone  to  the  line  and  the  stone  will  have  a  feather 
edge,  as  shown  by  Fig.  72. 

In  cutting  stone  for  and  building  walls,  such  as  area  walls, 
buttresss,  etc.,  which  will  not 
carry  a  weight,  or  have  a  pres- 
sure exerted  upon  them  equal 
to  that  on  the  main  wall,  which 
they  adjoin,  they  should  be 
built  independent  of  the  main 


wall  and  set  in  a  chase  or 
recess,  as  shown  by  Fig.  73. 
If  built  in  this  way  the  stone 
in  the  angle  will  not  be  broken 
by  any  unequal  settlement. 

CARVING. — In  carved  work  it  is  customary  to  furnish  a 
model  for  the  carver  to  work  to,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  super- 
intendent to  see  that  the  carving  in  the  stone  is  a  strict  dupli- 
cate of  the  model.  The  carver  will  usually  try  to  offer  sugges- 
tions whereby  he  will  claim  he  can  improve  the  work,  but  as 


62 


STONE-SETTING. 


a  rule  it  will  be  a  change  for  his  own  benefit,  or  so  the  work 
can  be  done  quicker.  He  should  be  held  strictly  to  the  model 
and  plans,  unless,  of  course,  in  the  judgment  of  the  superin- 
tendent the  work  will  be  benefited  or  improved  by  a  slight 
change.  The  superintendent  must  see  that  all  arrises  are  cut 
sharp  and  all  projections  or  cavities  given  their  full  dimension. 
The  work  should  be  brought  out  bold  and  well  undercut  to  show 
a  bold  relief,  and  cavities  cut  so  as  to  throw  a  shadow.  This 
is  the  work  the  carver  always  tries  to  get  out  of  doing,  and 
will  require  the  close  attention  of  the  superintendent. 

Stone-setting.— This  branch  of  work  will  require  more 
attention  from  the  superintendent  of  to-day  than  in  former 
years,  for  by  the  rules  of  the  trades  unions  nearly  all  stone 
setting  is  done  by  brick-masons  who  never 
learned  the  art  of  handling  or  setting  stone. 
Accustomed  as  they  are  to  slushing  up 
joints  in  brickwork,  they  usually  try  to 
set  stone  by  using  three  or  four  wedges 
to  level  up  the  stone  and  then  try  to  slush 
mortar  under  it.  Wedges  are  something  a 
superintendent  should  not  permit  to  be  used, 
unless  occasionally,  when  the  mortar  is  soft, 
to  keep  a  stone  from  settling  too  low,  and 
then  he  v/ill  have  to  keep  a  sharp  lookout, 
for  if  the  stone  happens  to  be  a  little  low,  the  mason  will  just 
lift  the  stone  a  little  with  his  bar  and  shove  in  the  wedge  to 
hold  it  up.  The  result  of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  74;  the  stone 
rests  on  the  wedge  and  has  a  hollow  joint  under  half  its  bed. 


FIG.  74. 


FIG.  75. 

Fig.  74  at  B  shows  a  stone  which  has  been  cut  with  a  slack 
bed,  and  the  mason  has  wedged  it  up  with  a  spall,  leaving  the 


or 


63 


stone  with  no  bed  under  the  centre.  The  superintendent 
should  insist  on  each  and  every  stone  being  set  in  sufficient 
mortar  so  that  the  stone  will  have  to  be  beat  down  to  its  bear- 
ing. In  setting  stone  the  mason  will  try  to  set  three  or  four 
courses  at  a  time,  running  in  a  course  of  brick  to  hold  up 
the  bond  course,  as  shown  by  Fig.  75. 

This  will  leave  a  vertical  joint  in  the  wall  between  the  stone 
and  the  backing.  The  superintendent  should  not  permit  more 
than  two  courses  of  stone  set  in  advance  of  the  backing  up; 
first  a  bond  course  and  then  a  thin  or  ordinary  course,  as 
A  A,  Fig.  76;  then  he  should  have  the  wall  backed  up  to  this 


FIG.  77. 


FIG.  76. 

height,  running  in  a  header  courses  of  brick  as  shown  by  HH, 
Fig.  76.  Then  the  next  two  courses,  BB,  can  be  set  and  backed 
up  in  the  same  manner.  In  this  way  the  ashlar  and  the  brick 
work  are  firmly  bonded  together. 

In  setting  stone  the  superintendent  should  see  that  all  joints 
are  raked  out  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep  for  point- 
ing, and  when  a  stone  sets  on  top  of  a  moulded  projection, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  77,  the  mortar  should  be  kept  back  of  the 
projection,  if  the  joint  is  filled  to  the  face  of  the  moulding, 


64 


STONE-SETTING. 


and  should  there  be  a  little  settlement  the  moulding  is  liable 
to  be  broken  off  as  shown  at  A . 

It  is  better  to  have  such  projection  cut  on  the  top  stone,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  78. 

Fig.  79  shows  a  tool  which  the  author  has  used  with  much 
success  in  slushing  up  vertical  joints  in  stonework. 


FIG.  79. 


FIG.  80. 


It  is  made,  as  shown,  of  a  strip  of  wood  about  1"X3"  and  as 
long  as  desired,  with  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  or  zinc  bent  and  nailed 
on  as  shown,  the  projection  of  the  metal  from  the  st'rip  being  the 
depth  at  which  it  is  desired  to  leave  the  joint  open  for  pointing. 
To  use  the  tool  this  projection  is  inserted  in  the  joint,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  80;  the  mortar  is  then  slushed  in  against  the  strip 
until  the  joint  is  full.  This  saves  raking  out  the  joint,  keeps 
the  face  of  the  stone  clean,  and  insures  the  joint  being  open 
to  the  desired  depth.  As  will  be  seen  by  the  way  it  is  made, 
it  can  be  used  in  the  angles  as  well  as  on  the  face  of  the  wall. 

In  setting  all  stones  which  are  to  carry  a  heavy  weight,  the 
mortar  should  be  kept  back  far  enough  from  the  face  of  the 
stone  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  the  corner  being  chipped 
off  by  the  pressure  on  the  stone. 

The  joint  in  cut-stone  work  should  not  be  more  than  one- 
fourth  inch,  and  for  rock-face  work  not  over  three-eighths  inch. 

In  setting  projecting  courses,  such  as  cornices,  etc.,  the 
stone  when  being  set  should  be  bedded  but  little  beyond  the 
face  of  the  wall,  as  shown  by  Fig.  59,  page  58,  the  balance  of 
the  joint  being  filled  when  the  pointing  is  done;  in  this  way 
every  stone  is  responsible  for  its  own  weight  and  leverage, 
and  the  lower  courses  do  not  have  to  carry  the  weight  of 


STONE-SETTING.  65 

the  top  stone.  The  stone  in  a  cornice  should  always  extend 
back  in  or  through  the  wall,  so  that  there  will  be  weight  enough 
in  that  part  of  the  stone  in  the  wall  to  overbalance  the  over- 
hang or  projection;  then  the  top  stone  should  be  anchored  as 
shown. 

The  top  of  the  joints  in  the  cap  course  of  a  cornice  or  other 
wide  projection  should  be  covered  with  lead,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  81,  the  lead  extending  down  into  the  joint  about  2  inches, 


FIG.  81. 


and  over  into  channels  cut  in  the  stone  as  shown.     Fig.  82  shows 
the  section  of  a  mould  which  the  author  has  used  for  running 


FIG.  82. 

the  lead  hot  into  the  joints,  and  made  a  very  satisfactory  job, 
much  better  than  cementing  the  lead.  By  running  the  lead 
in  hot,  all  the  crevices  and  channels  are  filled  solid  and  the 
lead  takes  hold  of  the  rough  surface  of  the  stone  and  cannot 
get  loose  or  come  out. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  after  a  stone  is  set  it  has  to 
be  moved  a  little;  when  this  has  to  be  done  the  superintendent 
must  see  that  the  stone  is  lifted  and  reset,  for  by  shifting  the 
stone  it  changes  its  position  on  the  bed  of  mortar,  and  will 
not  rest  solid.  As  the  stones  are  being  set  the  superintendent 
should  see  that  all  joints  are  of  the  desired  size.  When  a  stone 
is  a  little  long,  and  not  room  enough  left  for  the  vertical  joint, 
the  mason  will  likely  say,  "We  will  dress  it  off  when  we  come 
to  point  it."  The  superintendent  should  never  pay  any  atten- 
tion to  an  assertion  of  this  kind.  It  is  much  easier  to  cut 


66 


STONE-SETTING. 


a  little  off  the  stone  before  it  is  set  than  to  cut  the  joint  out 
when  it  conies  to  pointing.  When  there  is  any  cutting  to  be 
done  to  a  stone  it  should  be  done  before  it  goes  into  the  wall. 

The  superintendent  should  have  the  stones,  as  they  are  being 
set,  brushed  clean,  and  wet  with  water  so  that  the  mortar  will  take 
hold  of  the  stone.  If  the  stones  have  been  sawed  on  all  sides, 
or  on  the  top  and  bottom  bed,  he  should  have  them  gone  over 
with  the  point  or  tooth-axe  so  as  to  roughen  the  surface  a  little 
to  catch  the  mortar.  He  should  see  that  all  stones  in  a  course 
member  with  each  other,  and  that  all  mouldings  join  per- 
fectly. It  often  happens  that  there  will  be  a  little  difference 
in  the  shape  of  the  stone  or  mould,  and  when  the  stones  are 
set  they  will  not  member.  In  nearly  every  case  of  this  kind 
the  mason  will  want  to  go  ahead  and  set  the  stone,  saying, 
"We  will  dress  it  off  after  it  is  set."  Now  any  promise  of  this 
kind  is  made  with  the  idea  that  this  little  thing  will  be  for- 
gotten, and  nothing  more  said  about  it,  for  it  is  two  or  three 
times  costlier  to  do  trimming  of  this  kind  when  a  man  has 
to  work  from  a  ladder  or  scaffold  than  if  he  had  the  stone 
on  the  ground.  The  superintendent  should 
have  all  trimming  or  cutting  done  as  the 
work  progresses,  and  before  the  stone  is  set. 
In  setting  the  stone  the  superintendent 
should  have  the  mason  set  each  course  to  a 
pole,  as  shown  by  Fig.  83,  as  this  will  insure 
each  course  being  set  at  the  correct  height 
and  level. 


FIG.  83. 


FIG.  84. 


STEPS. — Steps  should  be  set  as  shewn  by  Fig.  84,  being 
carried  on  the  wall  at  each  end;  in  this  way  there  will  be  no 
danger  of  breaking,  in  case  there  is  any  settlement,  as  would 
happen  if  the  steps  were  bedded  their  entire  length. 


POINTING  STONEWORK. 


67 


FLAGGING. — Stones  for  flagging  or  sidewalks  should  be  set 
on  a  bed  of  broken  stone  or  cinders  extending  below  the  frost- 
line,  or  a  better  method  is  to  set  them  on  dwarf  walls,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  85.  After  being  set,  the  joints 
should  be  thoroughly  filled  with  strong 
cement  mortar,  and  the  stone  gone  over 
and  any  irregularities  at  the  joints  dressed 
off. 


FIG.  85. 


FIG.  86. 


In  setting  a  curb,  it  should  be  set  on  a  bed  of  broken  stone, 
and  the  curb  itself  be  wide  enough  to  extend  below  the  frost- 
line,  as  shown  by  Fig.  86 

Pointing  Stonework. — The  pointing  of  stonework  is 
usually  done  as  soon  as  the  exterior  part  of  the  building  is 
up,  unless  this  part  of  the  work  is  reached  in  cold  weather, 
as  no  pointing  should  be  allowed  during  weather  when  the 
mortar  will  freeze,  either  during  the  day  or  night.  In  extremely 
hot  weather,  if  pointing  is  done  it  should  be  protected  by  hang- 
ing canvas  or  muslin  over  it  to  keep  off  the  hot  rays  of  the 
sun,  as  the  heat  will  dry  it  too  fast  and  the  cement  will  lose 
its  strength.  All  joints  before  pointing  should  be  raked  out 
at  least  three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep.  The  superintendent 
should  have  this  done  as  the  walls  are  built,  as  it  can  be  done 
better  while  the  mortar  is  soft  than  after  the  walls  are  up  and 
the  mortar  set  and  hardened. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  mortar  for  pointing 
is  mixed  as  desired,  and  all  the  joints  filled  and  packed  solid, 
and  that  they  are  thoroughly  wet  before  the  mortar  is  packed 
in  them.  The  mortar  for  pointing  should  be  mixed  with  cement 
and  fine  sand  or  marble-dust,  so  that  the  mortar  will  dress  off 
smooth  under  the  jointing  tool. 

Fig.  87  shows  some  of  the  different  styles  of  pointing;  with 
the  designs  A  A  the  corner  of  the  stone  acts  as  a  guide  for  the 
tool,  but  with  raised  designs  the  tool  should  be  held  against 
a  straight  edge;  an  ordinary  short,  straight  edge  with  a  couple 
of  blocks  tacked  on  the  side  to  hold  it  up  off  the  finished 


68    MARBLE  CUTTING,  FINISHING,  AND  SETTING. 

joints  answers  the  purpose,  and  the  joints  will  all  be  made 
straight. 

Before  pointing  the  superintendent  should  have  the  work 
brushed  off  and  washed  down. 

There  are  some  stones  which  are  damaged  by  acids,  and 
the  superintendent  must  determine  this  before  having  the 
walls  washed.  If  acid  does  not  damage  the  stone,  a  solu- 


FIG.  87. 

tion  of  dilute  muriatic  acid  will  neutralize  the  dirt  and  sur- 
plus mortar  on  the  stone,  and  take  it  off  very  quickly.  If 
there  is  any  danger  of  acid  affecting  the  stone,  pure  water  must 
be  used.  Lye,  pearline,  etc.,  are  also  good  for  cleaning  down 
some  stone.  As  the  stones  are  set,  the  superintendent  should 
see  that  all  moulds,  etc.,  member,  and  the  joints  are  kept 
the  right  size  for  pointing;  this  will  save  lots  of  trouble  when 
the  pointing  is  being  done. 

Marble  Cutting-,  Finishing-,  and  Setting-. — Marble 
being  but  a  high  grade  of  limestone,  the  working  or  cutting  of  it 
is  similar,  the  finished  surface  of  marble  usually  being  droved, 
tooled,  or  polished.  Rock  face,  or  any  of  the  rougher  finishes, 


MARBLE-CUTTING,  FINISHING,  AND  SETTING.    69 

are  seldom  employed.  In  polishing  marble,  it  is  first  rubbed 
with  coarse  sand  on  a  rubbing-bed,  then  with  fine  sand  and 
grit,  then  with  pumice-stone,  followed  with  Scotch  bone,  and 
last  with  putty-powder,  which  is  used  to  give  a  gloss  to  the 
marble;  oxalic  acid  is  sometimes  used  with  this  powder,  but 
a  more  durable  polish  is  obtained  without  its  use.  Water  is 
used  in  all  the  different  steps  of  polishing. 

Marble,  when  used  for  wainscoting,  window-sills,  water- 
closet  partitions,  etc.,  should  be  selected  when  got  out  so  that 
the  slabs  will  harmonize  with  each  other  in  color  and  veining. 
For  instance,  two  slabs  of  nearly  the  same  veining  are  put  up, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  88,  and  give  a  very  bad  appearance;  but  if 
the  same  slabs  had  been  got  out  so  that  they  would  have  been  put 
up  as  shown  by  Fig.  89,  the  heavy  part  of  the  veining  would 
have  come  together  and  made  a  much  more  pleasing  appearance. 


FIG.  8& 


FIG.  89. 


Tne  superintendent  should  watch  the  marble  as  it  is  being 
set,  and  have  it  set  so  as  to  obtain  as  much  harmony  as  possible; 
he  should  examine  the  marble  to  see  if  the  polish  is  what  is 
desired  and  all  slabs  are  polished  alike;  he  should  also  watch 
for  cracks  and  stains.  Marble  when  set  against  a  wall  is  usually 
set  in  plaster  of  Paris  and  fastened  with  wire  hold-fasts  or 
anchors;  these  should  be  of  heavy  copper  wire.  The  super- 
intendent must  see  that  a  sufficient  number  of  these  are  used 
to  hold  the  marble  firm  and  rigid,  and  that  the  slab  is  backed 
up  with  plaster  of  Paris  so  as  to  make  it  solid  at  each  anchor. 
Where  marble  is  fastened  with  bolts  or  screws  they  should  be 
of  brass  and  heavily  plated  with  'nickel  or  silver,  as  an  iron 
screw  will  rust  or  stain  the  marble.  Marble  in  floorwork 
should  be  set  in  Portland  cement  mortar. 

In  some  colored  marbles  there  are  small  cavities  which  have 


70  SLATE. 

to  be  filled  with  a  wax  when  polished,  and  the  superintendent 
should  see  that  this  is  neatly  done,  so  as  not  to  be  noticeable. 

Marble  Mosaic. — In  this  work  the  superintendent  should 
see  that  the  pieces  of  marble  used  are  of  nearly  a  uniform  size 
and  the  cement  joints  between  them  show  about  the  same. 
After  the  cement  has  set,  the  floor  should  be  rubbed  to  a  smooth 
surface  and  polished. 

Terrazza. — In  laying  Terrazza  floor  the  marble  chips  used 
should  be  small  and  nearly  uniform  in  size  and  should  be  mixed 
with  just  enough  neat  Portland  cement  to  fill  the  voids  in  the 
stone.  As  the  chips  will  vary  a  little  in  size,  the  superintendent 
should  see  that  the  various  sizes  are  evenly  distributed  through- 
out the  floor  and  not  have  spots  in  the  floor  containing  all  large 
chips  or  all  small  ones.  He  should  see  that  the  floor  is  rubbed 
down  sufficiently  to  show  the  chips  uniformly  throughout  the 
floor. 

Slate. — The  principal  use  of  slate  is  for  roofing  purposes, 
stair  treads,  urinal  partitions,  etc. 

The  slate  for  roofing  purposes  should  be  straight-grained, 
evenly  split,  and  of  a  uniform  thickness.  It  should  be  soft 
enough  to  cut  or  punch  without  breaking  and  still  hard  enough 
to  firmly  hold  the  head  of  the  nail  without  it  pulling  through, 

A  good  slate,  when  held  up  and  struck  with  the  knuckles  ot 
the  hand  or  some  metallic  instrument,  should  give  forth  a  sharp, 
clear,  ringing  sound.  To  test  a  slate  as  to  its  weathering 
qualities,  especially  in  large  cities  where  there  is  much  smoke 
and  gases,  take  a  piece  of  the  slate  and  immerse  it  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  in  a  closed  vessel  for  two  or  three  days;  at  the 
end  of  that  time  if  the  slate  is  poor  it  will  be  softened  and 
easily  broken  up,  while  a  good  slate  will  preserve  its  hardness. 
Another  simple  test  for  the  absorptive  power  of  slate  is  to  stand 
a  piece  of  the  slate  in  a  vessel  of  water  for  twelve  hours  and 
note  the  distance  the  water  is  absorbed  up  the  slate  from  the 
water-level;  in  good  slate  the  water  will  not  rise  more  than 
one-eighth  of  an  inch. 

The  presence  of  clay  can  be  detected  by  breathing  on  a  fresh 
piece  of  slate  and  observing  if  any  clayey  odor  arises;  the 
best  slate  will  give  out  no  odor  whatever. 

Some  slates  contain  streaks  of  a  hard  material  funning  through 
them  which  are  called  "ribbons";  this  slate  is  usually  sold  as 
"ribbon  slate,"  and  at  a  reduced  price.  Any  slate  supposed 
to  be  No.  1  and  containing  any  ribbons  should  be  rejected. 


SLATE.  71 

PRESENCE  OF  LIME. — This  can  be  determined  by  the  applica- 
tion of  cold  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  to  the  edges  of  a  freshly 
quarried  slate.  Rapid  effervescence  implies  presence  of  lime; 
slow,  that  of  a  lesser  quantity  of  it  or  dolomite — carbonate  of 
lime  and  magnesia. 

COLOR  AND  DISCOLORATION. — The  color  of  freshly  quarried 
slate  should  be  noted  and  compared  with  pieces  exposed  for 
several  years  to  the  weather.  A  good  slate  should  retain  its 
original  color  and  not  fade. 

A  good  slate  will  have  a  fine  grain,  and  the  block  from  which 
the  slates  are  split  should  be  got  out  at  the  quarry,  and  split 
so  that  this  grain  will  run  lengthwise  of  the  slate,  so  that 
should  the  slate  ever  crack  with  this  grain  it  will  be  divided 
so  there  will  be  a  nail  in  each  piece. 

The  superintendent  snould  see  that  the  slates  are  all  full  size 
and  have  no  broken  corners.  In  putting  them  on  he  should  see 
that  the  first  course  is  doubled,  and  the  bottom  edge  laid  on  a 
lath  or  strip,  so  as  to  give  the  slate  the  proper  pitch  so  that  the 
next  courses  will  lay  solid;  each  course  should  lay  solid  on 
the  course  below,  so  that  the  wind  and  weather  cannot  get  under. 
To  make  a  good  roof  it  is  advisable  to  lay  the  slate  in  a  thin 
bed  of  cement  paste  or  mortar;  this  costs  a  little  more,  but 
makes  a  perfect  roof. 

In  slating  up  hips,  etc.,  where  there  is  no  saddle  to  be  used,, 
the  superintendent  must  see  that  the  slater  makes  the  proper 
lap  with  the  slate  and  putties  up  each  course  with  slaters' 
cement  as  he  goes  along.  When  finishing  at  the  ridge  or  comb 
of  the  roof  the  slate  should  be  cut,  and  not  laid  in  a  "stretcher" 
course,  as  is  often  done.  In  laying  slates  which  are  rough  or 
of  an  uneven  thickness  it  is  hard  to  get  each  succeeding  course 
to  lay  solid,  and  the  slater  will  wedge  up  with  a  nail  or  small 
piece  of  slate;  this  should  never  be  permitted,  for  the  wedge 
is  liable  to  work  out  and  leave  the  slate  loose. 

Where  slate  is  laid  with  a  close  valley,  that  is,  where  the 
slates  are  mitred  in  the  valley  and  flashed  each  course,  the 
superintendent  must  see  that  no  broken  or  cracked  ones  are 
used,  and  that  the  flashing  is  large  enough  to  insure  a  tight 
valley:  such  valleys  should  not  be  used  on  roofs  under  one- 
half  pitch,  for  the  rain  or  snow  will  be  liable  to  blow  up  under 
the  flashing. 

The  following  table  gives  the  strength,  weight,  etc.,  of  some 
of  the  various  slates. 


72 


SLATE. 


STRENGTH,  WEIGHT,  ETC.,  OF  SLATE. 


State. 

Location. 

Crushing 
Strength 
per  Sq. 
Inch. 

Weight 
per 
Cubic 
Foot. 

Poros- 
ity. 

Per  Cent 

of  Loss 
by  Cor- 
roding. 

Maine  

Monson  

19.510 

Maryland.  . 

Peachbottom.  . 

11   250 

Pennsylvania  .  . 
Vermont  

Albion  
Old  Bangor  
Peachbottom  
Rutland  Co  

7.150 
9.810 
11.260 
10.975 

173 

173 
180 

.338 
.145 
.224 
.260 

.547 
.446 
.226 
.350 

Slate  for  wainscoting,  stair-treads,    etc.,  should   receive  the 
same  attention  as  described  for  marble  in  like  places. 

TABLE  SHOWING  SIZES  OF  SLATES,  THE  NUMBER  OF  PIECES 
IN  A  SQUARE,  AND  HOW  MUCH  SHOULD  BE  EXPOSED  TO 
THE  WEATHER  ON  THE  ROOF,  ALLOWING  3  INCHES  LAP 


Size  of 
Siate. 

Number 
in  Each 
Square. 

Exposed 
When 
Laid. 

Dis- 
tance of 
Lath. 

Size  of 
Slate. 

Number 
in  Each 
Square. 

Exposed 
When 
Laid. 

Dis- 
tance of 
Lath- 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

24X14 

98 

10* 

10 

16X10 

222 

61 

61 

24X12 

115 

10} 

10 

16X9 

247 

61 

61 

22  X  12 

126 

9* 

9 

16X8 

277 

61 

61 

22X11 

138 

9* 

9 

14X10 

261 

6v 

51 

20X12 

142 

8* 

8 

14X8 

327 

5^ 

51 

20X10. 

170 

8? 

8 

14X7 

374 

5< 

51 

18X12 

160 

7* 

7 

12X8 

400 

4i 

41 

18X10 

192 

7* 

7* 

12X7 

457 

4i 

41 

18X9 

214 

7* 

71 

12X6 

533 

4i 

41 

16X12 

185 

61 

y 

To  determine  the  number  of  pieces  to  a  square  of  any  size 
slate  not  given,  first  deduct  3  inches  from  the  length;  divide 
this  by  2;  multiply  by  the  width  of  slate  and  divide  the  result 
into  14,400. 

An  example — 20X10  would  be  calculated  thus:  20—3=17; 
divided  by  2  =8J;  8JX10=85;  85  divided  into  14,400  =  169 41/ioo 
pieces. 

The  weight  of  the  various  thicknesses  of  slate  per  square  foot 
is  as  follows: 


Thickness  of  slate  in 

8/16 

N 

H 

Weight  per  square  foot 
in  pounds.  . 

1.81 

2.71 

3.62 

5.43 

7.25 

9  06 

10  88 

The  above  is  the  weight  of  the  slate  of  the  thickness  given. 
To  find  the  weight  when  the  slate  is  laid,  the  lap  and  surface 
exposed  to  the  weather  must  be  considered. 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 


73 


TABLE  SHOWING  QUANTITY  OF  NAILS  NEEDED  TO  LAY  ONE 

SQUARE  OF  SLATE. 
(The  quantity  given  is  from  actual  count.) 


£ 

Weight  of  Nails  to  a  Square. 

c 

CO 

3d. 

4d. 

Sizes 
of 
Slate. 

1 

Gal. 

Tin. 

Copper 
&  Steel 

Alumi- 
num 

Gal. 

Tin. 

Copper 
&  Steel 

CQ 

Wire. 

Wire. 

Wire. 

£* 

Ibs. 

oz. 

Ibs. 

oz. 

Ibs. 

oz. 

Ibs. 

oz. 

Ibs. 

oz. 

Ibs. 

oz. 

Ibs. 

oz. 

24X14 

98 

1 

2 

15 

14 

6 

1 

6 

2 

1 

4 

24X12 

115 

1 

5 

i' 

2 

1 

7 

1 

10 

5 

1 

7 

22X12 

126 

1 

7 

1 

4 

3 

8 

1 

12 

7 

1 

9 

22X11 

138 

1 

9 

5 

4 

9 

1 

15 

9 

1 

11 

20X12 

141 

1 

10 

6 

5 

9 

2 

10 

1 

12 

20X10 

170 

1 

15 

11 

9 

10 

2 

6 

15 

2 

2 

18X12 

160 

1 

13 

9 

8 

10 

2 

4 

13 

2 

.... 

18X10 

192 

2 

3 

14 

12 

11 

2 

11 

2 

3 

2 

6 

18  X    9 

214 

2 

7 

2 

1 

15 

12 

3 

8 

2 

7 

2 

11 

16X12 

184 

2 

2 

1 

12 

11 

11 

2 

9 

2 

2 

2 

5 

16X10 

222 

2 

8 

2 

2 

2 

12 

3 

1 

2 

8 

2 

12 

16  X   8 

277 

3 

2 

2 

11 

2 

"8 

15 

3 

14 

3 

2 

3 

8 

14X10 

261 

3 

2 

8 

2 

6 

14 

3 

10 

3 

3 

4 

14X   8 

327 

3 

12' 

3 

2 

3 

"l" 

2 

4 

9 

3 

12 

4 

2 

14  X    7 

374 

4 

4 

3 

10 

3 

"7" 

1 

4 

5 

3 

4 

4 

4 

11 

12  X   8 

400 

4 

9 

3 

14 

3 

10 

1 

6 

5 

9 

4 

9 

5 

12  X    7 

457 

5 

3 

4 

6 

4 

2 

1 

9 

6 

6 

5 

3 

5 

ii* 

12  X   6 

533 

6 

1 

5 

2 

5 

14 

1 

13 

7 

6 

6 

1 

6 

11 

Bricks  and  Brick-laying. — The  quality  of  a  brick 
depends  on  the  material  used,  the  care  in  its  manufacture, 
and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  burned.  With  the  machinery 
that  is  in  use  at  the  present  time  it  is  possible  to  use  different 
materials  and  make  better  brick  than  in  former  days  when 
clay  was  the  only  material  used  and  the  bricks  were  moulded 
by  hand. 

For  common  bricks,  a  shale  rock  makes  perhaps  the  best 
brick,  and  when  burned  with  gas,  as  quite  a  number  are  now 
burned,  they  make  a  very  hard  brick  and  of  uniform  size  and 
color. 

The  chemical  compounds  contained  in  the  material  used 
determines  the  color  and  quality  of  the  b.rick  to  a  great  extent; 
if  there  is  much  silicate  of  lime  in  the  material  used,  it  renders 
the  clay  too  fusible  and  causes  the  brick  to  soften  and  warp  or 
twist  in  burning.  A  small  amount  of  sand  is  beneficial,  as  it 
tends  to  prevent  shrinkage  from  the  heat  in  burning. 

Iron  gives  hardness  and  strength  to  the  brick,  and  also 
causes  the  red  color  in  burning,  the  color  depending  a  great 
deal  on  the  amount  of  iron  contained. 


74  BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 

In  face  or  front  brick  iron  or  mineral  pigments  are  some- 
times added  to  the  clay  so  as  to  color  the  brick  as  desired. 

Where  the  bricks  are  exposed  to  excessive  heat  in  burning, 
the  iron  fuses  and  produces  a  dark-blue  or  purple  color,  as  shown 
by  the  "arch"  or  clinker  brick  next  to  the  fire  in  the  kiln. 

•When  the  clay  contains  much  magnesia  with  the  iron  it 
produces  a  yellow  color. 

[  NAMES  OF  BRICK. — All  brick  not  hard  enough  to  stand  in 
the  otitside  of  buildings  are  known  as  "salmon"  or  "soft" 
brick. 

All  brick  hard  enough  for  the  outside  of  buildings,  but  not 
selected  or  graded,  are  known  as  "hard  kiln  run." 

All  brick  set  in  the  arches  or  benches  of  the  kiln,  and  which 
are  Discolored,  broken,  or  twisted  in  the  burning  are  known 
as  "arch  brick." 

All  common  brick  selected  for  the  outside  of  buildings  are 
known  as 

(  No.  1  light-burned. 
Front  brick.    •<  No.  2  medium-burned. 
(  No.  3  hardest-bunded. 

All  brick  used  for  sidewalks  are  known  as  "sidewalk  brick." 

All  the  brick  in  the  kiln  not  strictly  soft  taken  together  are 
known  as  "merchantable  brick." 

All  brick  that  are  set  in  the  kiln  when  burned  are  known  as 
"kiln-run  brick." 

Bricks  moulded  either  by  hand  or  machinery  in  rough, 
coarse  sand  and  repressed  without  rubbing,  so  as  to  give  the 
brick  a  rough  sand  finish,  are  known  as  "stock"  or  "sand- 
struck"  brick. 

All  brick  other  than  square  are  known  as  "ornamental  brick." 

All  brick  made  either  by  the  repress  or  dry-press  process, 
and  selected  for  fronts  of  buildings,  are  known  as  "press  brick," 
which  are:  No.  1,  light  shade;  No.  2,  medium;  No.  3,  dark. 

SIZES  OF  BRICKS. — The  sizes  of  bricks  vary  much  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country,  and  when  brick  and  stone  are  worked 
together  the  architect  should  know  what  brick  he  is  going  to 
use,  so  as  to  know  its  size  and  in  preparing  the  drawings  make 
the  sizes  of  stone  to  suit  the  brick.  The  author  has  known 
of  cases  where  the  contractor  had  to  ship  brick  several  hundred 
miles,  just  because  the  brick  which  were  made  near  the  work 
was  not  of  a  suitable  size  to  work  with  the  stone  as  laid  out 
and  figured  for  the  building.  This  is  in  regard  to  the  face 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 


75 


brick,  although  the  common  brick  should  work  with  the  stone 
so  as  to  get  the  correct  bonding.  In  English  bond  and  English 
cross  bond  there  is  often  trouble  to  get  brick  of  a  suitable 
size  to  work  the  bond  correctly. 

WEIGHT  OF  BRICK. — The  weight  of  brick  vary,  according 
to  size  and  their  density,  from  4^  to  5^  pounds;  in  the  wall  a 
cubic  foot  of  brickwork  will  weigh  about  115  pounds. 

QUALITY. — The  superintendent  should  examine  the  brick 
as  brought  to  the  work,  and  see  that  they  are  of  the  desired 
quality;  they  should  be  uniform  in  size  and  color  and  hard 
and  well  burned.  When  two  bricks  are  struck  together  they 
should  give  forth  a  clear  ringing  sound.  When  broken  with  a 
hammer  they  should  break  across  the  brick,  dividing  it  into 
two  "bats,"  and  produce  a  clean  fracture  showing  a  compact, 
hard  structure,  having  a  bright  surface  free  from  cavities  and 
air-holes.  A  soft  brick  when  broken  will  usually  fly  into  several 
pieces. 

The  brick  should  have  square  edges  and  parallel  surfaces, 
and  not  be  twisted  or  warped  by  burning. 

A  brick  should  not  absorb  more  than  one-tenth  of  its  weight 
of  water. 

As  a  rule  the  darkest  bricks  are  the  strongest  and  best  burned, 
while  the  light-colored  ones  are  usually  soft  and  will  not  stand 
much  crushing  strain  or  the  weather.  A  good  test  for  a  brick 
is  to  heat  it  red-hot  and  then  pour  cold  water  on  it;  if  it  does 
not  crack  or  break  it  is  of  excellent  quality. 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY,    WEIGHT,  AND    CRUSHING    STRENGTH 
OF   BRICK. 


Name. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight  per 
Cubic  Foot 
in  Pounds 

Crushing 
Strength  per 
Square  Inch 
in  Pounds. 

Best  pressed  

2.4 

150 

5000  to  14973 

Common  hard  

Soft 

1.6  to2.0 
1  4 

125 
100 

5000  to    8000 
450  to      600 

The   New  York   Building  Code  gives  the  working  strength 
of  brickwork  as  follows: 

Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 

Brickwork  in  Portland-cement  mortar;  cement,!;  sand,  3.   208 
Brickwork  in  lime  and  cement  mortar;  cement,  1;  lime,  1; 

sand,  6 160 

Brickwork  in  lime  mortar;  lime,  1;  sand,  4 .    Ill 


76  BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 

A  good  brick  supported  at  each  end  on  supports  6  inches 
apart  should  withstand  a  pressure  at  the  centre  of  2000  pounds 
without  breaking. 

In  a  test  made  by  Norcross  Bros,  of  Boston  the  crush- 
ing strength  of  brick  ranged  as  follows:  2720  pounds  for  light 
hard,  the  poorest;  up  to  8000  pounds  per  square  inch  for  the 
best  quality  to  produce  the  first  crack;  while  the  ultimate 
strength  ran  from  3149  up  to  10,532  pounds  per  square  inch. 

FIRE-BRICK. — Fire-brick  are  made  by  a  similar  process  to 
making  ordinary  brick,  but  from  different  material.  The  clay 
used  is  known  as  fire-clay.  This  clay  is  composed  of  hydrated 
silicates  of  alumina,  associated  with  silica  and  alumina  in 
various  states  or  subdivisions  and  sufficiently  free  from  alkalies, 
iron,  and  lime  to  resist  vitrification  at  high  temperature. 

Oxide  of  iron  or  sulphate  of  iron  in  the  clay  is  very  injurious, 
and  when  found  in  the  brick  in  a  quantity  of  more  than  5  per 
cent  they  should  be  rejected.  Lime,  soda,  potash,  and  magnesia, 
are  also  injurious  and  any  fire-brick  containing  over  3  per  cent 
of  either  should  be  rejected. 

Good  fire-clay  should  contain  50  to  80  per  cent  of  silica  and 
18  to  35  per  cent  of  alumina;  it  should  be  of  a  uniform  texture 
and  have  a  greasy  feel  between  the  fingers. 

Fire-brick  which  are  to  be  exposed  to  heat  should  be  laid  in  fire- 
clay, and  should  be  thoroughly  wet  before  laying;  the  mortar 
should  be  used  very  thin  and  the  joint  made  as  tight  as  possible. 

VITRIFIED  BRICK  are  brick  burned  to  a  hard  glossy  con- 
sistency so  as  to  be  impermeable  to  water  and  fit  for  damp- 
proof  work,  paving,  and  such  purposes. 

BRICK-LAYING. — This  is  one  of  the  branches  of  work  that 
will  require  the  close  attention  of  the  superintendent,  as  it  is 
one  that  can  be  slighted  at  any  time  and  a  defect  covered  up 
in  a  moment.  If  in  making  his  rounds  of  the  building  the 
superintendent  should  notice  a  brick-mason  hurriedly  spreading 
mortar  over  the  top  of  the  wall  or  a  course  of  brick  just  laid, 
he  should  regard  it  with  suspicion,  and  it  would  be  well  for 
him  to  examine  this  particular  part  of  the  wall.  The  strength 
and  stability  of  a  wall  depends,  in  addition  to  the  quality  of 
the  materials  used,  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  built.  The 
superintendent  should  first  see  that  the  bricks  are  hard,  sound, 
and  of  correct  shape,  and  that  they  are  all  thoroughly  wet 
before  being  laid  in  the  wall,  so  that  they  will  not  absorb  the 
water  out  of  the  mortar,  thus  causing  it  to  lose  its  strength. 
The  mason  will  often  complain  that  wetting  the  brick  makes 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 


77 


them  hard  to  lay,  or  that  they  will  "creep."  The  superin- 
tendent should  pay  no  attention  to  this,  for  a  brick  will  have 
to  be  soaked  in  water  until  it  will  absorb  no  more  before  it 
is  too  wet  to  use.  When  the  bricks  are  being  laid  the  superin- 
tendent should  see  that  they  are  all  laid  on  a  full  bed  of  mortar, 
and  where  possible  should  be  shoved  or  rubbed  into  position, 
and  he  should  also  see  that  all  vertical  joints  are  filled  solid 
with  mortar. 

It  is  the  custom  of  masons  to  spread  the  mortar,  then  lay 
on  the  brick,  exerting  no  pressure  on  the  brick  except  its  own 
weight.  The  superintendent  should  watch  for  this  and  compel 
the  mason  to  shove  or  force  each  brick  down  to  a  solid  bed 
and  close  joint. 

The  vertical  joints  should  all  be  completely  filled  with  mortar 
and  the  brick  kept  at  least  J  inch  apart 
for  this  purpose,  as  shown  by  Fig.  90 
at  A.  Fig.  90  at  B  shows  how  the 
mason  will  want  to  lay  the  brick  tight 
against  each  other  with  a  dry  joint. 

The  face  of  a  wall  where  the  mason 
has  his  own  way  will  usually  be  laid  as 
shown  in  Fig.  91.  He  will  spread  the 
mortar  and  with  his  trowel  gather  up 
the  overhanging  mortar  and  scratch  it 
off  on  the  end  of  the  brick  already  laid, 
then  lay  the  next  brick  against  this 
mortar.  Often  there  will  only  be  enough 
mortar  to  fill  the  joint  half  an  inch  deep, 

and  this  will  be  all  it  will  ever  get  unless  the  superintendent 
compels  the  mason  to  fill  it.  The  superintendent  must  see  that 
these  joints  are  completely  filled  and  not  left  as  shown  in  Fig.  91. 


FIG.  91. 

In  spreading  mortar  for  the  outside  courses,  the  mason  will 
stretch  it  along  the  top  of  the  brick  already  laid,  and  then 
run  the  point  of  his  trowel  through  the  centre,  leaving  it  as 
shown  by  Fig.  92. 


78  BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 

Unless  the  superintendent  watches  to  see  that  enough  mortar 


FIG.  93. 


FIG.  94. 


FIG.  93. 

is  spread  to  give  the  brick  a  fuU  bed,  the  chances  are  that  the 
brick  will  be  bedded  only  a  little  on 
each  side,  as  shown  by  Fig.  93.  This 
is  often  a  defect  in  laying  front  brick 
with  "butter"  joints;  the  mortar  is 
placed  on  the  brick  to  be  laid  in  the 
manner  shown  by  Fig.  94,  and  when 
laid  the  result  is  shown  by  Fig.  95,  leaving  the  centre  of  the 
brick  without  any  bed. 

The  author  has  seen  work  of  this  kind  where  the  weight  of 
the  wall  had  caused  pieces  of  brick  to  spall  off,  as  shown  at 
A,  Fig.  95,  just  because  the  brick  did  not  have  a  full  bed  of 
mortar. 

The  bed  joints  for  common  brickwork  should  be  about  f  inch, 
but  depend  a  great  deal  on  the  mortar  used.  The  superin- 
tendent can  tell  by  watching  a  few  bricks  laid,  and  noticing 
the  pressure  required  to  get  a  solid  bearing,  what  size  joint 
should  be  used.  In  "stock"  or  "sand-struck"  brick  for  out- 


side work  the  joint  should  be 
or  &  inch. 


inch,  and  for  "press"  brick 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING.  79 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  bricks,  as  laid,  are 


FIG.  95. 

set  level.  The  custom  of  masons  is  to  set  the  brick  with  a  slight 
incline,  as  shown  by  Fig.  98,  as  this 
gives  them  a  projection  on  the 
lower  course  to  guide  the  trowel 
in  striking  the  joint.  The  face 
of  the  bricks  should  be  kept  as 
near  plumb  as  possible  and  no 
unnecessary  projections  made  to 
catch  the  water. 

Bond  is  another  point  in  brick- 
work that  requires  the  close  atten- 
tion of  the  superintendent.  It  is 
usually  specified  that  every  fifth  FlG  96> 

or  sixth  course,   as  the  case  may 
be,  shall  be  a  header,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  superintendent 


FIG.  97.  FIG.  98. 

to  see  that  this  is  strictly  carried  out,  and  that  each  header 
course  is  lapped  through  the  wall,  as  shown  by  Fig.  97  or  Fig.  98. 


80 


BRICKS  AND   BRICK-LAYING. 


In  facework,   where  it  is  not  desired  to  show  the  headers, 
they  are  usually  put  in  as  shown  by  Fig.  99.     This  is  called 


1 

1 

1 

1 

Fi 

s.  99. 

clipped  or  diagonal  secrete  bond.  Fig.  100  shows  another 
style  of  secrete  bond;  the  stretcher  course  is  clipped  to  half 
its  width,  and  a  three-quarter  bond  course  laid  behind,  as  shown. 


\       \ 


\ 


V 


IVVVX  \  \A 


_..    ,               K~          B           V           B            \            B^        "\ 

\  y 

i 

i      i       i 

i 

i       i 

i       i  ~   i 

FIG.  100. 

Metal  wall  ties  of  various  kinds  are  also  used  for  bonding  the 

face  brick  to  the  main  wall.  When  these  are  used  the  superin- 
tendent should  see  that  they  are 
used  in  sufficient  numbers,  and 
the  two  courses  of  brick  brought 
as  near  level  as  possible  where 
the  tie  is  to  be  used.  A  in  Fig. 
101  shows  a  bad  method  of  using 
these  ties,  as  there  is  too  much 
difference  in  the  height  of  the 
courses;  B  in  Fig.  101  shows  how 
they  should  be  used,  as  the  strain 
on  the  tie  is  tensile  and  there  is 
no  chance  for  it  to  spring  or 
give.  At  best  wall  ties  are  a  very 

poor  method  of  tying  the  face  of  a  wall  to  the  main  structure, 

and  the  author  cannot  recommend  their  use. 

The  strongest  wall  is  obtained  when  header  courses  are  used 

in  the  face  of  the  wall.     Fig.  102  shows  the  common  form  of 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 


81 


bond  in  which  a  header  course  is  run  at  intervals  of,  say,  every 
six  courses.  This  header  course  should  be  started  with  a 
quarter  or  three-quarter  brick,  as  shown  at  A  and  B,  of  which 
that  at  A  looks  the  best. 


1      ' 


FIG.   102. 


A 
FIG.  103. 


Fig.  103  shows  the  wrong  way  of  starting,  and  brings  three 
vertical  joints  over  each  other,  as  shown  at  A. 

Fig.  104  shows  what  is  known  as  Flemish  bond,  in  which 
every  alternate  brick  is  a  header.  In  this  style  of  work  every 
alternate  course  should  have  headers  of  full  brick,  and  not 
"bats."  The  mason  will  try  to  work  in  as  many  "bats"  as 
possible  so  as  to  save  face  brick,  and  it  will  require  watching 
on  the  part  of  the  superintendent  to  prevent  it. 


JL_ 


J L 


J L 


J L 


J L 


J 1 


J L 


III      II      I  '   l 


FIG.  104. 


FIG.  105. 


Fig.  105  shows  English  bond  in  which  every  alternate  course 
is  a  header  course;  in  this  work  every  sixth  course  of  brick 
should  be  a  full  header  course.  English  cross-bond  shown  by 
Fig.  106  is  similar  to  the  English  bond,  except  that  each  alternate 
stretcher  course  breaks  joints  with  the  stretcher  course  below. 
This  divides  the  face  of  the  wall  up  into  St.  George's  crosses, 
as  shown  by  1,  2,  3,  Fig.  106,  and  makes  a  very  pleasing  appear- 
ance to  the  eye. 

Fig.  107  shows  how  this  work  should  be  carried  around 
quoins,  etc.  In  all  facework  it  will  be  the  duty  of  the  superin- 
tendent to  see  that  tliejaaagea^^keeps  his  joints  plumb  and  in 


82 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 


line.  Fig.  108  at  A  shows  the  distorted  appearance  of  a  wall 
laid  in  English  cross-bond,  in  which  the  joints  were  not  kept 
plumb.  Fig.  108  at  B  shows  the  work  as  it  should  be. 


D 

1 

1           1 

B           I 

1        1 

I       1       1       I       ! 

!        1        ! 

1       1 

1              1 

1              1 

1        1 

i       1   1   1       1       1 

III 

1 

1       2       |                | 

1 

II! 

1        1   3  I        1        1 

1       II 

1     1 

1                1 

1              1 

1      i 

1       1       !      1       1 

1        1 

c 
FIG.  106. 

A 

The  author  has  often  found  it  necessary  to  have  the  mason 
mark  out  a  pole,  as  shown  by  Fig.  109,  and  mark  on  it  the 


1     1,1 


1    1 


J I    I     I 


1 1  I1 1  I1 1 


J I  .  I 


I  l'l  I1 


FIG.  107. 


FIG.  108. 


position  of  the  joints  in  the  stretcher  courses;  for  instance,  1,1,1 
on  the  pole  will  be  the  position  of  the  joints  in  one  course,  and 
2,  2,  2  will  be  the  position  of  the  joints  in  the  next  stretcher 


FIG.  109. 

course.  The  pole  should  be  made  so  that  one  end  of  it  can  be  held 
at  the  corner  of  the  wall  or  pier,  so  that  it  will  always  be  held 
in  the  same  position.  After  the  header  course  is  laid  the  pole 
should  be  used  and  each  joint  of  the  stretcher  course  marked 
off;  after  the  stretcher  is  laid  the  header  course  can  be  centred 
with  the  eye;  then  repeat  the  operation  for  the  next  stretcher. 


BRICKS  AND   BRICK-LAYING. 


83 


The  joints  should  line  up,  as  shown  at  AB,  Fig.  106,  and  form 
a  true  diagonal  step,  as  shown  from  C  to  D, 

The  superintendent  should  instruct  the  foreman  of  the  work 
how  he  desires  to  have  the  work  done,  and  any  work  not  done 
correctly,  have  it  taken  down  and  done  over;  this  is  the  only 
sure  way  of  making  brick-masons  do  perfect  work. 

In  backing  up  stone  ashlar  or  other  like  work,  the  superin- 
tendent must  see  that  the  bond  courses  in  the  brickwork  are 
built  in  at  the  proper  place  to  bond  with  the  stone,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  110. 

In  finishing  to  the  top  of  a  thin  course  of  stone  the  last  course 


FIG.  110. 


FIG.  111. 


of  brick  should  have  a  header,  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  Ill,  so 
that  the  next  course  of  ashlar  will  lap  onto  it  and  form  a  bond 
with  it. 

The  superintendent  should  never  allow  more  than  two  courses 
of  stone  set  ahead  of  the  brick-mason;  first  a  thick  or  bond 
course,  and  then  a  thin  one,  as  shown  by  Fig.  111.  Then  the 
mason  can  back  up  these  two  courses,  as  shown  by  Fig.  110, 
when  the  wall  will  be  ready  to  set  two  more  courses  of  ashlar. 

Unless  the  superintendent  cautions  the  mason  against  it, 
they  will  run  up  three  or  four  courses  of  ashlar  by  filling  in  a 
course  of  brick,  as  shown  by  Fig.  112.  This  should  never  be 
permitted,  as  it  makes  a  vertical  joint  through  the  wall,  as 
shown  from  A  to  B. 

The  superintendent  should  occasionally,  as  the  walls  are  being 
buiit,  sight  along  and  down  the  face  of  them,  to  see  if  they  are 


84 


BRICKS  AND   BRICK-LAYING. 


being  built  straight  and  plumb;  some  masons  will  keep  working 
"hard"  against  the  line  until  they  have  the  wall  considerably 
out  of  plumb. 


FIG.  112. 


FIG.  113. 


Where  there  are  projection  courses  in  the   outside  wall,  they 
should   be   covered  with  lead,  as  shown  by  Fig.  1135;  some- 


FIG.  114. 


FIG.  115. 

times  they  are  covered  with  cement  mortar,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
113  A;  this  is  not  so  reliable  as  the  lead,  for  the  cement  may 
crack  and  work  loose. 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 


85 


In  turning  arch  lintels  over  door  or  other  openings,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  use  »  wood  centre,  as  shown  by  Fig.  114.  The 
superintendent  should  see  that  the  arch  is  started  at  the  end 
of.  the  wood  centre,  as  shown  by  Fig.  114,  and  not  as  shown 
by  Fig.  115,  as  this  throws  the  weight  onto  the  wood. 

Arches  are  usually  built  of  concentric  rings  or  header  courses, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  116.  Where  the  arch  is  to  carry  a  heavy  load 


FIG.  116. 


FIG.  117. 


it  is  advisable  to  tie  the  courses  together,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  117. 
When  an  arch  springs  off  an  outside  wall  or  pier,  or  where  there 
will  be  nothing  to  counteract  the  thrust  of  the  arch,  it  is  advis- 
able to  build  in  an  I  beam,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  118,  and  have  it  anchored 
solid  top  and  bottom  with  a  bolt  or 
rod  extending  back   into  the   main 
wall. 

Where  there  are  chases  or  re- 
cesses for  pipes  or  vent  flues  to  be 
built  in  the  wall,  the  superintend- 
ent should  see  that  they  are  located 
correctly,  and  that  they  are  built 
straight  and  plumb ;  these  chases  or 
recesses  should  be  shut  off  at  each 
floor  level  after  the  pipes  are  in 
place,  and  before  plastering,  so  as  to 
prevent  any  egress  from  floor  to 
floor  in  case  of  fire. 

Where  walls  are  built  to  any  great  height  or  length  with 
nothing  to  brace  them,  the  superintendent  should  have  them, 
braced  temporarily  until  the  mortar  hardens,  or  until  the 
floor-beams  are  put  in  place. 

In  narrow  buildings  where  an  engine  and  elevator  are  used 
for  hoisting  the  superintendent  should  see  that  the  strain 
from  the  platform  to  the  engine  is  lengthwise  of  the  building. 
The  author  saw  a  case  where  a  six-story  building  had  to  be  taken 


FIG.  118. 


86 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING, 


down  when  the  walls  reached  the  sixth  floor,  because  the  engine 
and  elevator  had  been  set  crosswise  of  the  building,  and  the 
strain  and  vibration  caused  the  walls  to  "creep"  until  they 
were  6  inches  out  of  plumb. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  all  walls  are  protected 
from  the  weather  as  they  are  being  built,  and  covered  every 
night,  especially  front  or  outside  walls. 

HOLLOW  WALLS. — In  building  hollow  walls,  such  as  are 
sometimes  built  for  ventilation,  etc.,  the  superintendent  must 
see  that  they  are  properly  anchored  or  tied  together,  and  that 
holes  are  left  at  the  bottom  so  the  space  can  be  cleaned  out 
at  completion  of  the  wall. 

CHIMNEYS. — In  building  chimneys  the  superintendent  must  see 
that  the  flues  are  built  straight  and  with  as  few  bends  as  possible, 
and  that  all  joints  in  the  brickwork  are  slushed  full  of  mortar, 
and  where  flue-lining  is  not  used,  see  that  the  inside  of  the  flue 
is  plastered  smooth.  The  top  of  a  chimney  above  the  roof 
should  be  laid  in  cement  mortar.  When  the  chimney  is  com- 
pleted, the  superintendent  should  have  a  weight  dropped  down 
each  flue  to  make  sure  that  it  is  open  its  entire  length,  and 
not  stopped  up  with  "bats"  and  mortar. 

The  face  walls  of  a  building  at  completion  should  be  washed 
down  with  a  solution  of  diluted  muriatic  acid  and  all  dirt  and 
surplus  mortar  removed;  all  open  joints  left  under  window- 
sills,  etc.,  should  now  be  pointed,  care  being  taken  to  use  just 
enough  mortar  to  fill  the  face  of  the  joint. 

HEARTH  ARCHES. — "Trimmer"  or  "hearth"  arches  for  the 
support  of  a  hearth  stone  or  tile  are  usually  built  of  brick 
and  should  be  built  as  shown  by  Fig.  119;  this  throws  the  weight 


FIG.  119. 

and  thrust  nearly  all  on  the  chimney  and  not  on  the  wood 
joist.     A  flat  wood  centre  is  often  used  in  frame  houses,  as  shown 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 


87 


by  Fig.  120;  but  the  author  does  not  consider  this  a  good  method, 
for  the  wood  in  the  recess  in  the  brickwork  is  but  2J  or  3  inches 
away  from  the  flue,  which  is  too  close  for  safety.  Where  centres 


FIG.  120. 


FIG.  121. 


of  this  kind  are  used  it  is  better  to  corbel  out,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  121;  this  will  give  4  inches  of  brick  between  the  wood  and 
the  flue. 

BRICK  NOGGING. — In  wooden  partitions  it  is  often  specified 
for  a  course  of  brick  to  be  built  in  at  the  bottom  of  the  story, 
and  also  at  half  height,  resting  on  the  bridging;  this  is  to  pre- 
vent the  passage  of  vermin  and  also  act  as  a  fire-stop.  The 
superintendent  should  see  that  the  brick  used  in  such  cases 
are  not  wider  than  the  studs,  so  the  lathing  can  be  nailed  on 
straight;  where  the  joist  rests  on  a  partition  it  is  well  to  build 
"nogging"  from  the  top  of  this  partition  to  the  top  of  the  joist. 

WA.LLS,  PIERS,  AND  PARTITIONS. — The  following,  taken  from 
the  New  York  Building  Code,  1901,  is  a  very  good  guide  for  the 
superintendent : 

Sec.  27.  Materials  of  Watts. — The  walls  of  all  buildings,  other 
than  frame  or  wood  buildings,  shall  be  constructed  of  stone, 
brick,  Portland-cement  concrete,  iron,  steel,  or  other  hard,  in- 
combustible material,  and  the  several  component  parts  of  such 
buildings  shall  be  as  herein  provided.  All  buildings  shall  be 
inclosed  on  all  sides  with  independent  or  party  walls. 

Sec.  28.  Walls  and  Piers. — In  all  walls  01  the  thickness 
specified  in  this  code,  the  same  amount  of  materials  may  be 
used  in  piers  or  buttresses.  Bearing  walls  shall  be  taken  to 
mean  those  walls  on  which  the  beams,  girders,  or  trusses  rest. 
If  any  horizontal  section  through  any  part  of  any  bearing  wall 
in  any  building  shows  more  than  30  per  centum  area  of  flues 
and  openings,  the  said  wall  shall  be  increased  4  inches  in  thick- 
ness for  every  15  per  centum,  or  fraction  thereof,  of  flue  or 
opening  area  in  excess  of  30  per  centum. 

The  walls  and  piers  of  all  buildings  shall  be  properly  and 


88  BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LATINO. 

solidly  bonded  together  with  close  joints  filled  with  mortar- 
They  shall  be  built  to  a  line  and  be  carried  up  plumb  and  straight. 
The  walls  of  each  story  shall  be  built  up  the  full  thickness  to 
the  top  of  the  beams  above.  All  brick  laid  in  non-freezing 
weather  shall  be  well  wet  before  being  laid.  Walls  or  piers, 
or  parts  of  walls  and  piers,  shall  not  be  built  in  freezing  weather, 
and  if  frozen,  shall  not  be  built  upon. 

All  piers  shall  be  built  of  stone  or  good,  hard,  well-burnt 
brick  laid  in  cement  mortar.  Every  pier  built  of  brick,  con- 
taining less  than  9  superficial  feet  at  the  base,  supporting  any 
beam,  girder,  arch  or  column  on  which  a  wall  rests,  or  lintel 
spanning  an  opening  over  10  feet  and  supporting  a  wall,  shall 
at  intervals  of  not  over  30  inches  apart  in  height  have  built 
into  it  a  bond-stone  not  less  than  4  inches  thick,  or  a  cast-iron 
plate  of  sufficient  strength  and  the  full  size  of  the  piers.  For 
piers  fronting  on  a  street  the  bond-stones  may  conform  with 
the  kind  of  stone  used  for  the  trimmings  of  the  front.  Cap- 
stones of  cut  granite  or  bluestone,  proportioned  to  the  weight 
to  be  carried,  but  not  less  than  5  inches  in  thickness,  by  the  full 
size  of  the  pier,  or  cast-iron  plates  of  equal  strength,  by  the 
full  size  of  the  pier,  shall  be  set  under  all  columns  or  girders, 
except  where  a  4-inch  bond-stone  is  placed  immediately  below 
said  cap-stone,  in  which  case  the  cap-stone  may  be  reduced 
in  horizontal  dimensions  at  the  discretion  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Buildings  having  jurisdiction.  Isolated  brick  piers  shall 
not  exceed  in  height  ten  times  their  least  dimensions.  Stone 
posts  for  the  support  of  posts  or  columns  above  shall  not  be 
used  in  the  interior  of  any  building.  Where  walls  or  piers 
are  built  of  coursed  stones,  with  dressed  level  beds  and  vertical 
joints,  the  Department  of  Buildings  shall  have  the  right  to 
allow  such  walls  or  piers  to  be  built  of  a  less  thickness  than 
specified  for  brickwork,  but  in  no  case  shall  said  walls  or  piers 
be  less  than  three-quarters  of  the  thickness  provided  for  brick- 
work. 

In  all  brick  walls  every  sixth  course  shall  be  a  heading 
course,  except  where  walls  are  faced  with  brick  in  running 
bond,  in  which  latter  case  every  sixth  course  shall  be  bonded 
into  the  backing  by  cutting  the  course  of  the  face  brick  and 
putting  in  diagonal  headers  behind  the  same,  or  by  splitting 
the  face  brick  in  half  and  backing  the  same  with  a  continuous 
row  of  headers.  Where  face  brick  is  used  of  a  different  thick- 
ness from  the  brick  used  for  backing,  the  courses  of  the  ex- 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING.  89 

terior  and  interior  brickwork  shall  be  brought  to  a  level  bed 
at  intervals  of  not  more  than  ten  courses  in  height  of  the  face 
brick,  and  the  face  brick  shall  be  properly  tied  to  the  backing 
by  a  heading  course  of  the  face  brick.  All  bearing  walls  faced 
with  brick  laid  in  running  bond  shall  be  4  inches  thicker  than 
the  walls  are  required  to  be  under  any  section  of  this  Code. 

Sec.  29.  Ashlar. — Stone  used  for  the  facing  of  any  building, 
and  known  as  ashlar,  skall  be  not  less  than  4  inches  thick. 

Stone  ashlar  shall  be  anchored  to  the  backing  and  the  back- 
ing shall  be  of  such  thickness  as  to  make  the  walls,  independent 
of  the  ashlar,  conform  as  to  the  thickness  with  the  requirements 
of  sections  31  and  32  of  this  Code,  unless  the  ashlar  be  at  least 
8  inches  thick  and  bonded  into  the  backing,  and  then  it  may 
be  counted  as  part  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall. 

Iron  ashlar  plates  used  in  imitation  of  stone  ashlar  on  the 
face  of  a  wall  shall  be  backed  up  with  the  same  thickness  of 
brickwork  as  stone  ashlar. 

Sec.  30.  Mortar  for  Walls  and  Ashlar. — All  foundation-walls, 
isolated  piers,  parapet  walls  and  chimneys  above  roofs  shall 
be  laid  in  cement  mortar,  but  this  shall  not  prohibit  the  use 
in  cold  weather  of  a  small  proportion  of  lime  to  prevent  the 
mortar  from  freezing.  All  other  walls  built  of  brick  or  stone 
shall  be  laid  in  lime,  cement,  or  lime  and  cement  mortar  mixed. 

The  backing  up  of  all  stone  ashlar  shall  be  laid  up  with  cement 
mortar,  or  cement  and  lime  mortar  mixed,  but  the  back  of 
the  ashlar  may  be  pargeted  with  lime  mortar  to  prevent  dis- 
coloration of  the  stone. 

Sec.  31.  Walls  for  Dwelling-houses. — The  expression  "walls 
for  dwelling-houses"  shall  be  taken  to  mean  and  include  this 
class  walls  for  the  following  buildings: 

Dwellings,  asylums,  apartment-houses,  convents,  club-houses, 
dormitories,  hospitals,  hotels,  lodging-houses,  tenements,  parish 
buildings,  schools,  laboratories,  studios. 

The  walls  above  the  basement  of  dwelling-houses  not  over 
three  stories  and  basement  in  height,  nor  more  than  40  feet  in 
height,  and  not  over  20  feet  in  width,  and  not  over  55  feet  in 
depth,  shall  have  side  and  party  walls  not  less  than  8  inches 
thick,  and  front  and  rear  walls  not  less  than  12  inches  thick. 
All  walls  of  dwellings  exceeding  20  feet  in  width  and  not  exceed- 
ing 40  feet  in  height  shall  be  not  less  than  12  inches  thick.  All 
walls  of  dwellings  26  feet  or  less  in  width  between  bearing-walls 
which  are  hereafter  erected  or  which  may  be  altered  to  be  used 


90  BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 

for  dwellings,  and  being  over  40  feet  in  height  and  not  over  50 
feet  in  height,  shall  be  not  less  than  12  inches  thick  above  the 
foundation- wall.  No  wall  shall  be  built  having  a  12-inch-thick 
portion  measuring  vertically  more  than  50  feet.  If  over  50 
feet  in  height  and  not  over  60  feet  in  height  the  wall  shall 
be  not  less  than  16  inches  thick  in  the  story  next  above  the 
foundation- walls  and  from  thence  not  less  than  12  inches  to  the 
top.  If  over  60  feet  in  height,  and  not  over  75  feet  in  height, 
the  walls  shall  be  not  less  than  16  inches  thick  above  the 
foundation-walls  to  the  height  of  25  feet,  or  to  the  nearest 
tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  and  from  thence  not  less  than 
12  inches  thick  to  the  top.  If  over  75  feet  in  height,  and 
not  over  100  feet  in  height,  the  walls  shall  be  not  less  than  20 
inches  thick  above  the  foundation-walls  to  the  height  of  40  feet, 
or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  thence  not  less 
than  16  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  75  feet,  or  to  the  nearest 
tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  and  thence  not  less  than  12  inches 
thick  to  the  top.  If  over  100  feet  in  height,  and  not  over 
125  feet  in  height,  the  walls  shall  be  not  less  than  24  inches 
thick  above  the  foundation-walls  to  the  height  of  40  feet  or 
to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  thence  not  less 
than  20  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  75  feet,  or  to  the  nearest 
tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  thence  not  less  than  16  inches 
thick  to  the  height  of  110  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of 
beams  to  that  height,  and  thence  not  less  than  12  inches  thick 
to  the  top.  If  over  125  feet  in  height  and  not  over  150  feet 
in  height,  the  walls  shall  be  not  less  than  28  inches  thick  above 
the  foundation- walls  to  the  height  of  30  feet,  or  to  the  nearest 
tier  of  beams  to  that  height;  thence  not  less  than  24  inches 
thick  to  the  height  of  65  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams 
to  that  height;  thence  not  less  than  20  inches  thick  to  the 
height  of  100  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height; 
thence  not  less  than  16  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  135  feet, 
or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  and  thence  not 
less  than  12  inches  thick  to  the  top.  If  over  150  feet  in  height, 
each  additional  30  feet  in  height  or  part  thereof,  next  above 
the  foundation-walls,  shall  be  increased  4  inches  in  thickness, 
the  upper  150  feet  of  wall  remaining  the  same  as  specified  for 
a  wall  of  that  height. 

All  non-fireproof  dwelling-houses  erected  under  this  section, 
exceeding  26  feet  in  width,  shall  have  brick  fore-and-aft  parti- 
tion-walls. All  non-bearing  walls  of  buildings  hereinbefore  in 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING.  91 

this  section  specified  may  be  4  inches  less  in  thickness,  provided 
however,  that  none  are  less  than  12  inches  thick,  except  as  in 
this  Code  specified.  8-inch  brick  partition-walls  may  be  built 
to  support  the  beams  in  such  building  in  which  the  distance 
between  the  main  or  bearing  walls  is  not  over  33  feet;  if  the 
distance  between  the  main  or  bearing  walls  is  over  33  feet  the 
brick  partition- wall  shall  be  not  less  than  12  inches  thick; 
provided,  that  no  clear  span  is  over  26  feet.  No  wall  shall  be 
built  having  any  one  thickness  measuring  vertically  more  than 
53  feet.  This  section  shall  not  be  construed  to  prevent  the  use 
of  iron  or  steel  girders,  or  iron  or  steel  girders  and  columns, 
or  piers  of  masonry,  for  the  support  of  the  walls  and  ceilings 
over  any  room  which  has  a  clear  span  of  more  than  26  feet 
between  walls,  in  such  dwellings  as  are  not  constructed  fire- 
proof, nor  to  prohibit  the  use  of  iron  or  steel  girders,  or  iron  or 
steel  girders  and  columns  in  place  of  brick  walls  in  buildings 
which  are  to  be  used  for  dwellings  when  constructed  fireproof. 
If  the  clear  span  is  to  be  over  26  feet,  then  the  bearing-walls 
shall  be  increased  4  inches  in  thickness  for  every  12|  feet  or 
part  thereof  that  said  span  is  over  26  feet,  or  shall  have,  instead 
of  the  increased  thickness,  such  piers  or  buttresses  as,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  having  jurisdiction, 
may  be  necessary. 

Whenever  two  or  more  dwelling-houses  shall  be  constructed 
not  over  12  feet  6  inches  in  width,  and  not  over  50  feet  in  height, 
the  alternating  centre  wall  between  any  two  such  houses  shall 
be  of  brick  not  less  than  8  inches  thick  above  the  foundation- 
wall;  and  the  ends  of  the  floor-beams  shall  be  so  separated  that 
4  inches  of  brickwork  will  be  between  the  beams  where  they 
rest  on  the  said  centre  wall. 

Sec.  32.  Walls  for  Warehouses. — The  expression  "walls  for 
warehouses"  shall  be  taken  to  mean  and  include  in  this  class 
walls  for  the  following  buildings: 

Warehouses,  stores,  factories,  mills,  printing-houses,  pumping- 
stations,  refrigerating-houses,  slaughter-houses,  wheelwright- 
shops,  cooperage-shops,  breweries,  light-  and  power-houses, 
sugar-refineries,  office-buildings,  stables,  markets,  railroad 
buildings,  jails,  police-stations,  court-houses,  observatories, 
foundries,  machine-shops,  public  assembly  buildings,  armories, 
churches,  theatres,  libraries,  museums.  The  walls  of  all  ware- 
houses 25  feet  or  less  in  width  between  walls  or  bearings  shall 
be  not  less  than  12  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  40  feet  above 


92  BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 

the  foundation-walls.  If  over  40  feet  in  height,  and  not  over 
60  feet  in  height,  the  walls  shall  be  not  less  than  16  inches 
thick  above  the  foundation-walls  to  the  height  of  40  feet,  or 
to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  and  thence  not  less 
than  12  inches  thick  to  the  top.  If  over  60  feet  in  height, 
and  not  over  75  feet  in  height,  the  walls  shall  be  not  less  than 
20  inches  thick  above  the  foundation-walls  to  the  -height  of 
25  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height ,  and  thence 
not  less  than  16  inches  thick  to  the  top.  If  over  75  feet  in 
height,  and  not  over  100  feet  in  height,  the  walls  shall  be  not 
less  than  24  inches  thick  above  the  foundation-walls  to  the 
height  of  40  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height; 
thence  not  less  than  20  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  75  feet, 
or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height,  and  thence  not 
less  than  16  inches  thick  to  the  top.  If  over  100  feet  in  height, 
and  not  over  125  feet  in  height,  the  walls  shall  be  not  less  than 
28  inches  thick  above  the  foundation-walls  to  the  height  of 
40  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height;  thence 
not  less  than  24  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  75  feet,  or  to  the 
nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height;  thence  not  less  than  20 
inches  thick  to  the  height  of  110  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of 
beams  to  that  height,  and  thence  not  less  than  16  inches  thick 
to  the  top.  If  over  125  feet  in  height,  and  not  over  150  feet 
the  walls  shall  be  not  less  than  32  inches  thick  above  the  founda- 
tion-walls to  the  height  of  30  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams 
to  that  height;  thence  not  less  than  28  inches  thick  to  the 
height  of  65  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height; 
thence  not  less  than  24  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  100  feet, 
or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height;  thence  not  less 
than  20  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  135  feet,  or  to  the  nearest 
tier  of  beams  to  that  height;  and  thence  not  less  than  16  inches 
thick  to  the  top.  If  over  150  feet  in  height,  each  additional 
25  feet  in  height,  or  part  thereof  next  above  the  foundation- 
walls  shall  be  increased  4  inches  in  thickness,  the  upper  150  feet 
of  wall  remaining  the  same  as  specified  for  a  wall  of  that  height. 

If  there  is  to  be  a  clear  span  of  over  25  feet  between  the 
bearing-walls,  such  walls  shall  be  4  inches  more  in  thickness 
than  in  this  section  specified,  for  every  12-J  feet,  or  fraction 
thereof,  that  said  walls  are  more  than  25  feet  apart,  or  shall 
have  instead  of  the  increased  thickness  such  piers  or  buttresses 
as,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings,  may  be 
necessary. 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING.  93 

The  walls  of  buildings  of  a  public  character  shall  be  not  less 
than  in  this  Code  specified  for  warehouses  with  such  piers  or 
buttresses,  or  supplemental  columns  of  iron  or  steel,  as,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  having  jurisdiction^ 
may  be  necessary  to  make  a  safe  and  substantial  building. 

In  all  stores,  warehouses,  and  factories  over  25  feet  in  width 
between  walls  there  shall  be  brick  partition-walls,  or  girders 
supported  on  iron,  steel,  or  wood  columns,  or  piers  of  masonry. 

In  all  stores,  warehouses,  or  factories,  in  case  iron,  steel,  or 
wood  girders,  supported  by  iron,  steel,  or  wood  columns,  or 
piers  of  masonry,  are  used  in  place  of  brick  partition-walls, 
the  building  may  be  75  feet  wide  and  210  feet  deep,  when  extend- 
ing from  street  to  street,  or  when  otherwise  located  may  cover 
an  area  of  not  more  than  8000  superficial  feet.  When  a  build- 
ing fronts  on  three  streets  it  may  be  105  feet  wide  and  210  feet 
deep,  or  if  a  corner  building  fronting  on  two  streets  it  may 
cover  an  area  of  not  more  than  12,500  superficial  feet;  buo 
in  no  case  wider  nor  deeper,  nor  to  cover  a  greater  area,  except 
in  the  case  of  fire-proof  buildings.  An  area  greater  than  herein 
stated  may,  considering  location  and  purpose,  be  allowed  by 
the  Board  of  Buildings  when  the  proposed  building  does  not 
exceed  three  stories  in  height. 

Sec.  33.  Increased  Thicknesses  of  Walls  for  Buildings  more 
than  105  feet  in  Depth. — All  buildings,  not  excepting  dwellings 
that  are  over  105  feet  in  depth,  without  a  cross- wall  or  proper 
piers  or  buttresses,  shall  have  the  side  or  bearing-walls  increased 
in  thickness  4  inches  more  than  is  specified  in  the  respective 
sections  of  this  Code  for  the  thickness  of  walls  for  every  105 
feet,  or  part  thereof,  that  the  said  buildings  are  over  105  feet 
in  depth. 

Sec.  34.  Reduced  Thickness  for  Interior  Walls. — In  case  the 
walls  of  any  building  are  less  than  25  feet  apart,  and  less  than 
40  feet  in  depth,  or  there  are  cross-walls  which  intersect  the 
walls,  not  more  than  40  feet  distant,  or  piers  or  buttresses 
built  into  the  walls,  the  interior  walls  may  be  reduced  in  thick- 
ness in  just  proportion  to  the  number  of  cross-walls,  piers,  or 
buttresses,  and  their  nearness  to  each  other;  provided,  how- 
ever, that  this  clause  shall  not  apply  to  walls  below  60  feet  in 
height,  and  that  no  such  wall  shall  be  less  than  12  inches  thick 
at  the  top,  and  gradually  increased  in  thickness  by  set-offs  to 
the  bottom.  The  Commissioner  of  Buildings  having  jurisdic- 
tion is  hereby  authorized  and  empowered  to  decide  (except 


94  BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 

where  herein  otherwise  provided  for)  how  much  the  walls  herein 
mentioned  may  be  permitted  to  be  reduced  in  thickness,  accord- 
ing to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  each  case,  without  endanger- 
ing the  strength  and  safety  of  the  building. 

Sec.  35.  One-story  Brick  Buildings. — One-story  structures  not 
exceeding  a  height  of  15  feet  may  be  built  with  8-inch  walls 
when  the  bearing- walls  are  not  more  than  19  feet  apart,  and 
the  length  of  the  8-inch  bearing-walls  does  not  exceed  55  feet. 
One-story  and  basement  extensions  may  be  built  with  8-inch 
walls  when  not  over  20  feet  wide,  20  feet  deep,  and  20  feet 
high  to  dwellings. 

Sec.  36.  Inclosure  Walls  for  Skeleton  Structures —Walls  of 
brick  built  in  between  iron  or  steel  columns,  and  supported 
wholly  or  in  part  on  iron  or  steel  girders,  shall  be  not  less  than 
12  inches  thick  for  75  feet  of  the  uppermost  height  thereof, 
or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  measurement,  in  any 
building  so  constructed,  and  every  lower  section  of  60  feet, 
or  to  the  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  such  vertical  measurement, 
or  part  thereof,  shall  have  a  thickness  of  4  inches  more  than  is 
required  for  the  section  next  abo've  it  down  to  the  tier  of  beams 
nearest  to  the  curb-level;  and  thence  downward,  the  thickness  of 
walls  shall  increase  in  the  ratio  prescribed  in  section  26,  this  Code. 

Sec.  37.  Curtain-walls. — Curtain-walls  built  in  between  piers 
or  iron  or  steel  columns  and  not  supported  on  steel  or  iron 
girders,  shall  be  not  less  than  12  inches  thick  for  60  feet  of  the 
uppermost  height  thereof,  or  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that 
height,  and  increased  4  inches  for  every  additional  section  of 
60  feet  or  nearest  tier  of  beams  to  that  height. 

Sec.  38.  Existing  Party  Walls.— Walls  heretofore  built  for 
or  used  as  party  walls,  whose  thickness  at  the  time  of  their 
erection  was  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  then 
existing  laws,  but  which  are  not  in  accordance  with  the  require- 
ments of  this  Code,  may  be  used,  if  in  good  condition,  for  the 
ordinary  uses  of  party  walls,  provided  the  height  of  the  same 
be  not  increased. 

Sec.  39.  Lining  Existing  Walls. — In  case  it  is  desired  to 
increase  the  height  of  existing  party  or  independent  walls, 
which  are  less  in  thickness  than  required  under  this  Code,  the 
same  shall  be  done  by  a  lining  of  brickwork  to  form  a  com- 
bined thickness  with  the  old  wall  of  not  less  than  4  inches  more 
than  the  thickness  required  for  a  new  wall  corresponding  with 
the  total  height  of  the  wall  when  so  increased  in  height.  The 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING.  95 

said  linings  shall  be  supported  on  proper  foundations  and 
carried  up  to  such  height  as  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings 
having  jurisdiction  may  require.  No  lining  shall  be  less  than 
8  inches  in  thickness,  and  all  lining  shall  be  laid  up  in  cement 
mortar  and  thoroughly  anchored  to  the  old  brick  walls  with 
suitable  wrought-iron  anchors,  placed  2  feet  apart  and  prop- 
erly fastened  or  driven  into  the  old  walls  in  rows  alternating 
vertically  and  horizontally  with  each  other,  the  old  walls  being 
first  cleaned  of  plaster  or  other  coatings  where  any  lining  is 
to  be  built  against  the  same.  No  rubble  wall  shall  be  lined 
except  after  inspection  and  approval  by  the  Department. 

Sec.  40.  Walls  of  Unfinished  Buildings. — Any  building,  the 
erection  of  which  was  commenced  in  accordance  with  specifi- 
cations and  plans  submitted  to  and  approved  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Buildings  prior  to  the  passage  of  this  Code,  if  properly 
constructed,  and  in  safe  condition,  may  be  completed,  or  built 
upon  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  law,  as  to  thick- 
ness of  walls,  in  force  at  the  time  when  such  specification  and 
plans  were  approved. 

Sec.  41.  Walls  Tied,  Anchored,  and  Braced. — In  no  case 
shall  any  wall  or  walls  of  any  building  be  carried  up  more  than 
two  stories  in  advance  of  any  other  wall,  except  by  permission 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  having  jurisdiction,  but  this 
prohibition  shall  not  include  the  inclosure  walls  for  skeleton 
buildings.  The  front,  rear,  side  and  party  walls  shall  be  prop- 
erly bonded  together,  or  anchored  to  each  other  every  6  feet 
in  their  height  by  wrought-iron  tie  anchors,  not  less  than  1£ 
inches  by  f  inch  in  size,  and  not  less  than  24  inches  in  length. 
The  side  anchors  shall  be  built  into  the  side  or  party  walls 
not  less  than  16  inches,  and  into  the  front  and  rear  walls,  so  as 
to  secure  the  front  and  rear  walls  to  the  side,  or  party  walls, 
when  not  built  and  bonded  together.  All  exterior  piers  shall 
be  anchored  to  the  beams  or  girders  on  the  level  of  each  tier. 
The  walls  and  beams  of  every  building,  during  the  erection 
or  alteration  thereof,  shall  be  strongly  braced  from  the  beams 
of  each  story,  and  when  required,  shall  also  be  braced  from 
the  outside,  until  the  building  is  inclosed.  The  roof  tier  of 
wood  beams  shall  be  safely  anchored,  with  plank  or  joist,  to 
the  beams  of  the  storly  below  until  the  building  is  inclosed. 

Sec.  42.  Arches  and  Lintels. — Openings  for  doors  and  win- 
dows in  all  buildings  shall  have  good  and  sufficient  arches  of 
stone,  brick,  or  terra-cotta,  well  built  and  keyed  with  good 


96  BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 

and  sufficient  abutments,  or  lintels  of  stone,  iron,  or  steel  of 
sufficient  strength,  which  shall  have  a  bearing  at  each  end 
of  not  less  than  5  inches  on  the  wall.  On  the  inside  of  all 
openings  in  which  lintels  shall  be  less  than  the  thickness  of 
the  wall  to  be  supported,  there  shall  be  timber  lintels,  which 
shall  rest  at  each  end  not  more  than  3  inches  on  any  wall, 
which  shall  be  chamfered  at  each  end,  and  shall  have  a  suitable 
arch  turned  over  the  timber  lintel.  Or  the  inside  lintel  may 
be  of  cast  iron,  or  wrought  iron  or  steel,  and  in  such  case  stone 
blocks  or  cast-iron  plates  shall  not  be  required  at  the  ends 
where  the  lintel  rests  on  the  walls,  provided  the  opening  is 
not  more  than  6  feet  in  width. 

All  masonry  arches  shall  be  capable  of  sustaining  the  weight 
and  pressure  which  they  are  designed  to  carry,  and  the  stress 
at  any  point  shall  not  exceed  the  working  stress  for  the  material 
used,  as  given  in  section  139  of  this  Code.  Tie-rods  shall  be 
used  where  necessary  to  secure  stability. 

Sec.  43.  Parapet  Walls. — All  exterior  and  division  or  party 
walls  over  15  feet  high,  excepting  where  such  walls  are  to  be 
finished  with  cornices,  gutters,  or  crown  mouldings,  shall  have 
parapet  walls  not  less  than  8  inches  in  thickness  and  carried 
2  feet  above  the  roof,  but  for  warehouses,  factories,  stores, 
and  other  buildings  used  for  commercial  or  manufacturing 
purposes  the  parapet  walls  shall  be  not  less  than  12  inches  in 
thickness  and  carried  3  feet  above  the  roof,  and  all  such  walls 
shall  be  coped  with  stone,  terra-cotta,  or  cast  iron. 

Sec.  44.  Hollow  Walls. — In  all  walls  that  are  built  hollow 
the  same  quantity  of  stone,  brick,  or  concrete  shall  be  used  in 
their  construction  as  if  they  were  built  solid,  as  in  this  Code 
provided,  and  no  hollow  wall  shall  be  built  unless  the  parts  of 
same  are  connected  by  proper  ties,  either  of  brick,  stone,  or 
iron,  placed  not  over  24  inches  apart. 

Sec.  45.  Hollow  Bricks  on  Inside  of  Watts. — The  inside  4 
inches  of  all  walls  may  be  built  of  hard-burnt  hollow  brick, 
properly  tied  and  bonded  into  the  walls,  and  of  the  dimen- 
sion of  ordinary  bricks.  Where  hollow  tile  or  porous  terra- 
cotta blocks  are  used  as  lining  or  furring  for  walls,  they  shall  not 
be  included  in  the  measurement  of  the  thickness  of  such  walls. 

Soc.  46.  Recesses  and  Chases  in  Walls. — Recesses  for  stair- 
ways or  elevators  may  be  left  in  the  foundation-  or  cellar-walls 
of  all  buildings,  but  in  no  case  shall  the  walls  be  of  less  thick- 
ness than  the  walls  of  the  fourth  story,  unless  reinforced  by 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK- LAYING.  97 

additional  piers  with  iron  or  steel  girders,  or  iron  or  steel  col- 
umns and  girders,  securely  anchored  to  walls  on  each  side. 
Recesses  for  alcoves  and  similar  purposes  shall  have  not  less 
than  8  inches  of  brickwork  at  the  back  of  such  recesses,  and 
such  recesses  shall  be  not  more  than  8  feet  in  width,  and  shall 
be  arched  over  or  spanned  with  iron  or  steel  lintels,  and  not 
carried  up  higher  than  18  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  beams 
of  the  floor  next  above.  No  chase  for  water  or  other  pipes 
shall  be  made  in  any  pier,  and  in  no  wall  more  than  one-third 
of  its  thickness.  The  chases  around  said  pipe  or  pipes  shall 
be  filled  up  with  solid  masonry  for  the  space  of  1  foot  at  the 
top  and  bottom  of  each  story.  No  horizontal  recess  or  chase 
in  any  wall  shall  be  allowed  exceeding  4  feet  in  length  without 
permission  of  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  having  jurisdic- 
tion. The  aggregate  area  of  recesses  and  chases  in  any  wall 
shall  not  exceed  one-fourth  of  the  whole  area  of  the  face  of  the 
wall  on  any  story,  nor  shall  any  such  recess  be  made  within  a 
distance  of  6  feet  from  any  other  recess  in  the  same  wall. 

Sec.  47.  Furred  Walls.— In  all  walls  furred  with  wood  the 
brickwork  between  the  ends  of  wood  beams  shall  project  the 
thickness  of  the  furring  beyond  the  inner  face  of  the  wall  for 
the  full  depth  of  the  beams. 

Sec.  48.  Light  and  Vent  Shafts — In  every  building  hereafter 
erected  or  altered,  all  the  walls  or  partitions  forming  interior 
light  or  vent  shafts,  shall  be  built  of  brick,  or  such  other  fire- 
proof materials  as  may  be  approved  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Buildings  having  jurisdiction.  The  walls  of  all  light  or  vent 
shafts,  whether  exterior  or  interior,  hereafter  erected,  shall  be 
carried  up  not  less  than  3  feet  above  the  level  of  the  roof,  and 
the  brick  walls  coped  as  other  parapet  walls.  Vent  shafts  to 
light  interior  bathrooms  in  private  dwellings  may  be  built 
of  wood  filled  in  solidly  with  brick  or  hard-burnt  clay  blocks, 
when  extending  through  not  more  than  one  story  in  height, 
and  carried  not  less  than  2  feet  above  the  roof,  covered  with  a 
ventilating  skylight  of  metal  and  glass. 

Sec.  49.  Brick  and  Hollow-tile  Partitions. — Eight-inch  brick 
and  6-inch  and  4-inch  hollow-tile  partitions,  of  hard-burnt  clay, 
or  porous  terra-cotta,  may  be  built,  not  exceeding  in  their  vertical 
portions  a  measurement  of  50,  36,  and  24  feet  respectively,  and 
in  their  horizontal  measurement  a  length  not  exceeding  75  feet, 
unless  strengthened  by  proper  cross-walls,  piers,  or  buttresses, 
or  built  in  iron  or  steel  framework.  All  such  partitions  shall 


98  BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 

be  carried  on  proper  foundations,  or  on  iron  or  steel  girders,  or 
on  iron  or  steel  girders  and  columns  or  piers  of  masonry. 

Sec.  50.  Cellar  Partitions  in  Residence  Buildings. — One  line 
of  fore-and-aft  partitions  in  the  cellar  or  lowest  story,  supporting 
stud  partitions  above,  in  all  residence  buildings  over  20  feet 
between  bearing-walls  in  the  cellar  or  lowest  story,  hereafter 
erected,  shall  be  constructed  of  brick,  not  less  than  8  inches 
thick,  or  piers  of  brick  with  openings  arched  over  below  the 
under  side  of  the  first  tier  of  beams,  or  girders  of  iron  or  steel 
and  iron  columns,  or  piers  of  masonry  may  be  used;  or  if  iron 
or  steel  floor  beams  spanning  the  distance  between  bearing-walls 
are  used  of  adequate  strength  to  support  the  stud  partitions 
above  in  addition  to  the  floor  load  to  be  sustained  by  the  said 
iron  or  steel  beams,  then  the  fore-and-aft  brick  partition,  or 
its  equivalent,  may  be  omitted. 

Stud  partitions  which  may  be  placed  in  the  cellar  or  lowest 
story  of  any  building  shall  have  good  solid  stone  or  brick  founda- 
tion-walls under  the  same,  which  shall  be  built  up  to  the  top 
of  the  floor-beams  or  sleepers,  and  the  sills  of  said  partitions 
shall  be  of  locust  or  other  suitable  hard  wood;  but  if  the  walls 
are  built  5  inches  higher  of  brick  than  the  top  of  the  floor-beams 
or  sleepers,  any  wooden  sill  may  be  used  on  which  the  studs 
shall  be  set. 

Sec.  51.  Main  Stud  Partitions. — In  residence  buildings  where 
fore-and-aft  stud  partitions  rest  directly  over  each  other,  they 
shall  run  down  between  the  wood  floor-beams  and  rest  on  the 
top  plate  of  the  partition  below,  and  shall  have  the  studding 
filled  in  solid  between  the  uprights  to  the  depth  of  the  floor- 
beams  with  suitable  incombustible  materials. 

Sec.  52.  Timber  in  Walls  Prohibited.— No  timber  shall  be 
used  in  any  wall  of  any  building  where  stone,  brick,  or  iron 
is  commonly  used,  except  inside  lintels,  as  herein  provided,  and 
brace  blocks  not  more  than  8  inches  in  length. 

POINTING. — Fig.  122  shows  different  styles  of  pointing  used 
in  face  brickwork,  that  shown  at  7  being  the  most  common,  or 
what  is  known  as  the  struck  joint;  it  is  made  with  the  point 
of  the  trowel,  using  the  lower  course  of  brick  to  rest  the  trowel 
on,  and  the  top  course  as  a  guide  for  drawing  the  trowel  along. 

Some  architects  object  to  this  style  of  joint,  claiming  the 
small  projection  on  the  lower  course  forms  a  table  to  catch  the 
water,  and  preferring  that  shown  at  K,  which  is  just  the  reverse 
of  that  at  /.  The  author  has  used  both,  and  for  looks  prefers 


BRICKS  AND  BRICK-LAYING. 


99 


that  shown  at  7,  for  this  reason:  A  person  standing  on  the 
ground  and  looking  up  at  a  wall  with  joints  struck  as  shown 
at  K,  the  eye  will  catch  the  little  projection  on  every  course  of 
brick  and  cause  the  wall  to  look  rough,  but  with  the  method 


FIG.  122. 

shown  at  /,  the  projections  cannot  be  seen  and  the  wall  looks 
perfectly  smooth  to  the  eye. 

One  point  the  superintendent  must  watch  in  striking  the 
joints  is  to  see  that  the  mason  holds  his  trowel  at  the  right  angle 
and  does  not  strike  the  joint  as  shown  at  J.  The  method  shown 
at  A  is  much  used  in  press-brick  work,  being  a  combination 
of  the  methods  shown  at  /  and  K.  The  joint  shown  at  D  is 


100          ESTIMATING  BRICKLAYERS'  WORK. 

made  by  using  an  iron  rod  the  thickness  of  the  joint;  this  is 
laid  on  the  face  edge  of  the  brick  already  laid  and  the  mortar 
spread  out  to  it ;  after  the  bricks  are  laid  and  the  mortar  has  suffi- 
ciently hardened  the  rod  is  taken  out  and  the  mortar  smoothed, 
if  necessary,  with  a  tool.  It  takes  several  rods,  as  the  mason, 
will  lay  up  several  courses  before  the  mortar  is  hard  enough 
to  permit  the  rod  to  be  taken  out.  The  rest  of  the  joints  shown 
are  made  with  a  jointing  tool  of  the  desired  shape.  The  point- 
ing of  brickwork  is  done  as  the  walls  are  built,  and  the  super- 
intendent must  pay  attention  to  see  that  it  is  done  correctly 
as  the  work  progresses. 

EFFLORESCENCE. — When  the  face  of  some  walls  become  wet 
or  damp  they  will  be  covered  with  a  sort  of  white  efflorescence; 
it  is  in  some  cases  a  nitrate  or  carbonate  of  potash,  more  fre- 
quently a  carbonate  or  sulphate  of  soda.  There  is  no  way 
to  prevent  this  unless  by  coating  the  bricks  with  some  prepara- 
tion to  render  them  water-  and  moisture-proof. 

Estimating  Bricklayers'  Work. — Brickwork  is  esti- 
mated at  the  rate  of  a  brick  and  a  half  thick.  Therefore  if  a  wall 
be  more  or  less  than  this  standard  of  thickness,  it  must  be 
reduced  to  it  as  follows: 

Rule. — Multiply  the  superficial  contents  of  the  wall  by  the 
number  of  half  bricks  in  the  thickness  and  one-third  of  that 
product  will  be  the  contents  required. 

Example. — How  many  bricks  will  it  require  to  build  a  house 
30  feet  square,  20  feet  high,  and  12  inches  thick,  above  which 
is  a  triangular  gable  rising  12  feet  and  8  inches  thick  ? 

30  X  6  =  180  =  1  gable  end 
30X6  =  180  =  1  gable  end 

360X15  = 5,400 

30 + 30  =  60  =  two  side  walls 
28 + 28  =  56  =  two  end  walls 

116 

20=  height 

2320X22J= 52,200 


57,600  (Ans.) 

One  barrel  lime  will  lay  1000  to  1200  bricks. 

One  man  with  one  tender  will  lay  1800  to  2000  bricks  per  day. 

One  thousand  bricks  closely  stacked  occupy  56  cubic  feet. 


ESTIMATING  BRICKLAYERS'  WORK 


101 


One  thousand  old  bricks  cleaned  and  loosely  stacked  occupy 
about  70  cubic  feet. 

Six  hundred  bricks,  1  cubic  yard  in  wall. 


TABLE  OF   NUMBER  OF   BRICKS   REQUIRED  IN  A  WALL  PER 
SQUARE   FOOT   OF   FACE   OF   WALL. 


4  inches 7* 

8      "     15 

12      " 22* 

16      "     30 

20      "     37* 


24  inches 45 

28      "     52* 

32      "     60 

36      "     67* 

40      "     ,  ,..75 


TABLE  TO  FIND  THE  NUMBER  OF  BRICKS  IN  ANY  WALL. 


Super- 
ficial Feet 
of  Wall. 

Number  of  Bricks  to  Thickness  of  Wall. 

4-ioch. 

8-inch. 

12-inch. 

16-inch. 

20-inch. 

24-inch. 

1 

7* 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

2 

15 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

3 

23 

45 

68 

90 

113 

135 

4 

30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

180 

5 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

6 

45 

90 

135 

180 

225 

270* 

7 

53 

105 

158 

210 

263 

315 

8 

60 

120 

180 

240 

300 

300 

9 

68 

135 

203 

270 

338 

405 

10 

75 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450 

20 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

900 

30 

225 

450 

675 

900 

1,125 

1,350 

40 

300 

600 

900 

1,200 

1,500 

1,800 

50 

375 

750 

1,125 

1,500 

1,875 

2,250 

60 

450 

900 

1,350 

1,800 

2,250 

2,700 

70 

525 

1,050 

1,575 

2,100 

2,625 

3,150 

80 

600 

1,200 

1,800 

2,400 

3,000 

3,600 

90 

675 

1,350 

2,025 

2,700 

3,375 

4,050 

100 

750 

1,500 

2,250 

3,000 

3,750 

4,500 

200 

1,500 

3,000 

4,500 

6,000 

7,500 

9,000 

300 

2,250 

4,500 

6,750 

9,000 

11,250 

13,500 

400 

3,000 

6,000 

9,000 

12,000 

15,000 

18,000 

500 

3,750 

7,500 

11,250 

15,000 

18,750 

22,500 

600 

4,500 

9,000 

13,500 

18,000 

22,500 

27,000 

700 
800 

5,250 
6,000 

10,500 
12,000 

15,750 
18,000 

21,000 
24,000 

26,250 
30,000 

31,500 
36,000 

900 

6,750 

13,500 

20,250 

27,000 

33,750 

40,500 

1,000 

7,500 

15,000 

22,500 

30,000 

37,500 

45,000 

Example. — Find  the  number  of  bricks  in  a  wall  8  inches 
thick,  5  feet  high,  and  10  feet  long;  five  multiplied  by  ten 
equals  50  feet  of  wall  8  inches  thick.  Under  8  inches  and 
opposite  50  you  will  find  750,  the  number  of  bricks  in  the  wall. 

The  above  tables  are  based  on  the  usual  sizes  of  Eastern 
brick;  Western  brick  are  made  some  larger  and  will  take  a 
slight  percentage  less  than  in  the  above  tables. 


102  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PAVING,  ETC. 

Paving1,  etc. — As  a  guide  for  street-paving,  etc.,  the  follow- 
ing specifications  are  given  which  form  a  good  guide  for  such 
work: 


SPECIFICATIONS. 

CITY  OF  CHICAGO,  BOARD  OF  LOCAL  IMPROVEMENTS. 

COMBINED  CURB  AND  GUTTER.      STREET-PAVING.      PORTLAND- 
CEMENT  FOUNDATION.     WEARING  SURFACE,  EITHER 
BRICK  OR  ASPHALT. 

COMBINED  CURB  AND  GUTTER. — In  making  the  combined 
curb  and  gutter  Portland  cement  shall  be  used  and  ordinarily 
will  be  subjected  to  the  following  inspection  and  tests: 

Fineness. — It  shall  be.  so  ground  that  nine-two  (92)  per  cent 
will  pass  through  a  standard  No.  100  sieve  having  10,000  meshes 
per  square  inch. 

Soundness. — It  shall  meet  the  requirement  of  the  "boiling" 
test. 

"  Setting. — The  cement  when  mixed  with  twenty  (20)  per  cent 
of  water,  by  measure,  shall  take  initial  set  in  not  less  than 
forty-five  (45)  minutes. 

Strength. — Briquettes  one  (1")  inch  square  in  section  shall 
develop  the  following  ultimate  tensile  strength: 

Neat — one  day  in  air  and  6  days  in  water,  400  pounds. 

One  (1)  part  cement  to  two  (2)  parts  fine  granite  screenings 
— one  day  in  air  and  6  days  in  water,  200  pounds;  and  shall 
show  a  gradual  increase  in  strength  of  fifteen  (15)  per  cent 
at  the  end  of  twenty-eight  (28)  days. 

Samples  of  cements  which  it  is  proposed  to  use  in  the  work 
shall  be  submitted  to  the  Board  of  Local  Improvements  in 
such  quantities  and  such  time  and  place  as  to  make  all  the 
required  tests. 

The  Board  of  Local  Improvements  reserves  the  right  to 
reject  without  recourse  any  cement  which  is  not  satisfactory, 
whether  for  reasons  mentioned  in  these  specifications  or  for 
any  good  and  sufficient  cause. 

All  cement  to  be  used  in  the  combined  curb  and  gutter  must 
be  delivered  on  the  work  in  approved  packages  bearing  the 
name,  brand,  or  stamp  of  the  manufacturer.  It  shall  be 
thoroughly  protected  from  the  weather  until  used,  in  such 
manner  as  may  be  directed. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PAVING,  ETC.  103 

The  granite  screenings  used  in  making  the  concrete  shall 
be  clean,  dry,  free  from,  dust,  loam,  and  dirt,  and  when  delivered 
on  the  street  shall  be  deposited  on  flooring  and  kept  clean  until 
used. 

The  crushed  granite  shall  be  clean,  free  from  dust  and  dirt, 
broken  so  as  to  measure  not  more  than  one  (1")  inch  in  any 
dimension,  and  when  delivered  on  the  street  shall  be  deposited 
on  a  flooring  and  kept  clean  until  used. 

The  granite  concrete  combined  curb  and  gutter  shall  be 
constructed  at  the  established  grade  and  in  a  continuous  line 

on  each  side  of  the  street ( .  . ')  feet  from  and  parallel 

with  the  centre  line  thereof,  except  at  all  intersections  of  streets 
and  alleys,  where  it  shall  be  returned  to  the  street  line,  and  at 
such  intersections  there  shall  be  formed  the  necessary  circular 
stones  built  to  such  radii  as  the  engineer  may  direct.  All 
grades  and  lines  will  be  given  by  the  engineer.  The  combined 
curb  and  gutter  shall  rest  on  a  foundation  of  cinders  which  must 
be  six  (6")  inches  in  thickness  after  being  thoroughly  flooded 
and  compactly  rammed  to  an  even  surface. 

The  curb  and  gutter  shall  be  made  of  concrete  formed  by 
intimately  mixing  one  (1)  part  of  cement  with  two  (2)  parts 
of  fine  granite  screenings ;  to  this  mixture  shall  be  added  four 
(4)  parts  of  crushed  granite  and  the  whole  thoroughly  mixed 
together,  after  which  just  sufficient  water  to  wet  the  mass  shall 
be  added,  so  that  when  it  is  rammed  in  place  a  film  of  moisture 
shall  appear  on  top.  All  exposed  surfaces  shall  be  covered 
with  a  finishing  coat  of  mortar  three-eighths  (f")  inch  in 
thickness,  composed  of  one  (1)  part  of  the  cement  thoroughly 
mixed  wit>h  one  and  one-half  (1£)  parts  of  the  fine  granite 
screenings.  Before  the  concrete  sets,  the  curb  and  gutter  shall 
be  cut  into  sections  not  exceeding  six  (6')  feet  in  length. 

The  gutter  flag  must  be  eighteen  (18")  inches  wide  and 
five  (5")  inches  thick;  the  curb  must  be  seven  (7")  inches  thick 
throughout,  except  at  the  upper  face  corner,  which  is  to  be 
rounded  to  a  radius  of  one  and  one-half  (1|")  inches.  The 
height  of  the  curve  above  the  gutter  flags  will  be  of  varying 
dimensions,  averaging  not  less  than (.  .")  inches. 

The  contractor  or  contractors  shall  build  without  extra 
charge  all  "inlets"  necessary  to  properly  connect  the  com- 
bined curb  and  gutter  with  the  catch-basins  and  such  steps  on 
the  gutter  flags  at  the  crossings  as  the  engineer  may  direct. 

The  curb  and  gutter  shall  be  back-filled  to  the  top,  and  filling 


104  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PAVING,  ETC. 

at  that  point  shall  be  four  (40  feet  wide  and  shall  have  a  slope 
of  one  and  one-half  (1J)  horizontal  to  one  (1)  vertical.  The 
full  quantity  of  filling  shall  be  put  in  front  and  back  of  each 
section  of  curb  and  gutter  as  it  is  built,  and  must  be  thoroughly 
rammed  with  a  proper  rammer  at  the  same  time  so  that  the 
curb  and  gutter  will  be  firmly  held  in  place. 

CONCRETE  FOUNDATION. — After  the  sub-grade  is  prepared 
a  foundation  of  Portland-cement  concrete  to  a  uniform  thick- 
ness of  six  (6")  inches  shall  be  laid. 

CEMENT. — In  making  the  concrete,  Portland  cement  shall 
pass  same  specifications  as  for  cement  used  in  curb  and  gutter 
work. 

SAND. — The  sand  used  in  making  the  concrete  shall  be  clean, 
dry,  free  from  dust,  loam,  and  dirt,  of  sizes  ranging  from  one- 
eighth  (!")  inch  down^  to  the  finest,  and  in  such  proportion 
that  the  voids  as  determined  by  saturation  shall  not  exceed 
thirty-three  (33)  per  cent  of  the  entire  volume,  and  it  shall  weigh 
not  less  than  one  hundred  (100)  poundc  per  cubic  foot. 

No  wind-drifted  sand  shall  be  used. 

The  sand  when  delivered  on  the  street  shall  be  deposited  on 
flooring  and  kept  clean  until  used. 

CRUSHED  STONE. — The,  crushed  stone  used  in  making  the 
concrete  shall  be  of  the  best  quality  of  limestone,  clean,  free 
from  dirt,  broken  so  as  to  measure  not  more  than  two  (2") 
inches  and  not  less  than  one  (I")  inch  in  any  dimension. 

The  stone  when  delivered  on  the  street  shall  be  deposited 
on  flooring  and  kept  clean  until  used. 

MIXING  AND  LAYING  OF  CONCRETE. — The  concrete  shall  be 
mixed  on  movable  tight  iron  platforms  of  such  size  as  shall 
accommodate  the  manipulations  hereinafter  specified. 

The  cement,  sand,  and  stone  shall  be  mixed  in  the  following 
proportions:  One  (1)  part  of  cement,  three  (3)  parts  of  sand, 
and  seven  (7)  parts  of  crushed  stone.  The  sand  and  cement 
shall  be  thoroughly  mixed,  dry,  to  which  sufficient  water  shall 
be  added  and  then  made  into  a  stiff  mortar.  The  crushed  stone 
shall  then  be  immediately  incorporated  in  the  mortar  and  the 
mass  thoroughly  mixed,  adding  water  from  time  to  time  as 
the  mixing  progresses,  until  each  particle  of  stone  is  covered 
with  mortar. 

The  concrete  shall  be  removed  from  the  platform  with  shovels 
and  deposited  in  a  layer  on  the  roadway  in  such  quantities  that 
after  being  rammed  in  place  it  shall  be  of  the  required  thickness 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PAVING.  ETC.  105 

and  the  upper  surface  shall  be  true  and  smooth  and ( .  . ") 

inches  below  and  parallel  with  the  top  of  the  finished  pavement. 

During  the  progress  of  the  work  the  sub-grade  must  be  kept 
moist. 

The  concrete  shall  be  sprinkled  so  as  to  prevent  checking  in  hot 
weather,  and  shall  be  protected  from  injury  at  all  times,  and 
shall  lay  at  least  seven  days  before  being  covered  with  the 
wearing  surface,  or  a  longer  time  if  deemed  necessary. 

SAND  CUSHION. — Upon  the  concrete  foundation  shall  be 
spread  a  layer  of  sand  in  such  quantity  as  to  insure,  when 
compacted,  a  uniform  thickness  of  one  (I/')  inch. 

On  surfacing  said  layer  of  sand  the  contractor  or  contractors 
shall  use  such  guides  and  templets  as  the  engineer  may  direct. 

WEARING  SURFACE. — Upon  the  layer  of  sand  as  above  speci- 
fied shall  be  placed  the  brick  of  such  quality  and  in  such  manner 
as  hereinafter  specified. 

QUALITY  OF  BRICKS. — The  brick  to  be  used  shall  be  of  the 
best  quality  of  vitrified  paving  brick.  Salt-glazed  bricks  will 
not  be  received. 

The  dimensions  of  the  brick  used  shall  be  the  same  through- 
out the  entire  work  in  any  particular  case,  and  shall  be  not 
less  than  eight  (8")  inches  in  length,  four  (4//)  inches  in  depth, 
and  two  and  one-half  (2J")  inches  in  thickness,  with  rounded 
edges  to  a  radius  of  one-quarter  (£")  of  an  inch. 

Said  brick  shall  be  of  a  kind  known  as  repressed  vitrified 
paving  brick  and  shall  be  repressed  to  the  extent  that  the  max- 
imum amount  of  material  is  forced  into  them.  They  shall  be 
free  from  lime  and  other  impurities,  shall  be  as  nearly  uniform 
in  every  respect  as  possible,  shall  be  burned  so  as  to  secure  the 
maximum  hardness,  so  annealed  as  to  reach  the  ultimate  degree 
of  toughness,  and  thoroughly  vitrified  so  as  to  make  a  homoge- 
neous mass. 

The  bricks  shall  be  free  from  all  laminations  caused  by  the 
process  of  manufacture,  and  free  from  fire-cracks  or  checks  of 
more  than  superficial  character  or  extent. 

Any  firm,  person,  or  corporation  bidding  for  the  work  to  be 
done  shall  furnish  specimen  brick,  which  shall  be  submitted  to 
a  "water-absorption"  test,  and  if  such  brick  show  a  water  absorp- 
tion exceeding  three  (3)  per  cent  of  their  weight  when  dry,  the 
bid  of  the  person,  firm,  or  corporation  so  furnishing  the  same 
shall  be  rejected.  Such  " water-absorption"  test  shall  be 
made  by  the  Board  of  Local  Improvements  of  the  City  of 


106  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PAVING,  ETC. 

Chicago,  in  the  following  manner,  to  wit :  Not  less  than  three  (3) 
bricks  shall  be  broken  across,  thoroughly  dried,  and  then 
immersed  in  water  for  seventy-two  (72)  hours.  The  absorption 
shall  then  be  determined  by  the  difference  between  the  weight 
dry  and  the  weight  at  the  expiration  of  said  seventy-two  (72) 
hours. 

Twenty  or  more  specimen  bricks  shall  also  be  furnished  by 
each  bidder  for  submission  to  the  "abrasion"  test  by  the  Board 
of  Local  Improvements.  Such  test  shall  be  made  in  the  follow- 
ing manner,  to  wit :  Such  specimen  brick  or  a  sufficient  number 
to  fill  15  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  the  rattler  shall  be  submitted 
to  a  test  for  one  hour  in  the  machine  known  as  the  "rattler," 
which  shall  measure  twenty  (20")  inches  in  length  and  twenty- 
eight  (28")  inches  in  diameter,  inside  measurement,  and  shall 
be  revolved  at  the  rate  of  thirty  (30)  revolutions  per  minute 
If  the  loss  of  weight  by  abrasion  during  such  test  shall  exceed 
twenty  (20)  per  cent  of  the  original  weight  of  the  brick  tested, 
then  such  bid  shall  be  rejected. 

All  brick  shall  have  a  specific  gravity  of  not  less  than  two 
and  one-tenth  (21/,n)»  as  determined  by  the  formula  specific 

W 
gravitjr  equals  ^      /r ;    where  W  equals  weight  of  brick  dry, 

Wf  equals  weight  of  brick  after  being  immersed  in  water  for 
seventy-two  (72)  hours,  and  W"  equals  weight  of  brick  in  water. 

All  brick  used  must  be  equal  in  every  respect  to  the  speci- 
'  men  submitted  by  the  bidders  to  the  Board  of  Local  Improve- 
ments for  test. 

How  Laid. — All  brick  shall  be  delivered  on  the  work  in  bar- 
rows, and  in  no  case  will  teams  be  allowed  on  the  street  before 
the  wearing  surface  is  rolled. 

Broken  bricks  can  only  be  used  to  break  joints  in  starting 
courses  and  in  making  closures,  but  in  no  case  shall  less  than 
half  a  brick  be  used. 

The  bricks  shall  be  laid  on  edge,  close  together,  in  straight 
lines  across  the  roadway,  between  gutters,  and  at  right  angles 
to  the  curbs  and  perpendicular  to  the  grade  of  the  street.  Gut- 
ters shall  be  constructed  as  directed  by  the  engineer. 

The  joints  shall  be  broken  by  a  lap  of  not  less  than  three  (3") 
inches. 

On  intersections  and  junctions  of  lateral  streets  the  bricks 
shall  be  laid  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  (45°)  degrees  with  the 
line  of  the  street  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  engineer. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PAVING,  ETC.  107 

The  bricks  when  set  shall  be  rolled  with  a  roller  weighing 
not  less  than  five  (5)  tons  until  the  bricks  are  well  settled  and 
made  firm.  Or,  if  the  engineer  shall  direct,  the  bricks,  when 
set,  shall  be  thoroughly  rammed  two  or  more  times,  the 
ramming  to  be  done  under  a  flatter,  with  a  paving  rammer 
weighing  not  less  than  thirty  (30)  pounds,  the  iron  of  the  ram- 
mer face  in  no  case  to  come  in  contact  with  the  pavement. 

After  rolling  and  ramming,  all  broken  brick  found  in  the 
pavement  must  at  once  be  removed  and  replaced  by  sound 
and  perfect  brick. 

PITCHING  OR  GROUTING  AND  TOP-DRESSING.  —  When  the 
bricks  are  thoroughly  bedded,  the  surface  of  the  pavement 
must  be  true  for  grade  and  crown.  The  surface  of  the  pave- 
ment shall  then  be  swept  clean,  and  the  joints  or  spaces  between 
the  brick  shall  be  completely  filled  with  a  paving  pitch  which 
is  the  direct  result  of  the  distillation  of  " straight-run"  coal- 
tar,  and  of  such  quality  and  consistency  as  shall  be  approved 
by  the  Board  of  Local  Improvements.  The  pitch  must  be 
used  at  a  temperature  of  not  less  than  280  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

When  t*he  brick  are  thoroughly  bedded,  the  surface  of  the 
pavement  must  be  true  for  grade  and  crown.  The  surface 
of  the  pavement  shall  then  be  swept  clean,  and  the  joints  or 
spaces  between  the  bricks  shall  be  filled  with  a  cement  grout 
filler  composed  of  limestone  65  per  cent,  furnace  slag  25  per 
cent,  and  potters'  clay  10  per  cent,  to  be  made  as  follows:  The 
above  materials  in  the  proportions  stated  shall  be  mixed  to- 
gether and  ground  into  an  impalpable  powder  and  then  burned 
in  kilns  until  reduced  to  clinker,  after  which  it  shall  again  be 
ground  into  an  impalpable  powder.-  Equal  portions  of  said 
grout  and  clean,  sharp  sand  shall  then  be  thoroughly  mixed, 
and  sufficient  water  added  to  bring  the  mixture  to  such  a  con- 
sistency as  will  allow  it  to  run  to  the  bottom  of  the  joints  between 
the  brick.  After  said  joints  are  filled  to  the  top,  the  surface 
shall  be  finished  off  smoothly  with  steel  brooms. 

After  the  spaces  between  the  brick  have  been  filled  with 
the  pitch  or  grout  as  above  specified,  the  surface  of  the  pave- 
ment shall  then  receive  a  one-half  ($")  inch  dressing  of  sand, 
evenly  spread  over  the  whole  surface. 

Where  cement  grout  is  used  as  a  filler  the  pavement  must  be 
kept  clear  of  traffic  for  a  period  of  four  (4)  days — or  as  much 
longer  as  the  engineer  may  direct — after  the  application  thereof. 

ASPHALTIC  CEMENT. — The  asphaltic  cement  hereinafter  speci- 


108  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PAVING,  ETC. 

fied  shall  be  made  of  refined  Trinidad  Lake  asphalt,  obtained 
from  the  island  of  Trinidad,  or  of  an  asphalt  of  equal  quality 
for  paving  purposes,  and  heavy  petroleum-oil.  The  oil  shall 
be  mixed  with  the  asphalt  in  such  proportions  as  are  suitable 
to  the  character  of  the  asphalt  used. 

BINDER  COURSE. — Upon  the  concrete  foundation  as  above 
specified  shall  be  laid  a  "binder"  course,  composed  of  clean 
broken  limestone  of  a  size  known  as  "small  concrete,"  and 
asphaltic  cement.  The  stone  shall  be  heated  and  thoroughly 
mixed  with  asphaltic  cement  in  the  proportion  of  fifteen  (15) 
gallons  of  asphaltic  cement  to  one  (1)  cubic  yard  of  stnne; 
the  mixing  shall  be  continued  until  each  particle  of  stone  is 
thoroughly  coated  with  the  asphaltic  cement.  This  binder 
shall  be  spread  on  the  base  above  described,  and,  while  in  a 
hot  and  plastic  condition,  shall  be  rolled,  with  a  five  (5)  ton 
steam-roller  until  it  has  a  uniform  thickness  of  one  and  one-half 
(1J")  inches.  The  upper  surface  shall  be  parallel  with  and 
two  (2//)  inches  below  the  final  surface  of  the  pavement. 

Binder  that  has  been  burned  or  has  become  chilled  shall  be 
removed  from  the  line  of  the  work. 

WEARING  SURFACE. — Upon  this  binder  course  shall  be  laid 
a  wearing  surface,  which  shall  be  composed  of  asphaltic  cement 
seventeen  (17)  parts,  sand  seventy-three  (73)  parts,  and  pul- 
verized carbonate  of  lime  ten  (10)  parts.  The  sand  and  asphaltic 
cement  shall  be  heated  separately  to  a  temperature  of  three- 
hundred  (300°)  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  pulverized  car- 
bonate of  lime  shall  be  mixed  with  the  sand,  and  these  ingre- 
dients then  mixed  with  the  asphaltic  cement  at  the  above 
temperature,  in  an  apparatus  which  shall  effect  a  perfect  mix- 
ture. 

The  mixture  at  a  temperature  of  not  less  than  two  hundred 
and  fifty  (250°)  degrees  Fahrenheit  shall  then  be  carefully 
spread  by  means  of  hot  iron  rakes  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give 
a  uniform  and  regular  grade,  and  on  such  a  depth  that  after 
having  received  its  ultimate  compression  it  will  have  a  thick- 
ness of  two  (2")  inches.  The  surface  shall  be  compressed  by 
rollers,  after  which  a  small  amount  of  hydraulic  cement  shall 
be  swept  over  it,  and  it  shall  then  be  thoroughly  compressed 
by  a  fifteen  (15)  ton  steam-roller,  the  rolling  being  continued 
as  long  as  it  makes  an  impression  on  the  surface. 

Where  necessary  to  make  the  gutters  impervious  to  water, 
a  width  of  twelve  (12")  inches  next  to  the  curb  shall  be  coated 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PAVING,  ETC.  109 

with  hot  pure  asphalt  and  smoothed  with  hot  smoothing- 
irons  in  order  to  saturate  the  pavement  with  excess  of  asphalt. 

HEADERS. — At  the  end  of  each  intersecting  street  and  alley 
wing  there  shall  be  placed  a  "header,"  extending  from  curb 
to  curb,  and  so  dressed  as  to  conform  to  the  crown  of  the  pave- 
ment. The  "header"  shall  be  constructed  of  three  by  twelve 
(3"X12")  inch  oak  plank,  properly  supported  by  six  (6") 
inch  split  cedar  posts,  three  (30  feet  in  length,  firmly  set  hi 
the  ground  and  spaced  not  more  than  five  (50  feet  apart. 

All  " headers"  shall  be  constructed  by  the  contractor  or 
contractors  without  extra  charge. 

CROSSWALKS. — Unless  otherwise  directed  by  the  engineer 
there  shall  be  formed  in  the  pavement  four  (4)  crosswalks 
at  each  street  intersection,  three  (3)  at  each  half  intersection, 
and  one  (1)  near  the  middle  of  each  long  block.  A  gutter 
nine  (9")  inches  in  the  clear  width  shall  be  constructed  at 
the  ends  of  the  crosswalks  by  setting  sandstone  curbing  in 
the  roadway  nine  (9")  inches  from  and  parallel  with  the  curb 
line.  The  sandstone  curbing  must  be  four  (4")  inches  thick 
and  twenty -four  (24")  inches  deep,  and  the  length  of  the  curb- 
ing shall  be  within  two  (20  feet  of  the  width  of  the  abutting 
sidewalk  space;  provided,  however,  that  the  minimum  length 
of  said  curbing  shall  be  six  (60  feet. 

The  crosswalks,  gutters,  and  their  appurtenances  shall  be 
formed  and  constructed  where  and  as  directed  by  the  engineer, 
and  without  extra  cost  over  and  above  the  price  paid  per  square 
yard  for  the  pavement. 


PART  III. 

LIME,  SAND,  CEMENT,  MORTAR,  AND  CON- 
CRETE. CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION. 
FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION, 
PARTITIONS,  ETC.  ARCHITECTURAL 
TERRA  -  COTTA.  FIRE  -  PROOF  CON- 
STRUCTION AND  FIRE  PROTECTION 
OF  BUILDINGS. 


Lime,  Sand,  and  Cement. — Mortar  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal materials  used  in  construction,  and  upon  which  the  strength 
and  stability  of  the  structure  depends  to  a  great  extent;  hence 
the  different  materials  and  proportions  used  in  making  the 
mortar  must  receive  particular  attention  from  the  superin- 
tendent. He  must  be  so  familiar  with  the  different  materials 
used  that  he  will  be  able  to  judge  the  quality  of  them  so  as  to 
determine  any  worthless  material  and  reject  it  at  once. 

SAND. — Sand,  which  enters  largely  into  the  composition 
of  all  mortars,  should  be  sharp  and  angular  and  comparatively 
free  from  any  dirt  or  loam.  Recent  experiments  have  shown 
that  a  slight  percentage  of  clay  in  the  sand  used  for  cement 
mortar  does  not  affect  its  strength,  but  there  should  not  be 
more  than  5  per  cent  of  clay  in  the  sand.  For  rough  stone  or 
common  brick  work  the  sand  should  be  coarse,  but  for  "  press  " 
brick  and  setting  ashlar  it  should  be  fine,  so  as  to  get  a  close 
joint.  Marble  dust  is  often  used  in  place  of  sand  where  a  close 
joint  is  desired  in  the  work. 

By  taking  a  small  amount  of  sand  and  spreading  it  over 
the  hand  or  examining  it  with  a  magnifying-glass  the  superin- 
tendent can  readily  determine  its  quality. 

110 


LIME.  HI 

When  ocean  sand  is  used  for  plastering  or  any  work  where  the 
salt  is  liable  to  come  to  the  surface  and  show,  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly washed. 

For  concrete  or  any  rough  work,  the  salt  does  not  affect  it. 

LIME.  —  Lime  is  obtained  by  burning  limestone.  When 
carbonate  of  lime  is  calcined  the  carbonic  acid  is  thrown  off 
and  lime  is  obtained.  It  is  then  known  as  caustic  lime  or 
quicklime;  if  it  then  be  mixed  with  water  it  will  throw  out 
great  heat,  swell  to  several  times  its  original  bulk,  and  finally 
falls  to  a  powder.  In  this  state  it  is  known  as  slaked  or  a 
hydrate  of  lime. 

The  quality  of  lime  depends  on  the  composition  of  the  lime- 
stone from  which  it  is  made.  Those  stones  which  are  nearly 
pure  carbonate  of  lime  make  the  best  lime,  while  those  which 
contain  much  impurities,  such  as  silica,  clay,  magnesia,  and 
alkalies,  make  the  poorest  lime  according  to  the  amount  of 
impurities  contained. 

Good  lime  should  be  free  from  cinders  or  unburned  stone, 
and  not  contain  a  large  per  cent  of  impurities;  over  10  per 
cent  of  impurities  makes  poor  lime  and  it  should  be  rejected. 

Lime  should  be  in  large  hard  pieces  and  contain  little  dust. 
When  wet  with  water  it  should  slake  readily  into  a  smooth, 
fine  paste  or  putty.  The  lime  should  slake  by  simply  im- 
mersing it  it  the  water,  although  stirring  it  will  hasten  it  some- 
what. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  lime  used  is  freshly 
burned  and  has  not  been  exposed  to  the  air,  which  will  cause 
it  to  "air  slake"  and  make  it  unfit  for  use;  he  should  also  see 
that  proper  provisions  have  been  made  to  keep  and  protect 
the  lime  at  the  work,  for  lime  exposed  to  a  damp  atmosphere 
for  a  day  will  absorb  dampness  enough  to  cause  it  to  slake. 

WHAT  ONE  BARREL  OF  LIME  WILL  Do. 

1  barrel  of  lime  will  make  2|  barrels  of  paste. 

1      "       "     "       "    lay  3  perch  of  stone  rubble. 

1      "       "     "       "      "    1000  to  1200  bricks. 

1      "       "     "       "    plaster  28  yards  of  3-coat  work. 

1  (I  U        <(  if  «  Af\          K  «    O_      "  " 

1      "       "     "     equals  3  bushels  of  80  pounds  each. 

HYDRAULIC  LIME. — Hydraulic  lime  is  made  from  calcareous 
rock  containing  12  to  30  per  cent  of  silica,  alumina,  iron,  and 


112  CEMENTS. 

magnesia;  when  calcined  at  a  low  temperature  it  will  slake 
and  will  set  and  harden  in  water  in  from  one  to  ten  days  to 
five  or  six  months,  depending  on  the  amount  of  silica  and 
alumina  contained.  Hydraulic  lime  is  not  used  much  in  this 
country,  as  natural  cement  takes  its  place.  The  following  is 
an  average  of  French  hydraulic  lime: 

Silica 22 . 0  per  cent 

Alumina 2.0  " 

Oxide  of  iron 1.0  " 

Lime 63.0  " 

Magnesia 1.5  " 

Sulphuric  acid 0.5  " 

Water 10.0  " 

100 . 0  per  cent 

Cements. — Natural  cements  are  generally  called  Rosen- 
dale  cement,  from  the  name  of  the  town  in  New  York  where 
it  was  first  made  in  this  country.  It  is  made  from  a  natural 
rock  containing  about  60  per  cent  of  lime  and  magnesia  to 
about  40  per  cent  of  silica  and  alumina,  with  a  little  iron  or 
potash.  This  cement  sets  and  attains  its  limit  of  strength 
much  quicker  than  Portland,  and  is  used  where  extreme  strength 
is  not  necessary.  Portland  cement,  because  the  price  is  becom- 
ing cheaper  than  in  former  days,  is  now  fast  taking  the  place 
of  Rosendale  cement. 

Rosendale  cement  is  usually  a  dark  brown;  a  light  color 
indicates  an  inferior  cement. 

WEIGHT  AND  CHEMICAL  ANALYSIS. — Weight. — The  average 
weight  of  Louisville  or  Rosendale  cement  is  as  follows: 

1  cubic  foot,  loose 55^  pounds. 

1  cubic  foot,  packed 74         " 

Therefore  a  barrel  of  265  pounds  contains  4.77  cubic  feet  of 
loose  cement  and  3.58  cubic  feet  of  packed  cement. 

Louisville  cement  is  shipped  in  three  kinds  of  packages:  bar- 
rels, weighing  285  pounds  gross;  paper  bags,  82  pounds  each; 
and  jute  sacks,  weighing  133  pounds  each. 

Chemical  Analysis. — The  following  is  a  characteristic  analysis 
of  Louisville  or  Rosendale  cement: 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  NATURAL  CEMENT.       113 

Silica 26 . 40  per  cent 

Alumina 6 . 28  " 

Iron  oxide 1 .00  " 

Lime 45. 22  " 

Magnesia 9 . 00  " 

Potash  and  soda 4 . 24  " 

Sulphate  lime 0.00  " 

Carbonic  acid,  water,  and  loss.  ...  7. 86  " 


100.00  per  cent 

The  following  specifications  for  natural  cements  have  been 
prepared  and  are  used  by  the  United  States  Engineer  Depart- 
ment; 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  NATURAL  CEMENT. 

(1)  The  cement  shall  be  a  freshly  packed  natural  or  Rosen- 
dale,  dry  and  free  from  lumps.     By  natural  cement  is  meant 
one  made  by  calcining  natural  rock  at  a  heat  below  incipient 
fusion  and  grinding  the  product  to  powder. 

(2)  The  cement  shall  be   put   up  in  strong,  sound  barrels, 
well  lined  with  paper  so  as  to  be  reasonably  protected  against 
moisture,   or  in   stout   cloth  or  canvas  sacks.     Each  package 
shall  be  plainly  labelled  with  the  name  of  the  brand  and  of 
the  manufacturer. 

Any  package  broken  or  containing  damaged  cement  may 
be  rejected  or  accepted  as  a  fractional  package,  at  the  option 
of  the  United  States  agent  in  local  charge. 

(3)  Bidders  will  state  the  brand  of  cement  which  they  pro- 
pose to  furnish.     The  right  is  reserved  to  reject  a  tender  for 
any  brand  which  has  not  given  satisfaction  in  use  under  cli- 
matic or  other  conditions  of  exposure  of  at  least  equal  severity 
to  those  of  the  work  proposed. 

(4)  Tenders    will   be    received   only   from   manufacturers   or 
their  authorized  agents. 

(The  following  paragraph  will  be  substituted  for  paragraphs 
3  and  4  above  when  cement  is  to  be  furnished  and  placed  by 
the  contractor: 

No  cement  will  be  allowed  to  be  used  except  established 
brands  of  high-grade  natural  cement  which  have  been  in  suc- 
cessful use  under  similar  climatic  conditions  to  those  of  the 
proposed  work.) 


114       SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  NATURAL  CEMENT. 

(5)  The  average  net  weight  per  barrel  shall  not  be  less  than 
300    pounds.      (West    of   the    Allegheny    Mountains   this   may 
be    265  pounds.)  .  .  .  Sacks  of    cement  shall   have  the   same 
weight  as  1  barrel.     If  the  average  net  weight,  as  determined 
by  test  weighings,  is  found  to  be  below  300  pounds  (265)  per 
barrel,  the  cement  may  be  rejected,  or,  at  the  option  of  the 
engineer  officer  in  charge,  the  contractor  may  be  required  to 
supply  free  of  cost  to  the  United  States  an  additional  amount 
of  cement  equal  to  the  shortage. 

(6)  Tests  may  be  made  of  the  fineness,  time  of  setting,  and 
tensile  strength  of  the  cement. 

(7).  FINENESS.— At  least  80  per  cent  of  the  cement  must 
pass  through  a  sieve  made  of  No.  40  wire,  Stubb's  gauge,  hav- 
ing 10,000  openings  per  square  inch. 

(8)  TIME    OF   SETTING. — The    cement    shall    not    acquire    its 
initial  set  in  less  than  twenty  minutes  and  must  have  acquired 
its  final  set  in  four  hours. 

(9)  The  time  of  setting  is  to  be  determined  from  a  pat  of 
neat  cement  mixed  for  five  minutes  with  30  per  cent  of  water 
by  weight  and  kept  under  a  wet  cloth  until  finally  set.     The 
cement  is  considered  to  have  acquired  its  initial  set  when  the 
pat  will  bear,  without  being  appreciably  indented,  a  wire  one- 
twelfth  inch  in   diameter  loaded  to   weigh  one-fourth  pound. 
The  final  set  has  been  acquired  when  the  pat  will  bear,  with- 
out being  appreciably  indented,  a  wire  one  twenty-fourth  inch 
in  diameter  loaded  to  weigh  1  pound. 

(10)  TENSILE  STRENGTH. — Briquettes  made  of  neat  cement 
shall  develop  the  following  tensile  strengths  per  square  inch, 
after  having  been  kept  in  air  for  twenty-four  hours  under  a 
wet  cloth  and  the  balance  of  the  time  in  water: 

At  the  end  of  seven  days,  90  pounds;  at  the  end  of  twenty- 
eight  days,  200  pounds. 

Briquettes  made  of  one  part  cement  and  one  part  standard 
sand  by  weight  shall  develop  the  following  tensile  strengths 
per  square  inch: 

After  seven  days,  60  pounds;  after  twenty-eight  days,  150 
pounds. 

(11)  The  highest  result  from  each  set  of  briquettes  made  at 
any   one   time    is   to   be   considered   the   governing   test.     Any 
cement  not  showing  an  increase  of  strength  in  the  twenty-eight- 
day  tests  over  the  seven-day  tests  will  be  rejected. 

(12)  The  neat  cement  for  briquettes  shall  be  mixed  with  30 


PORTLAND  CEMENT.  115 

per  cent  of  water  by  weight,  and  the  sand  and  cement  with  17 
per  cent  of  water  by  weight.  After  being  thoroughly  mixed 
and  worked  for  five  minutes  the  cement  or  mortar  is  to  be 
placed  in  the  briquette  mould  in  four  equal  layers,  each  of  which 
is  to  be  rammed  and  compressed  by  thirty  blows  of  a  soft 
brass  or  copper  rammer  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
(or  seven-tenths  of  an  inch  square  with  rounded  corners), 
weighing  1  pound.  It  is  to  be  allowed  to  drop  on  the  mix- 
ture from  a  height  of  about  half  an  inch.  Upon  completion 
of  ramming  the  surplus  cement  shall  be  struck  off  and  the 
layer  smoothed  with  a  trowel  held  nearly  horizontal  and  drawn 
back  with  sufficient  pressure  to  make  its  edge  follow  the  sur- 
face of  the  mould. 

(13)  The  above  are  to  be  considered  the  minimum  require- 
ments.    Unless    a    cement    has    been    recently    used    on    work 
under  this  office,  bidders  will  deliver  a  sample  barrel  for  test 
before  the  opening  of  the  bids.     Any  cement  showing,  by  sample, 
higher  tests  than  those  given  must  maintain  the  average  so 
shown  in  subsequent  deliveries. 

(14)  A  cement  may  be  rejected  which  fails  to  meet  any  of 
the  above  requirements.     An  agent  of  the  contractor  may  be 
present  at  the  making  of  the  tests,  or,  in  case  of  failure  of  any 
of  them,  they  may  be  repeated  in  his  presence.     If  the  con- 
tractor so  desires,  the  engineer  officer  may,  if  he  deems  it  to 
the  interest  of  the  United  States,  have  any  or  all  of  the  tests 
made  or  repeated  at  some  recognized  standard  testing  labora- 
tory in  the  manner  above  specified.     All  expenses  of  such  tests 
shall  be  paid  by  the  contractor,  and  all  such  tests  shall  be 
made  on  samples  furnished  by  the  engineer  officer  from  cement 
actually  delivered  to  him. 

Portland  Cement. — Portland  cement  is  what  is  known  as 
a  tri-calcic  cement  and  is  composed  of  lime,  silica,  alumina, 
iron  oxide,  and  magnesia  artificially  blended  together  into  a 
scientifically  correct  mixture  and  burned  at  a  white  heat.  The 
process  varies  greatly  with  the  character  of  the  raw  materials 
used. 

By  the  heat  of  the  kiln  the  silica,  lime,  alumina,  and  oxide 
of  iron  become  silicate  of  lime  and  alumina,  and  aluminate  of 
lime  and  ferrite  of  lime.  If  the  composition  of  these  compounds 
is  brought  about  in  the  right  proportions  in  the  molecule  and 
in  the  mass,  their  nature  is  to  crystallize  when  wet  with  water, 
and  then  harden  till  they  become  as  rocks 


116  PORTLAND    CEMENT. 

When  any  lime  leaves  the  kiln  uncombined  and  is  not  changed 
to  hydrate  of  lime,  or  carbonate  of  lime  by  exposure  to  the  air, 
the  .uncombined  lime  will  act  as  a  deleterious  ingredient,  and 
is  the  cause  of  the  swelling  of  cement  in  barrels  and  the  checking 
and  blowing  found  in  finished  cement-work;  if  the  cement 
contains  any  of  this  uncombined  lime  it  will  generally  show 
in  the  tests  made  for  soundness  or  expansion. 

Nearly  all  the  Portland  cement  made  in  this  country 
is  produced  artificially.  The  name  "Portland"  is  given  the 
cement  on  account  of  its  color  when  hardened,  which  resembles 
the  color  of  a  stone  found  on  the  Isle  of  Portland,  off  the  coast  of 
England. 

The  quality  of  Portland  cement  depends  on  the  raw  materials 
used,  their  proportion,  and  fineness  to  which  it  is  ground.  Port- 
land cement  sets  much  slower  than  the  natural  cements  and 
requires  a  much  longer  time  to  reach  its  limit  of  strength,  but 
attains  a  much  greater  strength  than  the  natural  cement. 

The  color  of  Portland  cement  is  a  dark  bluish  or  drab  color. 
It  should  weigh  at  least  375  pounds  per  barrel  and  4  sacks  should 
equal  a  barrel.  A  cement  which  is  lighter  in  weight  than  this 
is  liable  to  be  poor. 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. — The  ordinary  composition  of  a  good 
Portland  cement  varies  as  follows: 

Lime from  60  to  64  per  cent 

Silica. from  20  to  24       " 

Alumina  and  iron  oxide. .  .   from  "8  to  12       " 

Magnesia from     1  to    3J     " 

Alkalies from  trace    to    2       " 

Sulphuric  acid from    1  to    2       " 

Cement  containing  over  3£  per  cent  of  magnesia  and  2  per 
cent  of  sulphuric  acid  should  be  avoided. 

The  manufacturers  of  Portland  cement  will  usually  sell  their 
cement  under  the  following  guarantee: 

1st.  The  cement  will  stand  a  minimum  tensile  strain  of  600 
pounds  to  the  square-inch  section  of  neat  briquettes  kept  one 
day  in  air  and  six  days  in  water.  2d.  The  cement  will  stand 
a  minimum  tensile  strain  of  175  pounds  per  square-inch  section, 
3  parts  of  sand  and  1  part  of  cement,  the  briquettes  kept  one 
day  in  air  and  six  days  in  water,  standard  crushed  quartz  used 
in  testing.  3d.  The  cement  will  stand  what  is  known"  as  the 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PORTLAND  CEMENT.     117 

boiling  test.  4th.  85  per  cent  of  this  cement  will  pass  through  a 
No.  200  sieve.  96  per  cent  will  pass  through  a  No.  100  sieve. 
All  of  the  barrel  cement  will  be  put  up  in  tight  packages  of  great 
strength  and  uniformity.  The  bag  cement  will  be  put  up  in 
cotton  bags  of  superior  quality,  and  all  the  weights  are  strictly 
guaranteed. 

The  following  are  the  specifications  used  by  the  United  States 
Engineering  Department  for  Portland  cement' 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  AMERICAN  PORTLAND  CEMENT. 

(1)  The  cement  shall  be  an  American  Portland,  dry  and  free 
from   lumps.     By   a   Portland   cement   is   meant   the   puctrod 
obtained  from  the  heating  or  calcining  up  to  incipient  fusion 
of  intimate  mixtures,  either  natural  or  artificial,  of  argillaceous 
with  calcareous  substances,  the  calcined  product  to  contain  at 
least  1.7  times  as  much  of  lime,  by  weight,  as  of  the  materials 
which  give  the  lime  its  hydraulic  properties,  and  to  be  finely 
pulverized  after  said  calcination,  and  thereafter    additions  or 
substitutions  for  the  purpose  only  of  regulating  certain  prop- 
erties of  technical  importance  to  be  allowable  to  not  exceeding 

2  per  cent  of  the  calcined  product. 

(2)  The  cement  shall  be  put  up  in  strong,  sound  barrels  well 
lined  with   paper,   so   as   to   be   reasonably   protected  against 
moisture,   or  in  stout   cloth  or  canvas  sacks.     Each  package 
shall  be  plainly  labelled  with  the  name  of  the  brand  and  of  the 
manufacturer.     Any    package   broken   or   containing   damaged 
cement  may  be  rejected  or  accepted  as  a  fractional  package,  at 
the  option  of  the  United  States  agent  in  local  charge. 

(3)  Bidders  will  state  the  brand  of  cement  which  they  pro- 
pose to  furnish.     The  right  is  reserved  to  reject  a  tender  for 
any  brand  which  has  not   established  itself  as  a  high-grade 
Portland  cement  and  has  not  for  three  years  or  more  given 
satisfaction  in  use  under  climatic  or  other  conditions  of  exposure 
of  at  least  equal  severity  to  those  of  the  work  proposed. 

(4)  Tenders   will   be   received   only    from   manufacturers   or 
their  authorized  agents. 

(The  following  paragraph  will  be  substituted  for  paragraphs 

3  and  4  above  when  cement  is  to  be  furnished  and  placed  by 
the  contractor: 

No  cement  will  be  allowed  to  be  used  except  established 


118    SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PORTLAND  CEMENT. 

brands  of  high-grade  Portland  cement  which  have  been  made 
by  the  same  mill  and  in  successful  use  under  similar  climatic 
conditions  to  those  of  the  proposed  work  for  at  least  three  years.) 

(5)  The  average  weight  per  barrel  shall  not  be  less  than  375 
pounds  net.     Four  sacks  shall  contain  one  barrel  of  cement. 
If  the  weight,  as   determined  by  test   weighings,  is  found  to 
be  below  375  pounds  per  barrel,  the  cement  may  be  rejected, 
or,  at  the  option  of  the  engineer  officer  in  charge,  the  contractor 
may  be  required  to  supply,  free  of  cost  to  the  United  States, 
an  additional  amount  of  cement  equal  to  the  shortage. 

(6)  Tests   may   be    made   of   the   fineness,   specific   gravity, 
soundness,  time  of  setting,  and  tensile  strength  of  the  cement. 

(7)  FINENESS. — Ninety-two  per  cent  of  the  cement  must  pass 
through  a  sieve  made  of  No.  40  wire,  Stubb's  gauge,  having 
10,000  openings  per  square  inch. 

(8)  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. — The  specific  gravity  of  the  cement, 
as  determined  from  a  sample  which  has  been  carefully  dried, 
shall  be  between  3.10  and  3.25. 

(9)  SOUNDNESS. — To   test   the   soundness  of  the   cement,  at 
least  two  pats  of  neat  cement,  as  taken  from  the  package,  mixed 
for  five  minutes  with  about  20  per  cent  of  water  by  weight, 
shall  be  made  on  glass,  each  pat  about  3  inches  in  diameter 
and  one-half  inch  thick  at  the  centre,  tapering  thence  to  a  thin 
edge.     The  pats  are  to  be  kept  under  a  wet  cloth  until  finally 
set,  when  one  is  to  be  placed  in  fresh  water  for  twenty-eight 
days.     The  second  pat  will  be  placed  in  water  which  will  be 
raised  to  the  boiling-point  for  six  hours,  then  allowed  to  cool: 
Neither   should   show   distortion   or   cracks.     The   boiling  test 
may  or  may  not  reject  at  the  option  of  the  engineer  officer  hi 
charge. 

(10)  TIME  OF  SETTING. — The  cement  shall  not  acquire  its 
initial  set  in  less  than  forty-five  minutes  and  must  have  acquired 
its  final  set  in  ten  hours. 

(The  following  paragraph  will  be  substituted  for  the  above 
in  case  a  quick-setting  cement  is  desired: 

The  cement  shall  not  acquire  its  initial  set  in  less  than  twenty 
nor  more  than  thirty  minutes,  and  must  have  acquired  its  final 
set  in  not  less  than  forty-five  minutes  nor  in  more  than  two 
and  one-half  hours.) 

The  pats  made  to  test  the  soundness  may  be  used  in  deter- 
mining the  time  of  setting.  The  cement  is  considered  to  have 
acquired  its  initial  set  when  the  pat  will  bear,  without  being 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PORTLAND  CEMENT.     119 

appreciably  indented,  a  wire  one-twelfth  inch  in  diameter 
loaded  to  weigh  one-fourth  pound.  The  final  set  has  been 
acquired  when  the  pat  will  bear,  without  being;  appreciably 
indented,  a  wire  one  twenty-fourth  inch  in  diameter  loaded 
to  weigh  1  pound. 

(11)  TENSILE  STRENGTH. — Briquettes  made  of  neat  cement, 
after  being  kept  in  air  for  twenty-four  hours  under  a  wet  cloth 
and  the  balance  of  the  time  in   water,  shall  develop  tensile 
strength  per  square  inch  as  follows: 

After  seven  days,  450  pounds;  after  twenty-eight  days,  540 
pounds. 

Briquettes  made  of  1  part  cement  and  3  parts  standard  sand, 
by  weight,  shall  develop  tensile  strength  per  square  inch  as 
follows : 

After  seven  days,  140  pounds;  after  twenty-eight  days,  220 
pounds. 

(In  case  quick-setting  cement  is  desired,  the  following  ten- 
sile strengths  shall  be  substituted  for  the  above : 

Neat  briquettes:  After  seven  days,  400  pounds;  after  twenty- 
eight  days,  480  pounds. 

Briquettes  of  1  part  cement  to  3  parts  standard  sand:  After 
seven  days,  120  pounds;  after  twenty-eight  days,  180  pounds.) 

(12)  The  highest  result  from  each  set  of  briquettes  made  at 
any  one   time  is  to  be   considered  the  governing  test.     Any 
cement  not  showing  an  increase   of  strength  in  the  twenty- 
eight-day  tests  over  the  seven-day  tests  will  be  rejected. 

(13)  When   making  briquettes   well-dried  cement  and  sand 
will  be  used;    neat  cement  will  be  mixed  with  20  per  cent  of 
water  by  weight,  and  sand  and  cement  with  12^  per  cent  of 
water  by  weight.     After  being  thoroughly  mixed  and  worked 
for  five  minutes,  the  cement  or  mortar  will  be  placed  in  the 
briquette  mould  in  four  equal  layers,  and  each  layer  rammed 
and  compressed  by  thirty  blows  of  a  soft  brass  or  copper  rammer 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter   (or  seven-tenths  of  an 
inch   square,    with    rounded    corners),    weighing    1    pound.     It 
is  to  be  allowed  to  drop  on  the  mixture  from  a  height  of  about 
half  an  inch.     When   the   ramming  has  been   completed,   the 
surplus  cement  shall  be  struck  off  and  the  final  layer  smoothed 
with   a  trowel   held  almost   horizontal   and   drawn   back  with 
sufficient  pressure  to  make  its  edge  follow  the  surface  of  the  mould. 

(14)  The  above  are  to  be  considered  the  minimum  require- 
ments.    Unless   a   cement   has   been   recently   used   on    work 


120  PUZZOLAN  CEMENT. 

under  this  office,  bidders  wiH  deliver  a  sample  barrel  for  test 
before  the  opening  of  bids.  If  this  sample  shows  higher  tests 
than  those  given  above,  the  average  of  tests  made  on  subse- 
quent shipments  must  come  up  to  those  found  with  the  sample. 

(15)  A  cement  may  be  rejected  in  case  it  fails  to  meet  any 
of  the  above  requirements.  An  agent  of  the  contractor  may 
be  present  at  the  making  of  the  tests,  or,  in  case  of  the  fail- 
ure of  any  of  them,  they  may  be  repeated  in  his  presence. 
If  the  contractor  so  desires,  the  engineer  officer  in  charge  may, 
if  he  deem  it  to  the  interest  of  the  United  States,  have  any 
or  all  of  the  tests  made  or  repeated  at  some  recognized  standard 
testing  laboratory  in  the  manner  herein  specified.  All  expenses 
of  such  tests  to  be  paid  by  the  contractor.  All  such  tests  shall 
be  made  on  samples  furnished  by  the  engineer  officer  from 
cement  actually  delivered  to  him. 

Puzzolau  Cement. — This  was  originally  an  imported 
cement,  made  from  a  natural  burned  material  of  volcanic  origin, 
but  the  slag  cements  now  being  made  are  really  Puzzolan 
cement  and  should  be  classed  under  that  head. 

The  so-called  slag  cement  is  the  product  obtained  by  pulver- 
izing, without  calcination,  a  mixture  of  granulated  basic  blast- 
furnace slag  and  slaked  lime.  This  product,  though  in  reality 
a  member  of  the  class  of  -  Puzzolanic  cements,  is  usually 
marketed  as  "Portland  cement,"  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it 
differs  from  a  true  Portland  cement  in  method  of  manufacture, 
ultimate  and  rational  composition  and  properties. 

Some  recent  tests  made  with  slag  cement  in  the  municipal 
laboratory  at  Vienna,  gave  the  following  results:  The  mortar 
was  mixed  one  to  three.  After  seven  days  hardening,  tensile 
strength,  383  pounds  per  square  inch;  strength  of  compression, 
3880  pounds  per  square  inch.  After  twenty-eight  days  harden- 
ing, tensile  strength,  551  pounds  per  square  inch;  strength  of 
compression,  5411  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  following  regarding  Puzzolan  or  slag  cement  is  taken 
from  the  professional  papers  of  the  United  States  Engineer 
Corps : 

SLAG  CEMENT. — This  term  is  applied  to  cement  made  by 
intimately  mixing  by  grinding  together  granulated  blast-fur- 
nace slag  of  a  certain  quality  and  slaked  lime,  without  calcina- 
tion subsequent  to  the  mixing.  This  is  the  only  cement  of  the 
Puzzolan  class  to  be  found  in  our  markets  (often  branded  as 
Portland),  and  as  true  Portland  cement  is  now  made  having 


PUZZOLAN  CEMENT.  121 

slag  for  its  hydraulic  base,  the  term  "slag  cement"  should  be 
dropped  and  the  generic  term  Puzzolan  be  used  in  advertisements 
and  specifications  for  such  mixtures  not  subsequently  calcined. 

Puzzolan  cement  made  from  slag  is  characterized  physically 
by  its  light  lilac  color;  the  absence  of  grit  attending  fine  grind- 
ing and  the  extreme  subdivision  of  its  slaked-lime  element; 
its  low  specific  gravity  (26  to  2.8)  compared  with  Portland 
(3  to  3.5);  and  by  the  intense  bluish-green  color  in  the  fresh 
fracture  after  long  submersion  in  water,  due  to  the  presence 
of  sulphides,  which  color  fades  after  exposure  to  dry  air. 

The  oxidation  of  sulphides  in  dry  air  is  destructive  of  Puz- 
zolan cement  mortars  and  concretes  so  exposed.  Puzzolan  is 
usually  very  finely  ground,  and  when  not  treated  with  soda 
sets  more  slowly  than  Portland.  It  stands  storage  well,  but 
cements  treated  with  soda  to  quicken  setting  become  again 
very  slow-setting  from  the  carbonization  of  the  soda  (as  well 
as  the  lime)  element  after  long  storage. 

Puzzolan  cement  properly  made  contains  no  free  or  anhy- 
drous lime,  does  not  warp  or  swell,  but  is  liable  to  fail  from 
cracking  and  shrinking  (at  the  surface  only)  in  dry  air. 

Mortars  and  concretes  made  from  Puzzolan  approximate  in 
tensile  strength  similar  mixtures  of  Portland  cement,  but  their 
resistance  to  crushing  is  less,  the  ratio  of  crushing  to  tensile 
strength  being  about  6  or  7  to  1  for  Puzzolan  and  9  to  11  to  1 
for  Portland.  On  account  of  its  extreme  fine  grinding  Puzzolan 
often  gives  nearly  as  great  tensile  strength  in  3  to  1  mixtures  as 
neat. 

Puzzolan  permanently  assimilates  but  little  water  compared 
with  Portland,  its  lime  being  already  hydrated.  It  should  be 
used  in  comparatively  dry  mixtures  well  rammed,  but  while 
requiring  little  water  for  chemical  reactions,  it  requires  for 
permanency  in  the  air  constant  or  continuous  moisture. 

PROPER  USES  OF  PUZZOLAN  CEMENT.  —  Puzzolan  cement 
never  becomes  extremely  hard  like  Portland,  but  Puzzolan 
mortars  and  concretes  are  tougher  or  less  brittle  than  Portland. 

The  cement  is  well  adapted  for  use  in  sea-water,  and  generally 
in  all  positions  where  constantly  exposed  to  moisture,  such  as  in 
foundations  of  buildings,  sewers,  and  drains,  and  in  underground 
works  generally,  and  in  the  interior  of  heavy  masses  of  masonry 
or  concrete. 

It  is  unfit  for  use  when  subjected  to  mechanical  wear,  attrition, 
or  blows.  It  should  never  be  used  where  it  may  be  exposed  for 


122     SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PUZZOLAN  CEMENT. 

long  periods  to  dry  air,  even  after  it  has  well  set.  It  will  turn 
white  and  disintegrate,  due  to  the  oxidation  of  its  sulphides 
at  the  surface  under  such  exposure. 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which  is  often  evolved  upon  decom- 
position of  the  sulphides  in  Puzzolan  cement,  is  injurious  to 
iron  and  steel. 

Such  metals,  if  used  in  connection  with  Puzzolan  cement 
should  be  protected,  or  an  allowance  be  made  for  deterioration 
by  increase  of  section." 

Some  more  recent  tests  of  slag  cements  show  that  they  con- 
tain very  little '  sulphur  and  analyses  show  their  composition 
to  be  practically  the  same  as  the  best  brands  of  Portland  cements. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PUZZOLAN  CEMENT. 
PREPARED  BY  THE  U.  S.  ENGINEER  DEPARTMENT. 

(1)  The    cement    shall    be   a    Puzzolan    of   uniform   quality, 
finely  and  freshly  ground,  dry,  and  free  from  lumps,  made  by 
grinding   together   without    subsequent    calcination  granulated 
blast-furnace  slag  with  slaked  lime. 

(2)  The  cement  shall  be  put  up  in  strong  sound  barrels  well 
lined   with   paper,   so   as   to   be    reasonably   protected   against 
moisture,   or  in  stout   cloth   or   canvas  sacks.     Each  package 
shall  be  plainly  labelled  with  the  name  of  the  brand  and  of  the 
manufacturer.     Any   package    broken   or   containing   damaged 
cement  may  be  rejected  or  accepted  as  a  fractional  package 
at  the  option  of  the  United  States  agent  in  local  charge. 

(3)  Bidders  will  state  the  brand  of  cement  which  they  pro- 
pose to  furnish.     The  right  is  reserved  to  reject  a  tender  for 
any  brand  which   has  not  given   satisfaction  in  use   under  cli- 
matic or  other  conditions  of  exposure  of  at  least  equal  severity 
to  those  of  the  work  proposed,  and  for  any  brand  from  cement 
works  that  do  not  make  and  test  the  slag  used  in  the  cement, 

(4)  Tenders    will   be    received   only   from    manufacturers   or 
their  authorized  agents. 

(The  folio  wing  paragraph  will  be  substituted  for  paragraphs 
3  and  4  above  when  cement  is  to  be  furnished  and  placed  by 
the  contractor. 

No  cement  will  be  allowed  to  be  used  except  established 
brands  of  high-grade  Puzzolan  cement  which  have  been  in 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  PUZZOLAN  CEMENT.     123 

successful  use  under  similar  climatic  conditions  to  those  of 
the  proposed  work  and  which  come  from  cement  works  that 
make  the  slag  used  in  the  cement. 

(5)  The  average  weight  per  barrel  shall  not  be  less  than  330 
pounds   net.     Four   sacks   shall    contain    1    barrel    of   cement. 
If  the  weight  as  determined  by  test  weighings  is  found  "to  be 
below  330  pounds  per  barrel,  the  cement  may  be  rejected  or, 
at  the  option  of  the  engineer  officer  in  charge,  the  contractor 
may  be  required  to  supply,  free  of  cost  to  the  United  States, 
an  additional  amount  of  cement  equal  to  the  shortage. 

(6)  Tests    may   be    made    of   the    fineness,    specific   gravity, 
soundness,  time  of  setting,  and  tensile  strength  of  the  cement. 

(7)  FINENESS. — Ninety-seven  per  cent  of  the  cement  must 
pass  through  a  sieve  made  of  No.  40  wire,  Stubb's  gauge,  hav- 
ing 10,000  openings  per  square  inch. 

(8)  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. — The  specific  gravity  of  the  cement,  as 
determined   from   a   sample    which   has   been    carefully    dried, 
shall  be  between  2.7  and  2.8. 

(9)  SOUNDNESS. — To  test  the  soundness  of  cement,  pats  of 
neat  cement  mixed  for  five  minutes  with  18  per  cent  of  water 
by  weight  shall  be  made  on  glass,  each  pat  about  3  inches  in 
diameter  and  one-half  inch  thick  at  the  centre,  tapering  thence 
to  a  thin  edge.     The  pats  are  to  be  kept  under  wet  cloths  until 
finally  set,  when  they  are  to  be  placed  in  fresh  water.     They 
should  not  show  distortion  or  cracks  at  the  end  of  twenty-eight 
days. 

(10)  TIME  OF  SETTING. — The  cement  shall  not  acquire  its  ini- 
tial set  in  less  than  forty-five   minutes  and   shall  acquire   its 
final  "set  in  ten  hours.     The  pats  made  to  test  the  soundness 
may  be  used  in  determining  the  time  of  setting.     The  cement 
is  considered  to  have  acquired  its  initial  set  when  the  pat  will 
bear,   without  being  appreciably  indented,  a  wire  one-twelfth 
inch    in    diameter   loaded    to    one-fourth    pound    weight      The 
final  set  has  been  acquired  when  the  pat  will  bear,  without 
being  appreciably  indented,  a  wire  one  twenty-fourth  inch  in 
diameter  loaded  to  1  pound  weight. 

(11)  TENSILE  STRENGTH.— Briquettes  made  of  neat  cement, 
after  being  kept  in  air  under  a  wet  cloth  for  twenty-four  hours 
and  the  balance  of  the  time  in  water,   shall  develop  tensile 
strengths  per  square  inch  as  follows: 

After  seven  days,  350  pounds;   after  twenty-eight  days,  500 
pounds. 


124         SILICA  CEMENT,  OR  SAND  CEMENT. 

Briquettes  made  of  one  part  cement  and  three  parts  stand- 
ard sand  by  weight  shall  develop  tensile  strength  per  square 
inch  as  follows: 

After  seven  days,  140  pounds;  after  twenty-eight  days,  220 
pounds. 

(12)  The  highest  result  from  each  set  of  briquettes  made  at 
any  one   time   is  to   be   considered  the   governing  test.     Any 
cement   not   showing  an  increase   of  strength  in   the   twenty- 
eight-day  tests  over  the  seven-day  tests  will  be  rejected. 

(13)  When   making  briquettes  neat   cement   will   be   mixed 
with  18  per  cent  of  water  by  weight,  and  sand  and  cement 
with  10  per  cent  of  water  by  weight.     After  being  thoroughly 
mixed  and  worked  for  five  minutes  the  cement  or  mortar  will 
be  placed  in  the  briquette  mould  in  four  equal  layers  and  each 
layer  rammed  and  compressed  by  thirty  blows  of  a  soft  brass 
or  copper  rammer,  three-quarters  of  an  inch   in  diameter  or 
seven-tenths  of  an  inch  square,  with  rounded  corners,  weigh- 
ing 1  pound.     It  is  to  be  allowed  to  drop  on  the  mixture  from 
a  height  of  about  half  an  inch.     When  the  ramming  has  been 
completed  the  surplus  cement  shall  be  struck  off  and  the  final 
layer  smoothed  with  a  trowel  held  almost  horizontal  and  drawn 
back  with  sufficient  pressure  to  make  its  edge  follow  the  sui- 
face  of  the  mould. 

(14)  The  above  are  to  be  considered  the  minimum  require- 
ments.    Unless    a    cement    has    been    recently    used    on    work 
under  this  office,  bidders  will  deliver  a  sample  barrel  for  test 
before  the  opening  of  bids.     If  this  sample  shows  higher  tests 
than  those  given  above,  the  average  of  tests  made  on  subse- 
quent shipments  must  come  up  to  those  found  with  the  sample. 

(15)  A  cement  may  be  rejected  in  case  it  fails  to  meet  any 
of  the  above  requirements.     An  agent  of  the  contractor  may 
be  present  at  the  making  of  the  tests,  or,  in  case  of  the  failure 
of  any  of  them,  they  may  be  repeated  in  his  presence.     If  the 
contractor  so   desires,  the  engineer   officer   in    charge    may,   if 
he  deems  it  to  the  interest  of  the  United  States,  have  any  or 
all  of  the  tests  made  or  repeated  at  some   recognized  testing 
laboratory  in  the  manner  herein  specified,  all  expenses  of  such 
tests  to  be  paid  by  the  contractor.     All  such   tests   shall   be 
made  on  samples  furnished  by  the  engineer  officer  from  cement 
actually  delivered  to  him. 

Silica  Cement,  or  Sand  Cement. — This  is  a  patented 
article  manufactured  by  grinding  together  Lsilica  or  clean  sand 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CEMENT.  125 

with  Portland  cement,  by  which  process  the  original  cementing 
material  is  made  extremely  fine  and  its  capacity  to  cover  sur- 
faces of  concrete  aggregates  is  much  increased. 

The  sand  is  an  adulteration,  but  on  account  of  the  extreme 
fineness  of  the  product  it  serves  to  make  mortar  or  concrete 
containing  a  given  proportion  of  pure  cement  much  more  dense, 
the  finer  material  being  increased  in  volume. 

The  increase  in  cementing  capacity  due  to  the  fine  grinding 
of  the  cement  constituent  offsets,  in  great  degree,  the  effects 
of  the  sand  adulteration,  so  that  sand  cement  made  from  equal 
weights  of  cement  and  sand  approximates  in  tensile  strength 
to  the  neat  cement,  and  the  material  is  sold  as  cement. 

The  extreme  fine  grinding  also  improves  cement  that  con- 
tains expansives,  but  nevertheless  sand  cement  should  not 
be  purchased  in  the  market,  but  should  be  made  on  the  work 
from  approved  materials  if  used  for  other  purposes  than  for 
grouting,  for  which  it  is  peculiarly  adapted. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CEMENTS. 

NATURAL  CEMENT. — All  natural  cement  must  have  a  specific 
gravity  of  not  less  than  2.70,  must  be  of  such  fineness  that 
80  per  cent  will  pass  through  a  No.  100  standard  sieve,  and 
briquettes  made  of  such  neat  natural  cement,  after  exposure 
to  the  air  for  one  day  and  immersion  in  water  for  six  days, 
must  show  a  tensile  strength  of  90  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 
Pats  \  inch  thick  must  stand  same  test  hereinafter  specified 
for  Portland  cement. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT. — All  Portland  cement  must  have  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  not  less  than  3.10,  must  be  of  such  fineness  that 
90  per  cent  will  pass  through  a  No.  100  standard  sieve,  must  not 
contain  more  than  2  per  cent  anhydrous  sulphuric  acid,  nor 
3  per  cent  magnesia,  and  briquettes  made  of  such  neat  Port- 
land cement,  after  exposure  to  the  air  for  one  day  and  immer- 
sion in  water  for  six  days,  must  show  a  tensile  strength  of  350 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  One-half-inch  pats  exposed  to 
the  air  for  seven  days  or  immersed  in  water  for  the  same  time 
after  hard  set  shall  show  no  blotches,  discolorations,  checks,  or 
signs  of  disintegration. 

NON-STAINING  CEMENT. — Non-staining  cement  must  be  of  a 
brand  that  has  been  in  use  for  at  least  two  years  to  test  its 


126  TESTS,  ETC  ,  OF  CEMENT. 

non-staining  qualities,  have  a  specific  gravity  of  not  less  than 
2.75,  contain  not  more  than  2  per  cent  sulphuric  acid,  nor 
more  than  3  per  cent  magnesia,  be  of  such  fineness  that  85 
per  cent  will  pass  through  a  No.  100  standard  sieve,  and  bri- 
quettes of  the  neat  cement,  tested  as  specified  for  Portland 
cement,  shall  have  a  tensile  strength  of  200  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

All  cement  must  be  of  uniform  quality  and  when  delivered 
must  be  in  original  packages  with  the  brand  and  maker's  name 
marked  thereon,  and  must  be  kept  dry. 

Tests,  etc.,  of  Cement, — In  ordinary  work  the  super- 
intendent can  be  guided  as  to  the  quality  of  the  cement  by 
the  brand  and  name  of  the  manufacturer;  unless  the  cement 
is  of  a  standard  brand  and  make,  and  which  has  been  thor- 
oughly tested  in  the  past  by  use,  etc. ,  the  superintendent  should 
not  permit  any  of  it  to  be  used  until  it  has  been  tested.  This 
is  best  done  at  some  laboratory  equipped  for  the  purpose. 

The  following  rules  have  been  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Engineer 
Corps  for  testing  cement,  and  should  be  a  good  guide  for  the 
superintendent. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. — The  constructing  engineer  is 
confronted  by  no  problem  more  difficult  than  to  decide  whether 
a  certain  cement,  when  placed  in  a  work,  will  behave  in  a  pre- 
determined way.  This  is  especially  true  of  Portlands.  Other 
cements  are  much  more  reliable  under  conditions  of  exposure 
for  which  they  are  suited. 

The  difficulties  arise  from  the  fact  that  tests  for  acceptance 
or  rejection  must  be  made  on  a  product  not  in  its  final  stage. 
A  cement,  when  incorporated  in  masonry,  undergoes  for  months 
chemical  changes  in  the  process  of  setting,  so  that  the  material  • 
subjected  to  strains  in  the  work  is  not  the  material  tested, 
but  a  derivative  of  it.  The  object  of  tests  is  to  establish  two 
probabilities:  First,  that  the  product  of  the  given  cement 
will  develop  the  desired  strength  and  hardness  soon  enough 
to  enable  it  to  bear  the  stresses  designed  for  it;  second,  that 
it  will  never  thereafter  fall  below  that  strength  and  hardness. 
Up  to  the  present  time  it  appears  that  the  relation  between 
the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  raw  cement  and  of 
its  partially  indurated  derivatives,  determined  by  tests,  and 
the  physical  properties  of  the  same  cement  or  its  derivatives, 
after  complete  hydration  and  induration  in  the  work,  can 
be  stated  only  within  rather  wide  limits. 


TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT.  127 

The  most  useful  tests  of  cements  are  those,  first,  which  con- 
nect themselves  definitely  with  some  serious  defect  to  which 
cements  are  subject,  or  with  some  merit  which  they  should 
possess;  second,  which  can  be  made  with  the  least  apparatus 
and  manipulation,  and  which  give  their  indications  in  the 
shortest  time;  and,  third,  which  are  freest  from  personal  equa- 
tion and  from  influences  of  local  surroundings.  These  criteria, 
applied  to  the  customary  tests  of  cements,  give  indications 
as  to  their  relative  value  and  the  best  methods  of  making  them. 

TEST  OF  GRINDING. — This  test  derives  importance  from  the 
fact,  apparently  well  established,  that,  other  things  being  equal, 
the  finer  the  cement  the  greater  will  be  its  sand-carrying  capac- 
ity; that  is,  it  will  show  greater  strength  with  the  same  charge 
of  sand,  or  equal  strength  with  a  greater  charge.  According  to 
the  best  information  the  Board  can  obtain,  the  cementitious 
value  of  this  material  is  believed  to  reside  principally,  if  not 
wholly,  in  the  very  fine  part.  It  follows  that  a  grinding  test 
should  be  directed  to  determining  the  proportion  which  it 
very  fine  rather  than  the  residue  above  a  certain  size.  The 
Board  does  not  propose  any  change  in  the  accepted  grinding 
test  of  Portland  cement,  but  favors  for  natural  cement  the 
use  of  the  same  size  screen  as  for  Portland,  No.  100,  with  the 
requirement  that  80  per  cent  shall  pass  through  it.  The  screen 
should  be  frequently  examined,  magnified,  if  practicable,  to 
see  that  no  wires  are  displaced,  leaving  apertures  larger  than 
the  normal. 

TEST  FOR  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. — This  test  is  made  with  simple 
appliances,  and  its  result  is  immediately  known.  It  appears 
to  connect  itself  quite  definitely  with  the  degree  of  calcination 
which  the  cement  has  received.  The  higher  the  burning,  short 
of  vitrification,  the  better  the  cement  and  the  higher  the  specific 
gravity. 

This  test  has  another  value,  in  that  the  adulterations  of 
Portland  cement  most  likely  to  be  practised  and  most  to  be 
feared  are  made  with  materials  which  reduce  the  specific  gravity. 
The  test  is  therefore  of  value  in  determining  a  properly  burned, 
non-adulterated  Portland.  If  underburned,  the  specific  gravity 
may  fall  below  3;  it  may  reach  3.5  if  the  cement  has  been  over- 
burned.  No  other  hydraulic  cement  is  so  heavy  in  proportion 
to  volume,  natural  cement  having  a  specific  gravity  of  about 
2.5  to  2.8  and  Puzzolan  (slag)  of  about  2.7  to  2.8.  Properly 
burned  Portland,  adulterated  with  slag,  will  fall  below  3.L 


128  TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT. 

TEST  OP  ACTIVITY. — This  test,  made  by  gauging  the  cement 
with  water  and  observing  the  times  of  initial  and  permanent 
set,  is  partly  direct  and  partly  indirect.  It  is  direct  in  so  far 
as  its  limits  relate  to  the  time  necessary  to  get  the  cement  in 
place  after  mixing,  which  must  not  be  greater  than  the  time  of 
initial  set,  and  to  the  time  within  which  the  cement  product 
must  take  its  load,  which  must  not  be  less  than  the  time  of 
permanent  set.  It  is  indirect  in  so  far  as  its  limits  relate  to  the 
probable  final  strength,  elasticity,  and  hardness  of  the  cement 
mixtures.  In  the  latter  respect  it  appears  to  be  reasonably 
well  established  that  cements  exhibiting  great  activity  give, 
after  long  periods,  results  inferior  to  those  with  action  less 
rapid. 

The  test  for  activity  is  easily  made  with  simple  appliances, 
and  its  results  are  known  in  a  few  hours  at  most.  Variable 
results  in  the  test  are  caused  by  different  local  conditions  of 
moisture  and  temperature  and  by  the  different  judgments 
of  observers  as  to  whether  the  needles  penetrate  or  not.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  both  periods  of  set  are  lengthened  by  increase 
of  moisture  and  shortened  by  increase  of  temperature.  Some 
manufacturers  claim  that  their  cements  show  their  best  results 
when  gauged  with  particular  percentages  of  water.  It  is  not 
considered  good  policy  to  encourage  these  peculiarities  at  the 
expense  of  the  uniformity  of  tests  which  is  so  greatly  desired. 
It  is  better  to  adopt  a  definite  proportion  of  water  for  gauging 
and  require  all  cements  of  the  same  class  to  stand  or  fall  on 
their  showing  when  so  gauged.  Sucli  a  percentage,  adopted 
and  known,  will  probably  be  used  by  manufacturers  in  testing 
goods  sold  to  the  Engineer  Department,  and  a  greater  har- 
mony between  mill  and  field  tests  of  the  same  cement  will 
result. 

In  gauging  Portland  cement  the  samples  should  be  thoroughly 
dried  before  adding  water.  This  precaution  is  not  deemed 
necessary  with  natural  cement.  Sufficient  uniformity  of 
temperature  will  result  if  the  testing-room  be  comfortably 
warmed  in  winter  and  the  specimens  be  kept  out  of  the  sun 
in  a  cool  room  in  summer  and  under  a  damp  cloth  until  set. 

TEST  FOR  CONSTANCY  OF  VOLUME. — This  test  results  from 
observations  made  on  the  pats  or  cakes  used  in  the  setting 
test.  It  derives  its  value  from  its  connection  with  the  quantity 
of  expansives  in  the  cement. 

The  test  is  easy  to  make,  and  its  results  are  relatively  free 


TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT.  129 

from  personal  error,  though  there  is  room  for  a  difference  of 
judgment  as  to  the  appearance  of  the  cakes.  As  they  may 
be  preserved  and  the  decision  reviewed  at  any  time  on  the 
original  data,  such  differences  are  immaterial. 

TESTS  OF  STRENGTH. — These  may  be  subdivided  into  compres- 
sive  and  tensile  tests,  the  latter  including  the  transverse  test 
made  by  breaking  a  beam  of  the  cement.  The  compressive 
test  need  not  be  further  considered,  as  it  is  less  easily  made 
than  the  tensile  test  and  gives  no  surer  indications.  The  ratio 
of  compressive  to  tensile  strength  of  the  same  class  of  cements 
is  quite  uniform. 

Of  the  tensile  tests  the  direct  pull  is  preferable  to  the  flexure 
test. 

The  tensile  test  is  theoretically  a  perfect  index  of  the  quality 
of  the  cement  at  the  periods  of  test,  and  a  comparison  at  dif- 
ferent periods  gives  the  best  obtainable  indication  of  what  its 
subsequent  conduct  will  be.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Board  the 
two  periods  most  generally  adopted,  seven  and  twenty-eight 
days  after  mixing,  are,  on  the  whole,  the  best.  The  one-day 
test,  though  of  some  value  in  a  discriminating  sense,  should 
not  be  piaced  in  the  same  category  as  the  other  periods 
named. 

The  apparatus  for  tensile  tests  is  somewhat  elaborate  and 
delicate,  but  is  of  standard  manufacture  and  readily  obtainable 
at  relatively  small  cost. 

la  respect  of  uncertainties  due  to  the  personal  equation  of 
the  tester  and  to  the  influence  of  local  conditions  this  test  pre- 
sents greater  difficulties  than  any  of  the  others  considered. 
The  most  scrupulous  care  must  be  observed  in  the  manipula- 
tions, and  the  tester  should  possess  natural  aptitude  for  such 
work.  The  object  is  to  determine  the  greatest  stress  per  square 
inch  which  the  cement  can  be  made  to  stand  under  given  con- 
ditions without  rupture.  If  the  conditions  have  been  carefully 
observed  and  several  discrepant  results  are  obtained,  the  highest 
may  be  right,  but  the  others  are  certainly  wrong.  No  averaging 
should  be  done. 

The  remarks  made  above  under  the  activity  test  as  to  the 
relation  between  early  hydraulic  intensity  and  the  final  excel- 
lence of  a  cement  product  are  equally  applicable  to  the  indica- 
tions from  tensile  tes^s.  A  cement  which  tests  moderately 
high  at  seven  days  and  shows  a  substantial  increase  to  twenty- 
eight  days  is  more  likely  to  reach  the  maximum  strength  slowly 


130  TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT. 

and  retain  it  indefinitely  with  a  low  modulus  of  elasticity  than 
a  cement  which  tests  abnormally  high  at  seven  days  with  little 
or  no  increase  at  twenty-eight  days. 

ACCELERATED  TESTS. — The  rules  recommended  by  the  com- 
mittee of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  in  1885  have 
been  substantially  accepted  here  and  abroad  as  to  tests  of 
setting  qualities  and  soundness;  more  rapid  tests  for  soundness 
are,  however,  proposed  and  practised,  though  no  accelerated 
test  has  been  generally  accepted. 

Accelerated  tests  proposed  for  the  speedy  detection  of  the 
presence  of  expansives  in  cement  usually  consist  in  the  appli- 
cation, after  gauging,  of  dry  heat  or  of  immersion  in  warm  or 
boiling  water  or  steam.  The  immersion  tests  are  most  in 
vogue.  They  vary  from  immersing  freshly  gauged  pats  on 
glass  plates  in  water  at  115°  F.  for  twenty-four  hours,  or  at 
higher  temperatures  for  various  periods,  to  steaming  or  boil- 
ing cakes  or  cylinders  of  the  material  to  be  tested  at  212°  F. 
for  varying  times. 

In  France  and  Germany  the  swelling  or  expansion  of  boiled 
cylinders  is  measured  directly  by  calibration.  Usually  change 
of  :volume  not  accompanied  by  visible  evidences  of  it — i.e.,  dis- 
tortion or  disruption — is  not  observed  in  American  tests  pre- 
scribed in  specifications  for  the  reception  of  cements.  Of  all 
these  tests  the  boiling  test  is  the  simplest,  requires  only  appa- 
ratus everywhere  available,  and  is  recommended  by  the  Board. 
It  has  been  the  experience  that  this  test  detects  material  that 
is  unsound  by  reason  of  the  presence  of  active  expansives; 
but  in  some  cases  it  rejects  material  that  would  give  satisfac- 
tory results  in  actual  work  and  will  reject  material  that  would 
stand  this  test  after  air  slaking. 

The  great  value  of  the  test  lies  in  its  short-time  indications 
and  in  at  once  directing  attention  to  weak  points  in  the  cement 
to  be  further  observed  or  guarded  against.  Of  two  or  more 
cements  offered  for  use  or  on  hand,  the  cements  that  stand  the 
boiling  tests  are  to  be  taken  preferably;  it  should  be  con- 
stantly applied  on  the  work  among  other  simple  tests  to  be 
noted,  for  although  the  boiling  test  sometimes  rejects  suitable 
material,  it  is  believed  that  it  will  always  reject  a  material  un- 
sound by  reason  of  the  existence  of  active  expansives.  Sul- 
phate of  lime,  while  enabling  cements  ^o  pass  the  boiling  tests, 
introduces  an  element  of  danger. 

This  test  is  proposed  as  suggestive  or  discriminative  only. 


TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT.  131 

Except  for  works  of  unusual  importance  it  is  not  recommended 
that  a  cement  passing  the  other  tests  proposed  shall  be  rejected 
on  the  boiling  test. 

TESTS  TO  BE  MADE. — For  selecting  Portland  and  Puzzolan 
cements  from  among  the  brands  offered,  the  Board  recommends 
that  the  following  tests  be  made: 

1.  For  fineness  of  grinding. 

2.  For  specific  gravity. 

3.  For  soundness  or  constancy  of  volume  in  setting. 

4.  For  time  of  setting. 

5.  For  tensile  strength. 

For  natural  cement  we  recommend  the  omission  of  the 
specific-gravity  and  soundness  tests. 

On  the  works  the  Board  recommends  simple  tests  when  the 
more  elaborate  tests  cannot  well  be  made. 

In  determining  the  minimum  requirements  for  cements 
given  in  the  subjoined  specifications  we  recognize  that  many 
cements  that  attain  only  fair  strength  neat  and  with  sand  in  a 
short  time  and  show  marked  gains  of  strength  on  further  time 
will  fulfil  the  requirements  of  the  service,  and  that  unusu- 
ally high  tensile  strength  attained  in  a  few  days  after  gaug- 
ing is  often  coupled  with  a  small  or  negative  increase  in  strength 
in  further  short  intervals.  Unusually  high  tests  in  a  short 
time  after  gauging  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  although 
some  well-known  brands  of  American  cements  show  great 
strength  in  short-time  tests  and,  so  far  as  observed,  are  reliable 
in  air  and  fresh  water.  Cements  offered  under  such  known 
brands  should  show  their  characteristic  strength  and  other 
qualities  or  be  suspected  as  spurious  or  adulterated,  if  not 
rejected,  even  though  the  minimum  requirements  of  the  speci- 
fications are  met.  The  practice  of  offering  a  bonus  or  free 
gift  of  money  in  addition  to  the  contract  price  for  cement 
testing  above  a  fixed  high  point  should  be  prohibited  as  un- 
necessary, for  cements  so  obtained  are  likely  to  be  unsound 
in  a  manner  not  easily  detected  in  the  time  usually  available 
in  testing. 

It  is  believed  that  most  of  the  very  high-testing  Portland 
cements  have  lime  in  excess,  the  effect  of  which  is  tempo- 
rarily masked  by  the  use  of  sulphate  of  lime.  Overlined 
cements  so  treated  are  unfit  for  use  in  sea-water.  For  .such 
uses  a  chemical  analysis  should  be  required,  and  the  quantity 
of  sulphuric  acid,  as  well  as  magnesia,  be  limited  to  a  low  per- 


132  TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT. 

centage.1  It  is  not  yet  known  that  sulphate  of  lime  in  quan- 
tity less  than  2  per  cent  is  injurious  to  cements  to  be  used  in 
fresh  water  or  in  air.  It  masks  expansives  that  might  ulti- 
mately cause  the  destruction  of  the  work,  but  it  is  not  known 
whether  this  effect  is  permanent.  Its  addition  is  now  deemed 
necessary  to  control  time  of  setting.  It  makes  a  quick-setting 
cement  slow  setting,  at  the  same  time  increasing  tensile  strength 
acquired  in  a  short  time. 

MANIPULATION  OF  CEMENTS  FOR  TESTS. — /.  Fineness.— 
Place  100  parts  (denominations  determined  by  subdivisions 
of  the  weighing-machine  used)  by  weight  on  a  sieve  with  100 
holes  to  the  linear  inch,  woven  from  brass  wire  No.  40,  Stubb's 
wire  gauge;  sift  by  hand  or  mechanical  shaker  until  cement 
ceases  to  pass  through. 

The  weight  of  the  material  passing  the  sieve  plus  the  weight 
of  the  dust  lost  in  air,  expressed  in  hundredths  of  the  original 
weight,  will  express  the  percentage  of  fineness.  In  order  to 
determine  this  percentage  the  residue  on  the  sieve  should  be 
weighed. 

It  is  only  the  impalpable  dust  that  possesses  cementitious 
value.  Fineness  of  grinding  is  therefore  an  essential  quality 
in  cements  to  be  mixed  with  sand.  The  residue  on  a  sieve  of 
100  meshes  to  the  inch  is  of  no  cementitious  value,  and  even 
the  grit  retained  on  a  sieve  of  40,000  openings  to  the  square 
inch  is  of  small  value.  The  degree  of  fineness  prescribed  in 
these  specifications  (92  per  cent)  for  Portland  through  a  sieve 
of  10,000  meshes  to  the  square  inch  is  quite  commonly  attained 
in  high-grade  American  cements,  but  rarely  in  imported  brands. 
On  the  Pacific  Coast,  where  foreign  cements  mainly  are  in  the 
market,  this  requirement  may  be  lowered  for  the  present  to 
87  per  cent  on  No.  100  sieve. 

//.  Specific  Gravity. — The  standard  temperature  for  specific- 
gravity  determinations  is  62°  F.,  but  for  cement  testing  temper- 
atures may  vary  between  60°  and  80°  F.  without  affecting 
results  more  than  the  probable  error  in  the  observation. 

Use  any  approved  form  of  volumenometer  or  specific-gravity 
bottle,  graduated  to  cubic  centimeters  with  decimal  subdivisions. 
Fill  instrument  to  zero  of  the  scale  with  benzine,  turpentine, 
or  some  other  liquid  having  no  action  upon  cements. 

1  Not  more  than  3  percent,  by  weight,  of  magnesia,  1  per  cent  of  sulphuric 
anhydride,  or  2  per  cent  of  sulphate  of  lime  should  be  allowed  in  any  case. 
In  sea-water  not  exceeding  one-half  these  quantities.  i 


TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT.  133 

Take  100  grams  of  sifted  cement  that  has  been  previously 
dried  by  exposure  on  a  metal  plate  for  twenty  minutes  to  a 
dry  heat  of  212°  F.,  and  allow  it  to  pass  slowly  into  the  fluid 
of  the  volumenometer,  taking  care  that  the  powder  does  not 
stick  to  the  sides  of  the  graduated  tube  above  the  fluid  and 
that  the  funnel  through  which  it  is  introduced  does  not  touch 
the  fluid. 

Read  carefully  the  volume  of  the  displaced  fluid  to  the  nearest 
fraction  of  a  cubic  centimeter.  Then  the  approximate  specific 
gravity  will  be  represented  by  100  divided  by  the  displacement 
in  cubic  centimeters. 

The  operation  requires  care. 

///.  Setting  Qualities  and  Soundness, — The  quantity  of  water 
and  the  temperature  of  water  and  air  affect  the  time  of  setting. 
The  specifications  contemplate  a  temperature  varying  not 
more  than  10°  from  62°  F.  and  quantities  of  water  given  herein: 

For  Portland  cements  use  about  20  per  cent  of  water. 

For  Puzzolan  cements  use  about  18  per  cent  of  water. 

For  natural  cements  use  about  30  per  cent  of  water. 

These  quantities  are  for  the  cements  as  taken  from  the 
packages. 

Mix  thoroughly  for  five  minutes,  vigorously  rubbing  the 
mixture  under  pressure;  time  to  be  estimated  from  moment 
of  adding  water  and  to  be  considered  of  importance. 

Make  on  glass  plates  two  cakes  from  the  mixture  about 
3  inches  in  diameter,  J  inch  thick  at  middle,  and  drawn  to  thin 
edges,  and  cover  them  with  a  damp  cloth  or  place  them  in  a 
tight  box  not  exposed  to  currents  of  dry  air.  At  the  end  of 
the  time  specified  for  initial  set  apply  the  needle  Viz  inch  diameter 
weighted  to  £  pound  to  one  of  the  cakes.  If  an  indentation  is 
made  the  cement  passes  the  requirement  for  initial  setting,  if 
no  indentation  is  made  by  the  needle  it  is  too  quick-setting. 
At  the  end  of  the  time  specified  for  " final  set"  apply  the  needle 
Vz±  inch  diameter  loaded  to  1  pound.  The  cement  cake  should 
not  be  indented. 

Expose  the  two  cakes  to  air  under  damp  cloth  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  Place  one  of  the  cakes,  still  attached  to  its  plate, 
in  water  for  twenty-eight  days;  the  other  cake  immerse  in 
water  at  about  70°  temperature  supported  in  a  rack  above  the 
bottom  of  the  receptacle;  raise  the  water  gradually  to  the 
boiling-point  and  maintain  this  temperature  for  six  hours  and 
f/hen  let  the  water  with  cake  immersed  cool.  Examine  the 


134  TESTS,  ETC.,   OF  CEMENT. 

cakes  at  the  proper  time  for  evidences  of  expansion  and  dis- 
tortion. Should  the  boiled  cake  become  detached  from  the 
plate  by  twisting  and  warping  or  show  expansion  cracks  the 
cement  may  be  rejected,  or  it  may  await  the  result  of  twenty- 
eight  days  in  water.  If  the  fresh-water  cake  shows  no  evi- 
dences of  swelling,  the  cement  may  be  used  in  ordinary  work 
in  air  or  fresh  water  for  lean  mixtures.  If  distortion  or  expan- 
sion cracks  are  shown  on  the  fresh-water  cake,  the  cement 
should  be  rejected. 

Of  two  or  more  cements  offered,  all  of  which  will  stand  the 
fresh-water-cake  test  for  soundness,  the  cements  that  will  stand 
the  boiling  tests  also  are  to  be  preferred. 

IV.  Tensile  Strength. — Neat  Tests:  Use  thoroughly  dried 
unsifted  cements.1  Place  the  amount  to  be  mixed  on  a  smooth, 
non-absorbent  slab;  make  a  crater  in  the  middle  sufficient  to 
hold  the  water;  add  nearly  all  the  water  at  once,  the  remainder 
as  needed;  mix  thoroughly  by  turning  with  the  trowel,  and 
vigorously  rub  or  work  the  cement  for  five  minutes. 

Place  the  mould  on  a  glass  or  slate  slab.  Fill  the  mould  with 
consecutive  layers  of  cement,  each  when  rammed  to  be  J  inch 
thick.  Tap  each  layer  30  taps  with  a  soft  brass  or  copper 
rammer  weighing  1  pound  and  having  a  face  f  inch  diameter 
or  7/lo  inch  square  with  rounded  corners.  The  tapping  or  ram- 
ming is  to  be  done  as  follows :  While  holding  the  forearm  and 
wrist  at  a  constant  level,  raise  the  rammer  with  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  about  -|  inch  and  then  let  it  fall  freely,  repeating  the 
operation  until  the  layer  is  uniformly  compacted  by  30  taps. 

This  method  is  intended  to  compact  the  material  in  a  man- 
ner similar  to  actual  practice  in  construction,  when  a  metal 
rammer  is  used  weighing  30  pounds,  with  circular  head  5  inches 
in  diameter  falling  about  8  inches  upon  layers  of  mortar  or 
concrete  3  inches  thick.  The  method  permits  comparable 
results  to  be  obtained  by  different  observers. 

After  filling  the  mould  and  ramming  the  last  layer,  strike 
smooth  with  the  trowel,  tap  the  mould  lightly  in  a  direction 
parallel  to  the  base  plate  to  prevent  adhesion  to  the  plate,  arid 


1  The  hot  clinker  is  often  suddenly  chilled  by  steam  or  water  in  order  to 
reduce  the  work  of  grinding  by  first  cracking  it.  This  water,  as  well  as 
that  absorbed  from  the  air,  should  always  be  expelled  or  its  percentage 
ascertained  and  deducted  from  the  amounts  prescribed  for  briquettes. 
Sand,  also,  should  be  similarly  treated. 


TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT.  135 

cover  for  twenty-four  hours  with  a  damp  cloth.  Then  remove 
the  briquette  from  the  mould  and  immerse  it  in  fresh  water, 
which  should  be  renewed  twice  a  week  for  the  specified  time 
if  running  water  is  not  available  for  a  slow  current.  If  moulds 
are  not  available  for  twenty-four  hours,  remove  from  the  moulds 
after  final  set,  replacing  the  damp  cloth  over  the  briquettes. 
In  removing  briquettes  before  hard  set  great  care  should  be 
exercised.  Hold  the  mould  in  the  left  hand  and,  after  loosening 
the  latch,  tap  gently  the  sides  of  the  mould  until  they  fall  apart. 
Place  the  briquettes  face  down  in  the  water  trough. 

For  neat  tests  of  Portland  cement  use  20  per  cent  of  water 
by  weight. 

For  neat  tests  of  Puzzolan  cement  use  18  per  cent  of  water 
by  weight. 

For  neat  tests  of  natural  cement  use  30  per  cent  of  water 
by  weight. 

Nearly  all  this  water  is  retained  by  Portland  cement,  whereas 
only  about  one-third  of  the  gauging  water  is  retained  by  Puz- 
zolan or  natural  cements;  from  this  it  follows  that  an  apparent 
condition  of  plasticity  or  fluidity  that  ultimately  little  injures 
Portland  paste,  very  seriously  injures  Puzzolan  or  natural 
mortars  and  concretes  by  leaving  a  porous  texture  on  the  evap- 
oration of  the  surplus  water. 

Sand  Tests. — The  proportions  1  cement  to  3  sand  are  to  be 
used  in  tests  of  Puzzolan  and  Portland,  and  1  cement  to  1  sand 
in  tests  of  natural  or  Rosendale  cements.  Crushed  quartz 
sand,  sifted  to  pass  a  standard  sieve  with  20  meshes  per  linear 
inch  and  to  be  retained  on  a  standard  sieve  with  30  meshes  to 
the  inch,  is  to  be  used. 

After  weighing  carefully,  mix  dry  the  cement  and  sand 
until  the  mixture  is  uniform,  add  the  water  as  in  neat  mix- 
tures, and  mix  for  five  minutes  by  triturating  or  rubbing  to- 
gether the  constituents  of  the  mortar.  This  may  be  done 
under  pressure  with  a  trowel  or  by  rubbing  between  the  fin- 
gers, using  rubber  gloves.  The  rubbing  together  seems  neces- 
sary to  coat  thoroughly  the  facets  of  the  sand  with  the  cement 
paste. 

It  is  found  that  prolonged  rubbing,  when  not  carried  beyond 
the  time  of  the  initial  set,  results  in  higher  tests.  Five  minutes 
is  the  time  of  mixing  quite  generally  adopted  in  European 
specifications.  The  briquettes  are  to  be  made  as  prescribed 
for  neat  mixtures. 


136  TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT. 

Portland  cements  well  dried  require  water  from  10  to  12£ 
per  cent  by  weight  of  constituent  sand  and  cement  for  maxi- 
mum ultimate  strength  in  tested  briquettes. 

Puzzolan,  about  9  to  10  per  cent. 

Natural,  about  15  to  17  per  cent. 

Mixtures  that  at  first  appear  too  dry  for  testing  purposes 
often  become  more  plastic  under  the  prolonged  working  re- 
quired herein. 

In  general,  about  four  briquettes  constitute  the  maximum 
number  that  may  be  made  well  within  the  time  required  for 
initial  setting  of  moderately  slow-setting  cements. 

Three  such  batches  of  sand  mixtures  should  be  made,  and 
one  briquette  of  each  batch  may  be  broken  at  seven  and  twenty- 
eight  days,  giving  three  tests  at  each  period.  At  least  one 
batch  of  neat  cement  briquettes  should  be  made. 

If  the  first  briquette  broken  at  each  date  fulfils  the  mini, 
mum  requirement  of  these  specifications  it  is  not  necessary  to 
break  others  which  may  be  reserved  for  long-time  tests. 

If  the  first  briquette  does  not  pass  the  test  for  tensile  strength, 
then  briquettes  may  be  broken  until  six  briquettes,  two  from 
each  batch,  have  been  broken  at  seven  days,  and  the  remain- 
ing six  reserved  for  twenty-eight-day  tests.  The  highest  result 
from  any  sample  is  to  be  taken  as  the  strength  of  the  sample 
when  the  break  is  at  the  least  section  of  briquette. 

If,  on  the  twenty-eight-day  tests,  the  cement  not  only  more 
than  fulfils  the  minimum  requirements  of  these  specifications, 
but  also  shows  unusual  gain  in  strength,  it  may  still  be  accepted 
if  the  other  tests  are  satisfactory,  notwithstanding  a  low  seven- 
day  test,  if  early  strength  is  not  a  matter  of  importance.  Such 
cements  are  likely  to  be  permanent. 

For  a  batch  of  .four  briquettes,  the  following  quantities  are 
suggested  as  in  accord  with  these  specifications.  Water  is 
measured  by  fluid-ounce  volumes,  not  by  weight,  temperature 
varying  not  more  than  10°  from  62°  F. 

Portland  Cement. — Neat:  20  ounces  of  cement,  4  ounces  of 
water.  Mix  wet  five  minutes. 

Sand:  15  ounces  sand,  5  ounces  cement,  2J  ounces  water. 
Mix  thoroughly  dry;  then  mix  wet  five  minutes. 

Puzzolan  Cement. — Neat:  20  ounces  cement,  3f  ounces 
water.  Mix  wet  five  minutes. 

Sand:  15  ounces  sand,  5  ounces  cement,  2  ounces  water. 
Mix  thoroughly  dry;  then  mix  wet  five  minutes. 


TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT.  137 

Natural  Cement. — Neat:  20  ounces  cement,  6  ounces  water. 
Mix  wet  five  minutes. 

Sand:  10  ounces  cement,  10  ounces  sand,  3J  ounces  water. 
Mix  dry;  then  wet  for  five  minutes. 

For  measuring  tensile  strength,  a  machine  that  applies  the 
stress  automatically  at  a  uniform  rate  is  preferable  to  one 
controlled  entirely  by  hand. 

These  specifications  for  tensile  strength  contemplate  the 
application  of  stress  at  the  rate  of  400  pounds  per  minute  to 
briquettes  made  as  prescribed  herein.  A  rate  so  rapid  as  to 
approximate  a  blow  or  so  slow  as  to  approximate  a  continued 
stress  will  give  very  different  results. 

The  tests  for  tensile  strength  are  to  be  made  immediately  after 
taking  from  the  water  or  while  the  briquettes  are  still  wet.  The 
temperature  of  the  water  during  immersion  should  be  main- 
tained as  nearly  constant  as  practicable;  not  less  than  50° 
nor  more  than  70°  F. 

The  tests  are  to  be  made  upon  briquettes  1  inch  square  at 
place  of  rupture.  The  specifications  contemplate  the  use  of 
the  form  of  briquette  recommended  by  the  committee  of  the 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  held  when  tested  by 
close-fitting  metal  clips,  without  rubber  or  other  yielding  con- 
tacts. The  breaks  considered  in  the  tests  are  to  be  those  occur- 
ring at  the  smallest  section,  1  inch  square. 

SIMPLE  TESTS. — Tests  of  cement  received  upon  a  work  in 
progress  must  often  be  of  much  simpler  character  than  pre- 
scribed herein. 

Tests  on  the  work  are  mainly  to  ascertain  whether  the  arti- 
cle supplied  is  genuine  cement,  of  a  brand  previously  tested 
and  accepted,  and  whether  it  is  a  reasonably  sound  and  active 
cement  that  will  set  hard  in  the  desired  time,  and  give  a  good, 
hard  mortar.  Simple  tests  may  give  this  information,  and 
such  should  be  multiplied  whether  or  not  more  elaborate  tests 
be  made.  Pats  and  balls  of  cement  and  mortar  from  the  store- 
house and  mixing  platform  or  machine  should  be  frequently 
made.  The  setting  or  hardening  qualities,  as  determined 
roughly  by  estimating  time  and  by  pressure  of  the  thumb-nail, 
should  be  observed;  the  hardness  of  the  set  and  strength, 
by  cracking  the  hardened  pats  or  cakes  between  the  fingers, 
and  by  dropping  the  balls  from  the  height  of  the  arm  upon 
a  pavement  or  stone  and  observing  the  result  of  the  impact. 

By  placing  the  pats  in  water  as  soon  as  hardened  sufficiently 


138  TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT. 

and  raising  the  temperature  to  the  boiling-point  for  a  few 
hours  and  observing  the  character  and  color  of  the  fracture 
after  sufficient  immersion,  information  as  to  the  character  of 
the  material,  whether  hydraulic,  a  Portland,  or  Puzzolan, 
whether  too  fresh  or  possibly  "blowy,"  may  be  speedily  and 
quite  well  ascertained  without  measuring  instruments. 

Many  engineers  and  users  of  cements  regard  such  simple 
tests,  taken  in  connection  with  the  weight  and  fineness  of  the 
cement  and  the  apparent  texture  and  hardness  of  the  mortars 
and  concretes  in  the  work,  sufficient  field  tests  of  a  material 
of  known  repute.  The  more  elaborate  tests,  described  above, 
should  be  made  in  well-equipped  laboratories  by  skilled  cement 
testers. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  TESTS. — The  tests  to  be  made  are  two 
classes. 

(1)  Purchase  tests  on  samples  furnished  by  bidders  to  as- 
certain whether  the  bidder  may  be  held  on  the  sample  to  the 
delivery  of  suitable  material,  should  his  offer  be  accepted. 

(2)  Acceptance    tests    on    samples    taken    at    random    from 
deliveries,  to  ascertain  whether  the  material  supplied  accords 
with  the  purchase  sample,   or  is  suitable  for  the  purpose  of 
the  work,  as  stated  in  the  specifications  for  cement  supplies. 

(1)  Purchase  tests. — Under  these  specifications  bids  for  Port- 
land cements  will  be  restricted  to  brands  that  have  been  ap- 
proved after  at  least  three  years'  exposure  in  successful  use 
under  similar  conditions  to  those  of  the  proposed  work.  This 
specification  limits  proposals  to  manufacturers  of  cement  of 
established  repute,  and  in  so  far  lessens  the  dependence  to  be 
placed  upon  tests  of  single  samples  of  cement  in  determining 
the  probable  quality  of  the  cements  offered,  that  sample  pack- 
ages may  not  be  required  with  the  proposals  when  the  brand 
is  known  to  the  purchaser.  When  the  cement  is  not  known 
to  the  purchasing  officer  by  previous  use,  a  barrel  of  it  should 
be  required  as  representing  the  quality  of  cement  to  be  sup- 
plied. A  full  set  of  tests  should  be  made  from  this  sample, 
and  subsequent  deliveries  be  required  to  show  quality  at  least 
'equal  to  the  sample. 

In  this  connection  it  is  advisable  in  districts  where  well- 
equipped  laboratories  have  been  established,  that  sample 
packages  of  the  cements  in  use  in  that  territory,  as  sold  in 
the  open  market,  be  obtained  and  tested  as  occasion  offers  to 
ascertain  the  characteristic  qualities  of  the  brands  as  commer- 


TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT.  139 

cial  articles,  the  information  to  be  used  in  subsequent  pur- 
chases of  cements. 

When  purchase  samples  are  waived,  acceptance  tests  should 
be  based  upon  the  known  qualities  of  the  brand,  as  shown  by 
previous  tests. 

The  sample  barrel  should  not  be  broken  further  than  to 
take  therefrom  the  necessary  samples  for  testing.  After- 
wards it  should  be  put  away  in  a  dry  place  and  kept  for  fur- 
ther testing,  should  the  results  obtained  be  disputed. 

(2)  Acceptance  tests. — The  tests  to  be  made  on  cements 
delivered  under  contract  depend  not  only  on  the  extent,  character, 
and  importance  of  the  work  itself,  but  also  on  the  time  available 
between  the  delivery  and  the  actual  use  of  the  material. 

(a)  On  very  important  and  extensive  works,  equipped  with 
a  testing  laboratory  and  adequate  storehouses,  where  cement 
may  be  kept  at  least  thirty  days  before  being  required  for  use, 
full  and  elaborate  tests  should  be  made,  keeping  in  view  the 
fact  that  careful  tests  of  few  samples  are  more  valuable  than 
hurried  tests  of  many  samples. 

(6)  On  active  works  of  ordinary  character,  when  time  will 
not  permit  full  tests,  and  on  small  works  where  the  expenses 
of  a  laboratory  are  not  justified,  the  tests  must  necessarily  be 
limited  to  such  reasonable  precautions  against  the  acceptance 
and  use  of  unfit  material  as  may  be  taken  in  the  usually  short 
interval  between  the  receipt  and  use  of  the  material. 

Such  conditions  were  in  view  in  formulating  the  specifica- 
tion that  proposals  will  be  received  from  manufacturers  of 
such  cements  only  as  have  been  proved  by  at  least  three  years' 
use  under  similar  conditions  of  exposure.  Of  the  tests  named 
in  the  specifications,  those  for  fineness,  activity  or  hydraulicity, 
specific  gravity,  weight  of  packages,  and  accelerated  tests  for 
indications  as  to  soundness,  may  be  made  within  two  days 
after  the  receipt  of  the  material  and  with  a  very  small  outlay 
for  instruments. 

Cement  of  established  repute,  shown  by  specific  gravity 
and  fineness  to  be  properly  burnt  and  ground,  or  normal  for 
the  brand,  that  will  set  hard  in  reasonable  time,  the  cakes 
snapping  with  a  clean  fracture  when  broken  between  the 
fingers,  and  standing  the  tests  above  named,  may  be  accepted 
and  used  with  reasonable  certainty  of  success.  Nevertheless, 
packages  taken  at  random  from  the  deliveries  should  occasion- 
ally be  set  aside  and  samples  taken  therefrom  sent  to  a  testing 


140  TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT. 

laboratory  for  the  more  elaborate  tests  for  tensile  strength 
(and  for  soundness  should  the  boiling  tests  not  be  conclusive). 
The  final  acceptance  and  payment  for  such  cement  as  may  not 
have  been  actually  placed  in  the  work  should,  by  agreement, 
be  made  to  depend  upon  such  tests. 

In  all  cases  where  cement  has  been  long  stored  it  should  be 
carefully  tested  before  use  to  ascertain  whether  it  has  deterio- 
rated in  strength. 

Should  the  simple  tests  give  unsatisfactory  or  suspicious 
results,  then  a  full  series  of  tests  should  be  carefully 
made. 

When  Portland  cement  is  in  question  the  specific-gravity 
and  fineness  tests  should  be  made  to  guard  against  adultera- 
tion, and  in  all  cases  test  weighings  should  be  made  to  guard 
against  short  weights. 

In  cases  where  the  amount  of  cement  or  the  importance  of 
the  work  will  not  justify  the  purchase  of  the  simple  apparatus 
required  for  the  specific  gravity,  fineness,  and  boiling  tests, 
the  cement  can  be  accepted  on  the  informal  tests  mentioned 
herein,  which  require  no  apparatus  whatever,  but  in  such 
cases  cements  well  known  to  the  purchaser  by  previous  use 
should  be  selected  and  purchased  directly  from  the  manu- 
facturer or  his  selling  agent  in  order  that  responsibility  for 
the  cement  may  be  fixed. 

Certified  tests  by  professional  inspectors  made  as  prescribed 
herein  on  samples  taken  from  the  cement  to  be  shipped  to 
the  work,  in  a  manner  analogous  to  that  cutsomary  among 
engineers  in  the  purchase  of  structural  steel  and  iron,  may 
be  required  in  such  cases. 

SAMPLING. — The  entire  package  from  parts  of  which  tests  are 
to  be  made  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  sample  tested.  It  should  be 
marked  with  a  distinctive  mark  that  must  also  be  applied  to  any 
part  tested.  The  package  should  be  set  aside  and  protected 
against  deterioration  until  all  results  from  tests  made  from  it 
are  reached  and  accepted  by  both  parties  to  the  contract  for 
supplies. 

Cement  drawn  from  several  sample  packages  should  not  be 
mixed  or  mingled,  but  the  individuality  of  each  sample  pack- 
age should  be  preserved. 

In  testing  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  few  tests  from 
any  sample,  carefully  made,  are  more  valuable  than  many 
made  with  less  care. 


TESTS,  ETC.,  OF  CEMENT.  141 

The  amount  of  material  to  be  taken  for  formal  tests  is  indi- 
cated herein  where  weights  of  the  constituents  of  four  briquettes 
are  given,  to  which  should  be  added  the  amount  necessary 
for  the  tests  for  specific  gravity,  activity,  and  soundness. 

In  extended  tests  the  material  should  be  taken  from  the 
sample  package  from  the  heads  and 'centre  of  barrel,  and  from 
the  ends  and  centre  of  bag,  by  such  an  instrument  as  is  used 
by  inspectors  of  flour.  All  material  taken  from  the  same  sample 
package  may  be  thoroughly  mixed  or  mingled  and  the  tests 
be  made  therefrom  as  showing  the  true  character  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  sample  package. 

In  making  formal  tests  at  the  work  for  acceptance  of  cement 
sample  packages  should  be  taken  at  random  from  among  sound 
packages.  The  number  taken  must  depend  upon  the  impor- 
tance and  character  of  the  work,  the  available  time,  and  the 
capacity  of  the  permanent  laboratory  force.  For  tensile 
strength  the  tests  with  sand  are  considered  the  more  impor- 
tant and  should  always  be  made.  Tests  neat  should  be  made 
if  time  permits. 

It  is  not  necessary  in  any  case  on  a  large  work  to  test  more 
than  10  per  cent  of  the  deliveries,  even  of  doubtful  cement, 
and  a  much  less  number  of  samples  may  be  taken  should  no 
cause  for  distrust  be  revealed  by  the  tests  made.  In  very 
important  work  of  small  extent  each  package  may  be  tested. 
A  cement  should  be  rejected  if  the  samples  show  dangerous 
variation  in  quality  or  lack  of  care  in  manufacture  and  result- 
ing lack  of  uniformity  in  the  produce  without  regard  to  the 
proportion  of  failures  among  samples  tested. 

In  all  cases  in  the  use  of  cements  the  informal  or  simple 
tests  of  the  character  named  herein  should  be  constantly  car- 
ried on.  These  constitute  most  valuable  tests.  Whenever 
any  faulty  material  is  indicated  by  such  tests,  elaborate  tests 
should  be  at  once  instituted  and  should  the  fault  be  confirmed, 
the  cement  delivered  and  not  used  should  be  rejected  and  the 
use  of  the  brand  be  discontinued. 

TESTS  FOR  WEIGHT. — From  time  to  time  packages  should  be 
weighed  in  gross  and  afterwards  the  weight  of  neat  cement 
and  tare  of  the  packages  determined.  If  short  weight  of  neat 
cement  is  indicated,  a  sufficient  number  of  packages  should  be 
weighed  and  the  average  net  weight  per  package  ascertained 
with  sufficient  certainty  to  afford  a  satisfactory  basis  of  settle- 
ment. 


142  NOTES  REGARDING  CEMENT. 

The  superintendent  may  make  some  simple  tests  to  deter- 
mine the  quality  of  the  cement  as  follows: 

SOUNDNESS. — To  test  the  soundness  of  the  cement,  take 
a  lamp-chimney  with  a  large  swell  to  it  and  stand  it  on  end; 
fill  it  with  dry  cement  and  then  pour  water  on  the  cement;  if 
the  glass  cracks  the  cement  is  unfit  for  use  in  any  damp  place. 

The  cement  can  be  tested  as  to  the  time  the  initial  set  takes 
place;  as  a  rule  the  longer  it  takes  the  cement  to  set  the  stronger 
it  will  be. 

A  simple  test  can  be  made  by  mixing  some  cement  with 
just  enough  water  to  make  it  plastic,  and  roll  it  into  a  ball 
about  the  size  of  a  walnut;  after  it  sets  in  the  air  for  about 
two  hours,  place  it  under  water  for  three  or  four  days  If  it 
gradually  becomes  harder  with  no  cracks  it  is  an  indication 
of  good  cement. 

EXPANSION. — A  cement  that  will  expand  should  not  be 
used.  To  test  this  make  a  cake  of  cement  and  let  it  remain 
in  the  air  until  it  sets,  then  put  it  under  water  for  a  few  days;  if 
any  cracks  appear  around  the  edge  of  the  cake  it  indicates 
expansion  and  should  be  rejected.  This  sometimes  happens 
with  newly  made  cement,  and  age  will  overcome  it.  .  The 
test  for  soundess  will  also  generally  show  if  the  cement  will 
expand. 

NON-STAINING  CEMENT. — In  setting  or  pointing  marble  or 
limestones  or  other  porous  stones  a  reliable  brand  of  a  non- 
staining  cement  should  be  used,  as  Portland  or  Rosendale 
cement  will  stain  the  stone  enough  to  disfigure  it.  This  is  a 
patent  cement  called  La  Farge,  which  is  usually  made  from  a 
limestone  having  hydraulic  qualities.  Some  of  the  foreign 
Puzzolan  cements  also  possess  this  non-staining  feature. 


Notes  Regarding  Cement. 

NUMBER  AND  MESH  OF  SIEVES   FOR  TESTING  CEMENT. 

No.    50 2500  meshes  to  the  square  inch 

No.    74 5476  meshes  to  the  square  inch 

No.  100 10,000  meshes  to  the  square  inch 

No.  200 40,000  meshes  to  the  square  inch 

The   porosity   of   mortar   and   cement,    according   to    recent 
tests  made  by  Prof.  Lang,  shows  that  when  wet  Portland-cement 


NOTES  REGARDING  CEMENT.  143 

concrete  is  impermeable  to  air.  By  measuring  the  amount 
of  air  which  passes  a  layer  of  given  thickness,  under  a  certain 
pressure,  in  a  unit  of  time,  the  following  values  for  the  degree 
of  permeability  were  obtained: 

Dry.       Wet. 

Portland  cement,  neat 0.05     0.00 

Portland-cement  concrete 0 . 40     0 . 00 

The  specific  gravity  of  Portland  cement  is  between  3.10 
and  3.25. 

The  specific  gravity  of  cement  is  the  figure  which  denotes 
the  density  of  a  sample  or  the  number  of  times  a  given  volume 
of  it  is  weightier  than  the  same  volume  of  water. 

For  cement  pipe  use  the  following  proportions:  one  part 
cement  to  three  parts  of  sand  and  gravel.  After  the  pipe  is 
removed  from  the  mould  it  should  be  coated  with  a  wash  of 
neat  cement  and  water,  of  the  consistency  of  paint,  applied 
with  a  brush,  to  prevent  seepage  of  water  when  in  service. 

Neat  cement  reaches  a  greater  strength  at  short  periods 
than  sand  mixtures.  Concrete,  however,  gains  in  strength 
gradually,  and  ultimately  surpasses  neat  cement  in  strength. 

The  compressive  strength  of  cement  is  usually  from  eight  to 
twelve  times  the  tensile  strength. 

Quick-setting  cement  requires  more  water  than  slow-setting 
cement.  • 

Temperature  of  water  and  atmospheric  conditions  naturally 
affect  setting  time. 

Saline  water  retards  setting. 

A  sand  mixture  of  a  cement  which  does  not  stand  the  neat 
pat  test  perfectly  may  show  no  imperfections  whatever.  Sand 
tends  to  diminish  the  ill  effects  of  some  inferior  qualities. 

Finely  ground  cement  has  greater  capacity  for  sand,  ages 
more  rapidly,  sets  quicker,  gets  ultimate  strength  quicker, 
requires  more  water,  is  lighter  in  color,  shows  lower  tensile 
strength  in  neat  briquettes,  shows  greater  tensile  strength  in 
sand  briquettes,  than  the  same  cement  not  so  finely  ground. 
The  finer  the  grinding,  the  more  active  the  cement. 

Aged  cement  as  a  rule  sets  slower,  shows  lower  tensile  strength 
in  early  breaks  (one,  three,  and  seven  days  especially),  shows 
greater  tensile  strength  in  later  breaks,  is  more  liable  to  with- 
stand pat  tests,  has  smaller  capacity  for  sand,  than  the  same 
cement  when  tested  fresh. 


144  NOTES  REGARDING  CEMENT. 


WHAT  A  BARREL  OF  PORTLAND  CEMENT  WILL  Do. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  weighs  about  380  pounds  net. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  weighs  about  400  pounds  gross. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  contains  about  3.40  cu.  ft.  packed. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  contains  about  4.25  cu.  ft.  loose. 

A  barrel  of    Portland    cement  contains  about  2.73  bushels 
packed. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  contains  about  3.61  bushels  loose. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  will  make  about  3.15  cu.  ft.  of 
neat  mortar. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  will  make  about  5.4  cu.  ft.  of 
mortar  mixed  1  to  1. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  will  make  about  8.5  cu.  ft.  of 
mortar  mixed  1  to  2 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  will  make  about   10.7  cu.  ft. 
of  mortar  mixed  1  to  3. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  will  make  about   13.5  cu.  ft. 
of  mortar  mixed  1  to  4. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  will  make  about  23  cu.  ft.  of 
concrete  mixed  1,  3,  5. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  will  make  about  26  cu.  ft.  of 
concrete  mixed  1,  3,  6. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  will  make  about  29  cu.  ft.  of 
concrete  mixed  1,  3,  7. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  will  make  about  30  cu.  ft.  of 
concrete  mixed  1,  3,  8. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  (neat)  will  cover  about  40  sq. 
ft.  1  in.  thick. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  to  1  sand  will  cover  about  65 
sq.  ft.  1  in.  thick. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  to  2  sand  will  cover  about  92 
sq.  ft.  1  in.  thick. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  to  3  sand  will  cover  about  128  sq. 
ft.  1  in.  thick. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  to  2  sand  will  lay  about  750 
brick  with  f-in.  joint. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  to  2  sand  will  lay  about  1050 
brick  with  £-in.  joint. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  to  3  sand  will  lay  about  900 
brick  with  f-in.  joint. 


NOTES  REGARDING  CEMENT. 


145 


A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  to  3  sand  will  lay  about  1350 
brick  with  J-in.  joint. 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  to  3  sand  will  lay  about  2  perches 
of  rubble  stonework. 

ANALYSIS  OF  VARIOUS  BRANDS  OF  CEMENT. 


Brand  of 
Cement. 

Lime 

Silica 

Clay 
and 
Iron 
Oxi'e 

10.60 
10.44 

10.50 
9.75 
11.50 

10.34 
12.18 

12.12 

12.07 
10.39 
8.40 

10.50 
9.18 

9.44 
10.81 
11.50 

9.69 

10.50 
12.34 
10.84 

11.92 

Mag- 
nesia. 

Sul- 
phu'c 
Acid. 

Analysis  Made  by 

Alpha  
Atlas  

63.93 
62.22 

63.35 
63.50 
63.05 

63.21 
63.40 

60.00 

62.98 
62.20 
64.20 

63  .  50 
62.96 

64.78 
64.26 
61.00 

63.47 

64.10 
64.51 
62.71 

61.92 

20.68 
21.48 

20.52 
22.25 
23.00 

23.44 
20.60 

23.10 

21.60 
23.70 
23.30 

21.50 
22.42 

23.30 
21.80 
22.50 

20.65 

22.00 
19.67 
20.14 

23.62 

2.86 
2.95 

1.93 
1.75 

.18 

1.15 
1.44 

1.15 

1.27 
1.21 
.72 

1.80 
2.76 

.97 
1.76 
1.08 

2.76 

.60 
1.16 
2.34 

1.78 

Manufacturer. 
Department  of  Public  W'ks, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Manufacturer's  guarantee. 
Manufacturer. 
Adolph  New,  chemist,  Col- 
ton,  Cal. 
Manufacturer. 
Superintendent  of  Construc- 
tion, U.  S.  P.  O.,  Clevel'd. 

1.03 

1.24 
.75 
1.63 

1.25 
.79 

1.84 

.33 
.70 
.90 

.50 
.05 

1.21 
.96 
2.00 

1.34 
1.60 
'i.'64 
1.32 

Buckeye  
Colton  

Catskill  
Diamond  

Golden  Gate.  . 

Hudson  
Iroquois  
Ideal. 

Adolph  New,  chemist,  Col- 
ton,  Cal. 
Manufacturer. 
Manufacturer's  guarantee. 
Adolph  New,  chemist,  Col- 
ton,  Cal. 
Manufacturer. 
Booth,  Garret  &  Blair,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 
Manufacturer. 
Manufacturer's  guarantee. 
Adolph  New,  chemist,  Col- 
ton,  Cal. 
Booth,  Garret  &  Blair,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 
Manufacturer. 
Manufacturer. 
Lathbury      &      Spackman, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Robt.  Hunt  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

Iron  clad  
Lehigh 

Medusa  
Marquette.  .  .  . 
Napa  Junction 

Old  Dominion. 

Peninsula  
Saviors  
T.  A.  Edison  .  . 

Universal  
Average.  . 

63.10 

21.98 

10.65 

1.61 

1.37 

146 


NOTES  REGARDING  CEMENT. 


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NOTES  REGARDING  CEMENT 


149 


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Brand  of  Cement 

Akron  Star-brand.  .  .  . 
"Banner"  Louisville. 

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150  MORTAR. 

Mortar. — The  following  extract  from  an  article  on  mortar 
was  taken  from  the  Irish  Builder: 

"  Like  all  other  compounds,  mortar  depends  for  its  quality  upon 
that  of  its  constituents,  and  also  upon  the  proportions  in  which 
they  are  used,  and  the  method  by  which  they  are  mixed.  To 
all  intents  and  purposes  it  is  an  exceedingly  fine  concrete, 
composed  of  an  aggregate  and  a  matrix  mixed  with  water, 
its  purpose  being  to  fill  up  the  interstices  in  the  joints  between 
the  bricks  or  stones  of  which  a  wall  is  composed,  so  as  to 
provide  an  even  bedding  surface,  and  render  the  wall  water- 
tight, adherent  properties  being  rather  valuable  for  securing 
this  than  needed  to  prevent  the  bricks  from  being  pulled 
apart. 

"Thus  it  comes  about  that  the  more  close  is  the  jointing  of  a 
wall,  the  finer  should  be  the  grain  of  the  mortar,  and  of  its 
aggregate.  A  coarse  rubble  wall  having  wide,  irregular  mortar 
joints  would  be  best  with  a  mortar  made  of  a  fine  gravel  or 
crushed  stone,  or,  at  least,  with  one  which  contained  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  pea-sized  lumps  as  well  as  finer  sand  amongst 
the  aggregate,  to  assist  in  filling  up  the  larger  hollows  without 
undue  liability  to  settlement.  On  the  other  hand,  for  well- 
dressed  ashlar  masonry,  the  finest  sharp-grained  sand  obtain- 
able should  be  used,  there  being  only  very  small  cavities  to 
fill  up,  and  the  very  thinnest  possible  joint  being  required. 

"  Beyond  this,  it  is  necessary  in  all  cases  that  the  aggregate 
should,  under  a  magnify  ing-glass,  display  either  sharp  edges 
or  a  roughened  surface  or  both,  in  order  that  the  matrix  may 
adhere  to  it ;  for,  while  there  is  little  necessity  to  stick  the  bricks 
of  a  wall  together,  if  they  be  properly  laid,  it  is  quite  necessary 
that  the  mortar  should  form  in  itself  a  homogeneous  sub- 
stance, else  it  will  crumble  into  dust  or  wash  out  of  the 
joints." 

LIME  MORTAR. — Lime  mortar  is  made  by  slaking  the  lime 
and  adding  sand  in  the  desired  proportion.  The  slaking  is 
usually  done  by  putting  the  lime  in  a  water-tight  box  and 
covering  with  water.  The  lime  is  then  stirred  with  the  hoe  so 
as  to  let  the  water  get  to  all  sides  of  the  lumps  of  lime,  and 
thus  cause  it  to  slake  more  readily.  Enough  water  is  added 
to  make  the  mixture  about  the  consistency  of  thick  cream. 
It  is  then  run  off  through  a  sieve  into  a  larger  box,  where  the 
sand  is  added  and  the  mortar  allowed  to  cool  a  little  and 
thicken.  The  amount  of  sand  used  is  regulated  by  the  quality 


MORTAR.  151 

of  the  lime  used,  as  some  limes  will  take  more  sand  than 
others. 

The  "mortar-man"  by  experience  can  usually  tell  when  he 
has  enough  sand  added  to  the  lime  as  he  "runs  it  off,"  but  if 
it  is  a  little  "rich,"  as  it  usually  is,  he  will  add  more  sand  when 
he  tempers  it  up  for  use.  The  mortar  should  have  just  enough 
sand  in  it  to  make  it  work  nicely  and  not  stick  to  the  trowel. 

The  superintendent,  by  a  little  experience  with,  and  watching, 
the  mortar,  will  be  able  to  tell  at  a  glance  if  the  mortar  is  "rich" 
or  "poor."  Mortar  should  be  run  off  at  least  three  days  before 
using,  so  that  the  lime  will  have  time  to  cool  off  and  there  will 
be  no  small  particles  of  lime  left  unslaked  and  which  may  slake 
after  being  built  in  the  wall. 

Lime  mortar  should  not  be  used  in  freezing  weather,  although 
if  it  is  frozen  hard  and  dry  without  any  thawing  it  hardly  ever 
affects  it  much,  but,  if  it  is  alternately  frozen  and  thawed,  the 
mortar  will  lose  its  strength  and  be  destroyed;  so,  to  be  on 
the  safe  side,  it  is  well  to  follow  the  rule  of  using  no  lime  mortar 
in  freezing  weather. 

When  the  lime  is  being  slaked  the  superintendent  should 
see  that  it  is  of  a  good  quality,  as  described  on  page  168,  and 
that  the  sand  is  up  to  the  requirements. 

In  making  mortar  for  laying  "press"  brick  or  brick  with  a 
close  joint,  a  fine  white  sand  or  marble-dust  is  generally  used. 

The  New  York  Building  Code  requires  that  lime  mortar  be 
made  of  1  part  of  lime  and  not  more  than  4  parts  of  sand. 

SUGAR  IN  MORTAR. — Sugar  has  been  used  for  centuries  in 
India  in  the  making  of  lime  mortar  and  is  said  to  add  greatly 
to  its  strength.  Experiments  were  made  some  years  ago  to 
ascertain  the  effect  of  sugar  on  Portland  cement,  and  an  addi- 
tion of  from  |  to  2  per  cent  of  pure  sugar  added  to  Dyckerhoff's 
German  Portland  cement  was  found  to  considerably  increase 
its  strength  after  three  months.  The  sugar  was  said  to  "retard 
its  setting,"  and  thus  permit  the  chemical  changes  in  the  cement 
to  take  place  more  perfectly,  but  more  than  2  per  cent  of  it 
rendered  the  cement  useless.  As  sugar  is  soluble  in  water  it 
should  never  be  used  in  mortar  which  is  to  be  used  under 
water. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT-LIME  MoRTAR.1— "There  are  many  kinds 
of  work  which  require  a  quick-hardening  mortar,  but  for  which 

1  Extracts  from  "  Das  Kleine  Cement-Buch." 


152  MORTAR. 

the  great  strength  of  a  mixture  of  1  of  cement  with  1  to  4  of 
sand  is  unnecessary.  The  cost  of  such  mortar  is  also  for  many 
purposes  too  high.  A  mixture  of  cement  with  5  or  more  parts 
of  sand  would  give  abundant  strength,  but  such  mortars  work 
too  'short'  and  adhere  too  imperfectly  to  the  stone  or  brick; 
it  cannot  therefore  be  safely  used.  In  such  cases  the  addition 
of  slaked  lime  or  hydraulic  lime  will  correct  the  faults  of  poor 
mixtures  of  cement  and  sand,  and  will  produce  a  cheap  mortar, 
suitable  for  a  great  variety  of  uses.  Used  in  this  manner, 
Portland  cement  may  be  used  with  economy  for  the  most 
ordinary  purposes.  The  advantages  of  Portland  cement-lime 
mortar  are  its  cheapness  in  comparison  with  other  hydraulic 
materials,  its  rapid  hardening,  marked  hydraulic  properties, 
great  strength  on  exposure  to  air,  and  remarkable  resistance 
to  weather. 

"The  following  mixtures  for  cement-lime  mortar  have  been 
found  by  experience  to  be  most  suitable: 

Cement  1  part,     sand  5  parts,     lime  paste    $  part. 
"       1      "  "     6  to  7  parts,     "         1        " 

"       1      "          "8  parts,  "         li  parts. 

It  -1  1C  II      1Q  ft  ft  2  « 

"The  above  proportions  are  to  be  taken  by  measure.  Hy- 
draulic lime  may  be  used  in  the  place  of  ordinary  slaked  lime. 

"  Cement-lime  mortar  is  prepared  by  making  a  dry  mixture 
of  the  required  quantities  of  cement  and  sand;  milk  of  lime 
is  then  made  with  the  necessary  quantities  of  lime  paste  and 
water  and  this  milk  of  lime  thoroughly  mixed  and  worked  in 
with  the  mixture  of  sand  and  cement." 

In  laying  face  brick  in  cement  mortar  it  is  advisable  to  add 
a  little  lime  "putty"  to  the  mortar,  as  it  makes  the  mortar 
work  smooth,  and  the  mason  can  do  a  neater  job.  Mixtures 
of  cement  with  three  parts  or  more  of  sand  are  found  to  work 
too  "short"  for  rapid  and  easy  work  in  laying  brick  or  stone. 
The  addition  of  lime  paste  removes  this  defect,  and  makes 
the  mortar  smooth  and  plastic.  The  adhesion  of  the  mortar 
to  brick  or  stone,  and  also  its  impermeability  to  water,  are 
also  greatly  increased  by  the  addition  of  slaked  lime.  As  to 
strength,  it  will  be  found  that  a  mixture  of  Portland  cement  1, 
lime  paste  1,  sand  6,  is  as  good  in  every  respect  as  a  mixture 
of  Portland  cement  1,  sand  3;  or  in  other  words,  that  one-half 


153 

the  cement  may  be  replaced  by  lime  paste  without  loss  of 
strength. 

Compared  with  mortar  made  with  Louisville,  the  Portland 
cement-lime  mortar  will  be  found  immensely  stronger,  and 
little  or  no  more  expensive. 

CEMENT  MORTAR. — In  making  cement  mortar,  the  strength 
of  it  depends  on  the  quality  of  the  cement  and  sand,  the  pro- 
portions used,  and  the  manner  of  mixing.  The  sand  should 
be  sharp  and  irregular,  as  described  on  page  168,  the  finest 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the  work  in  which  the  mortar  is  to 
be  used. 

For  mortar  for  laying  brick  or  for  grouting,  it  should  be 
comparatively  fine,  while  for  concrete  or  coarse  mortar  it  should 
range  from  fine  to  coarse.  A  small  amount  of  pure  clay  in 
the  sand  used  for  cement  mortar  will  not  affect  its  strength. 

Proportions. — The  proportions  of  cement  and  sand  for  cement 
mortar  varies  according  to  the  cement  used,  and  the  strength 
of  the  mortar  desired. 

The  most  common  mixture  is  1  to  3  for  Portland  cement 
and  1  to  2  for  natural  cements.  There  must  be  enough  cement 
to  more  than  fill  all  the  voids  in  the  sand,  and  make  a  compact 
tree. 

For  masonry  and  brickwork,  use  1  part  cement  to  2,  3,  or 
4  parts  of  sand,  according  to  the  strength  required  and  the 
purposes  for  which  the  mortar  is  to  be  used;  for  some  special 
purposes  5,  or  even  6,  parts  of  sand  may  be  used. 

Cement  mortar  for  face  brickwork  is  usually  composed  of 
1  part  cement  and  2  parts  sand;  for  backing  and  in  ordinary 
masonry  foundations,  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  a  richer  mortar 
than  1  part  cement  to  3  of  sand.  When  large  quantities  of 
sand  are  used,  the  mortar  is  "short"  and  brittle,  and  will  not 
work  well. 

In  some  cases  lime  paste  is  added  to  the  cement  mortar  to 
give  it  the  required  plasticity.  The  proportions  are  about 
one-half  part  lime  paste  added  to  the  mortar. 

Stone  dust  and  fine  screenings  have  been  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  sand  and  gave  as  strong  a  mortar  as  if  sand  had  been 
used.  The  table  on  page  171  shows  the  average  strength  of 
cement  mortars  of  different  proportions  and  age. 

WATER-TIGHT  MORTAR. — For  the  lining  of  cisterns  and  reser- 
voirs, and  also  in  some  cases  for  the  protection  of  underground 
conduits  and  piping,  a  mortar  which  is  impermeable  to  water 


154  MORTAR. 

is  required.     According  to   Dykerhoff,  the  following  .mixtures 
will  be  found  water-tight  as  soon  as  set: 

Portland  cement,  1 ;  sand,  1 : 

"1;      "      2;  lime  paste,  J. 
"  "        1;      "      3;     "         "      1. 

"        1;      "      5;     "        "      1|. 

From  the  above  mixtures  the  one  may  be  chosen  which  offers 
the  required  strength  and  hardness. 

A  solution  of  1  pound  of  concentrated  lye,  5  pounds  of  alum, 
and  2  gallons  of  water  mixed  with  cement  in  the  proportion 
of  1  pint  of  the  solution  to  5  pounds  of  cement  and  applied 
with  a  brush  and  well  rubbed  in  will  make  cement  walls  water- 
proof. 

MIXING. — At  the  commencement  of  the  work  the  superin- 
tendent should  decide  what  shall  be  used  as  a  unit  of  measure 
in  maKing  the  mortar  or  concrete.  The  wheelbarrow  is  most 
commonly  used,  and  if  this  is  decided  upon  the  superintendent 
should  have  a  barrel  of  cement  measured  by  the  barrow  so  as 
to  ascertain  how  many  barrows  of  sand  or  aggregate  are  to  be 
used  to  a  barrel  of  cement. 

The  cement  and  sand  should  be  put  in  the  mortar-box  dry 
and  thoroughly  mixed  until  they  become  a  uniform  color.  The 
mass  should  then  be  drawn  to  one  end  of  the  box  and  the  water 
added  at  the  other  end,  and  the  mortar  wet  and  mixed  in  just 
such  quantities  as  can  be  used  before  the  initial  set  begins. 
A  common  fault  on  most  work  is  that  the  cement  will  be  mixed 
up  in  large  quantities  in  the  morning  and  some  of  it  will  be 
four  or  five  hours  old  before  it  is  used.  The  superintendent 
should  never  permit  any  mortar  over  three  hours  old  to  be 
used,  and  any  that  attains  this  age  in  the  mortar-box  should  be 
thrown  away.  He  will  not  have  to  do  this  more  than  once  or 
twice  until  the  mortar  will  be  made  in  such  quantities  as  he 
desires.  At  night  he  should  see  that  the  mortar-box  is  left 
clean  and  if  any  mortar  is  not  used  have  it  thrown  out  to  pre- 
vent it  from  being  remixed  again  in  the  morning.  He  should 
also  see  that  the  mortar  is  mixed  with  just  enough  water  to 
make  it  soft  enough  to  allow  the  brick  or  stone  to  bed  into  it 
readily  and  fill  all  joints. 

COLORING  OF  CEMENT  MORTAR,  ETC. — The  following  coloring 
materials  are  usually  used  for  coloring  cement  mortars.  Usu- 
ally coloring  materials  will  lessen  the  strength  of  the  mortars 


MORTAR.  155 

so  no  more  than  necessary  should  be  used;  this  is  especially  so 
of  the  ochres.  To  color 

Gray,  use  2  pounds  of  Germantown  lampblack  to  a  barrel  of 
cement. 

Black,  use  45  pounds  of  manganese  dioxide  to  a  barrel  of 
cement. 

Blue,  use  19  pounds  of  ultramarine  to  a  barrel  of  cement. 

Green,  use  23  pounds  of  ultramarine  to  a  barrel  of  cement. 

Red,  use  22  pounds  of  iron  oxide  to  a  barrel  of  cement. 

Bright  red,  use  22  pounds  of  Pompeian  or  English  red  to  a 
barrel  of  cement. 

Violet,  use  violet  oxide  of  iron  22  pounds  to  a  barrel  of  cement. 

Yellow  and  brown,  use  22  pounds  of  ochres  to  a  barrel  of 
cement. 

Ultramarine  is  one  of  the  best  coloring  materials,  as  it  does 
not  affect  the  strength  of  the  cement.  Germantown  lampblack 
is  also  good  on  account  of  the  small  quantity  necessary  to  give 
a  good  color. 

TEMPERATURE  AND  CEMENT.1 — "The  effect  of  cold  is  to  stop 
the  setting  of  cement.  Most  cements  set  very  slowly,  if  at  all, 
below  a  certain  temperature,  which  is  usually  between  30°  and  40° 
F.  When  the  temperature  is  raised  the  cement  sets,  unless  in  the 
mean  time  the  water  has  evaporated  sufficiently  to  leave  an 
insufficient  quantity  for  the  chemical  action,  so  that  the  freezing 
of  work  laid  in  cement  mortar  usually  has  the  effect  simply 
of  delaying  the  hardening  of  the  mass.  If  too  much  water  is 
used  in  the  mortar,  the  expansion  of  the  water  in  freezing  may 
disintegrate  the  mortar  by  the  mechanical  action  of  the  ice  in 
forming.  Either  of  these  effects  is  most  apparent  near  the  surface 
of  the  mass  of  masonry,  and  often  requires  pointing  up  of  the 
joints  of  brick  or  stone  masonry,  while  the  remainder  of  the 
work  will  be  found  in  good  condition.  Alternate  freezing  and 
thawing  increases  the  danger  of  injury.  Portland  cement  is 
seldom  injured  by  freezing,  but  many  natural  cements  are  more 
or  less  injured,  and  mortar  of  natural  cement  is  the  more  liable 
to  disintegrate  even  under  the  best  conditions  if  the  tempera- 
ture is  long  enough  or  often  enough  below  freezing-point  before 
it  has  had  an  opportunity  to  set.  In  a  few  instances  some 
setting  of  mortar  frozen  for  a  long  time  has  been  observed, 
but  as  a  rule  the  setting  is  delayed  until  the  temperature  again 

1  National  Builder. 


156  MORTAR. 

rises  above  the  freezing-point.  The  first  method  of  aiding  the 
setting  of  mortar  which  suggests  itself  is  to  delay  the  time  of 
reaching  the  freezing-point  by  heating  the  stone  or  brick,  the 
sand,  the  cement,  and  the  water.  The  amount  of  heat  required 
depends  upon  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  work  can  be  done  after  heating  stops.  This  method 
is  seldom  entirely  satisfactory  unless  very  quick-setting  cements 
are  used.  Slow-setting  cements  will  evidently  give  more  trouble 
than  those  which  set  as  quickly  as  can  be  permitted  under  the 
conditions  of  time  necessary  to  get  the  mortar  into  the  work 
after  the  water  is  added.  Mortar  should  be  made  richer  than 
for  use  at  ordinary  temperatures,  say  one  to  one  and  a  half, 
instead  of  one  to  two,  and  other  mixtures  in  the  same  proportion. 
As  little  water  as  possible  should  be  used,  although  this  will 
increase  the  probability  of  requiring  pointing  of  joints  or  the 
crumbling  of  outer  surfaces  of  concrete.  It  is  frequently 
possible  to  delay  freezing  by  covering  the  work  with  straw  or 
even  tarpaulins.  If  stable  manure  can  be  kept  in  place  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  keep  up  its  fermentation  it  is  the  most 
efficient  material  for  covering.  Perhaps  the  most  common 
method  of  preventing  the  freezing  of  mortar  is  the  use  of  a 
solution  of  common  salt  for  mixing.  The  usual  rule  is  to  add 
1  per  cent  of  salt  to  the  water  for  every  degree  of  temperature 
below  freezing,  using  the  minimum  temperature  to  which  the 
masonry  will  be  subjected  for  the  computation.  The  cold  delays 
the  setting  of  the  cement,  but  there  is  no  mechanical  action 
from  freezing,  and  the  results  of  this  method  are  usually  quite 
satisfactory,  the  pointing  of  joints  being  the  only  additional 
operation  expected.  It  is  evident  that  work  to  be  placed  upon 
concrete  laid  in  freezing  weather  must  be  delayed  until  the 
setting  of  the  cement  makes  the  mass  sufficiently  stable  to 
carry  the  weight.  Laying  of  masonry,  especially  of  massive 
stone  masonry,  in  freezing  weather  is  quite  easy,  but  the  placing 
of  masses  of  concrete  in  exposed  situations,  or  of  small  sections 
of  concrete,  is  not  so  easy  nor  so  certain  of  success." 

The  author  has  used  mortar  and  concrete  made  of  Portland 
cement  in  freezing  weather  and  never  experienced  any  trouble, 
the  mortar  or  concrete  made  and  used  in  cold  weather  being 
equal  in  strength  in  a  few  months  to  that  made  in  warm 
weather.  The  main  point  in  using  cement  mortar  or  concrete 
in  freezing  weather  is  to  not  use  too  much  water,  and  to  keep 
it  from  freezing  until  it  is  well  set. 


TESTS  OF  MORTAR  EXPOSED  TO  COLD.        157 

Natural  cements  should  not  be  used  in  freezing  weather,  as 
they  will  not  stand  freezing. 

Sidewalks  should  not  be  laid  or  any  plastering  or  finishing 
done  with  cement  in  freezing  weather;  the  finished  surface 
may  be  affected  by  the  moisture  in  the  mortar  freezing  and 
expanding,  causing  blisters,  making  the  finished  surface  scale 
off. 

In  using  cement  in  hot  weather,  where  the  heat  or  the  rays 
of  the  sun  will  strike  it,  care  must  be  taken  to  protect  it,  for 
heat  in  such  cases  dries  the  cement  too  quick,  drawing  out  the 
water  before  the  proper  action  of  the  cement  takes  place,  and 
thus  decreasing  its  strength  to  a  great  extent.  The  small 
cracks  like  those  in  dry  mud,  sometimes  seen  in  pavements, 
are  the  results  of  the  cement  being  dried  too  fast  by  the 
heat. 

When  laying  sidewalks,  plastering  walls,  pointing  or  finishing 
any  surface  with  cement,  it  must  be  well  protected  from  the 
heat,  and  should  be  wet  two  or  three  times  a  day  for  about 
four  days  after  being  laid. 

The  following  paper,  by  C.  S.  Gowen,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  giving 
the  result  of  experiments  made  by  him  while  resident  engineer 
of  the  New  Croton  Dam,  N.  Y.,  was  read  before  the  Cement 
Section  of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  July 
3,  1903: 

Tests  of  Portland-cement  Mortar  Exposed  to 
Cold. — The  following  experiments  were  made  with  a  view  to  get- 
ting some  definite  information  on  the  effect  of  frost  on  Portland- 
cement  mortar,  under  the  different  conditions  in  which  it  may  be 
desired  to  use  it  in  cold  weather.  No  facilities  existed  for 
maintaining  a  prolonged  cold  or  uniform  temperature  and  the 
briquettes  were  accordingly  exposed  to  the  open  air,  and  so 
kept  until  it  was  evident  that  the  tendency  to  "dry  out"  unduly 
was  reducing  their  proper  strength  and  creating  a  condition 
by  which  no  basis  of  comparison  with  ordinary  results  could 
be  had. 

The  briquettes  were  accordingly  placed  in  water  in  July* 
at  the  end  of  the  first  six  months  of  the  tests,  and  the  author 
is  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  if  this  had  been  done  earlier, 
at  the  end  of  the  three  months'  tests,  the  twelve  months'  results 
would  have  showed  much  nearer  the  average  twelve  months' 
results  of  tests  made  in  the  ordinary  way  of  briquettes  kept 


15B        TESTS  OF  MORTAR  EXPOSED  TO  COLD. 


BREAKING  WEIGHTS  OF  2  :  1   MORTAR  BRIQUETTES,  POUNDS 
PER  SQUARE  INCH,  EXPOSED  TO  COLD  AT  NEW  CROTON 
DAM. 
(Cement  used,  Giant  Portland ;  sand  used,  crushed  quartz — Lot  209,  1476 

bbls.     Each  breaking  weight  given  is  the  mean  of  eight  breakings.) 


Twenty-eight  Days, 

Temperature 
Intended. 

Breaking 
Weight, 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 

Temperature 
Exposure, 
Degrees. 

Time  to  Take 
Heavy  Wire. 

24  to  32° 

370 

22  r. 

4  hrs.2 

24  to  10° 

458 

24  f 

Night* 

24  to  32° 

3711 

28  f. 

20  to  10° 

272 

16  r. 

6  hrs.' 

20  to  10° 

255 

18  s 

35  min 

24  to  32° 

474 

27  r! 

4*  hrs.2 

24  to  10° 

455 

22  s. 

Night 

24  to  32° 

Three  months 

413 

28  f. 

65  min. 

20  to  10° 

360 

16  f. 

4  hrs.  r.* 

20  to  10° 

246 

18s. 

35  min.3 

24  to  32° 

366 

34  f. 

24  to  10° 

347 

12  r. 

15  min.3 

24  to  32° 

Six  months 

314 

28  f. 

65  min. 

20  to  10° 

287 

14  r. 

2|  hrs.  rj* 

20  to  10° 

300 

18s. 

35  min.3 

24  to  32° 

553 

28  r. 

4}  hrs.2 

24  to  10° 

381 

14  r. 

15  min.3 

24  to  32° 

Nine  months 

452 

28  f. 

65  min. 

20  to  10° 

567 

20  r. 

5^  hrs.f 

20  to  10° 

437 

18s. 

35  min.3 

24  to  32° 

553 

26  r. 

7  hrs.  s. 

24  to  10° 

586 

16  r. 

45  min.4 

24  to  32° 

Twelve  mos. 

510 

28  f. 

45  min. 

20  to  10° 

602 

26  f. 

2i  hrs.s* 

20  to  10° 

512 

16s. 

35  min.3 

1  This  set  was  broken  on  a  day  when  the  temperature  was  16°;   a  ninth 
briquette  was  thoroughly  thawed  on  same  clay  and  broke  at  210  pounds. 

2  Did  not  appear  frozen  when  it  took  heavy  wire. 

3  Frozen  at  end  of  time  rioted,  and  took  wire. 

4  Froze  slowly  and  took  heavy  wire. 
*  Had  not  set  at  end  of  time  noted, 
t  Some  signs  shown  of  freezing. 

J  One  briquette  made  with  fresh  water  froze  and  took  heavy  wire  in  20 
minutes. 

Remarks. — 24  to  32°:  Placed  in  cold  air  at  temperature  noted  imme- 
diately after  mixing;  fresh  water  used.  24  to  10°:  Placed  in  cold  air  at 
temperature  noted  immediately  after  mixing;  fresh  water  used.  24  to  32°: 
Took  heavy  wire  before  being  placed  in  cold  air;  fresh  water  used.  20  to 
10°:  Placed  in  cold  air  at  temperature  noted  immediately  after  mixing; 
brein  used.  20  to  10°:  Placed  in  cold  air  at  temperature  noted  imme- 
diately after  mixing;  fresh  water  used.  In  column  of  "Temperature 
Exposure"  r.  indicates  a  rising  temperature,  f.  a  falling  temperature,  and 
s.  a  steady  temperature.  All  briquettes  were  left  in  open  air  in  a  dry  but 
not  sunny  place  until  the  three  months'  break  was  made  (about  April  15); 
then  they  were  put  in  a  damp  place  until  the  six  months'  break  was  made 
(about  July  15);  and  then  they  were  placed  in  water  until  finally  broken. 
The  brine  used  was  a  solution  strong  enough  to  float  a  potato,  about  10  per 
cent  by  weight  of  salt  to  weight  of  water. 


TESTS  OF  MORTAU  EXPOSED  TO  COLD.         159 

in  water  continuously  until  broken.  In  the  table  given  below 
each  breaking  weight  given  is  the  mean  of  eight  briquettes 
broken,  and  it  may  be  said  that  each  set  of  breakings  showed 
marked  uniformity  in  the  strength  of  the  briquettes. 


AVERAGE  BREAKING  WEIGHTS  OF  2  :  1  MORTAR  BRIQUETTES. 
GIANT  PORTLAND  CEMENT,  BROKEN  AT  NEW  CROTON 
DAM  IN  1896,  1897,  1898. 


Time 

Number  of  breakings 

Average  breaking  weight,  pounds  per  square  inch.  . . 

Time 

Number  of  breakings 

Average  breaking  weight,  pounds  per  square  inch.  . . 

Time 

Number  of  breakings 

Average  breaking  weight,  pounds  per  square  inch.  . . 

Time 

Number  of  breakings 

Average  breaking  weight,  pounds  per  square  inch.  . . 

Time -. 

Number  of  breakings. 

Average  breaking  weight,  pounds  per  square  inch.  . . 


28  days 

690 

441 
3  mos. 

215 

563 
6  mos. 

185 

657 
9  mos. 

155 

671 
12  mos. 

165 

663 


Lot  209, 
1476  bbls. 


10 
483 


1  Normal  test  of  this  lot  not  continued  after  28  days.  Time  of  taking 
heavy  wire,  mean  of  seventy  tests  (2  :  1),  briquettes,  63  min. ;  mean  of 
seventy  tests,  neat  briquettes,  71  min.;  average  breaking  weight,  mean  of 
seventy  tests  (2:1),  briquettes,  1  week,  344  pounds. 


The  results  are  from  experiments  made  by  the  author  while 
acting  as  resident  engineer  for  the  Aqueduct  Commissioners  of 
the  City  of  New  York,  in  charge  of  the  New  Croton  Dam,  and 
to  them  the  author  wishes  to  make  proper  acknowledgment 
for  the  use  of  these  data. 

EFFECT  OF  COLD  UPON  SETTING. — In  the  case  of  this  lot  of 
cement,  which  was  moderately  quick-setting  (taking  heavy 
wire  in  sixty-three  minutes,  2  to  1  briquettes,  and  taking  heavy 
wire  in  seventy-one  minutes,  neat  briquettes,  under  normal 
conditions  of  testing  in  laboratory),  moderate  cold,  22°  and 
upward,  delays  setting  but  does  not  freeze.  This  is  shown 
by  the  set  of  tests  made  for  the  intended  temperature,  24°  to 
32°,  of  exposure. 

The  second  set  of  tests  (intended  temperature  of  exposure 
24°  to  10°)  show  in  the  case  of  the  twenty-eighth  day  and  three 
months'  breakings  (temperature  24°  and  22°,  respectively)  a 


160        TESTS  OF  MORTAR  EXPOSED  TO  COLD. 

delayed  setting  which  resulted  in  freezing  during  the  night. 
The  other  breakings,  six,  nine,  and  twelve  months,  show,  at 
lower  temperatures,  quick  freezing. 

The  third  set  of  tests  (intended  temperature  of  exposure 
24°  to  32°)  was  exposed  to  moderate  cold  after  having  taken 
heavy  wire  in  laboratory. 

The  fourth  set,  a  mixture  with  brine  (intended  temperatures 
of  exposure  20°  to  10°),  shows  clearly  the  influence  of  the  cold 
in  delaying  the  set,  as  well  as  the  effect  of  the  brine  in  delaying 
freezing. 

At  temperature  of  exposure  16°  +  ,  the  set  occurred  in  six 
hours;  16°—,  no  set  in  four  hours  and  no  sign  of  freezing; 
14°  +  ,  no  set  in  two  and  three-quarter  hours  and  no  sign  of 
freezing;  20°  +  ,  a  set  in  five  and  one-half  hours  with  some  indi- 
cations of  freezing;  26°  —  ,  no  set  in  two  and  one-half  hours  and 
no  sign  of  freezing. 

The  fifth  set  of  briquettes  was  exposed  at  a  steady  tempera- 
ture of  18°  ±,  and  all  froze  in  thirty-five  minutes. 

Conclusion. — A  moderately '  .quick-setting  cement  can  be 
used  in  temperatures  about  20°,  without  freezing,  with  a  2:1 
mixture. 

The  use  of  brine  delays  freezing,  at  least  at  temperatures 
of  about  15°,  if  it  does  not  wholly  prevent  it  before  the  set 
has  occurred. 

EFFECT  OF  COLD  UPON  BEARING  STRENGTH. — It  is  apparent 
that  the  general  falling  off  at  the  end  of  six  months  is  due  to 
air  exposure,  the  rise  for  nine  and  twelve  months  after  being 
placed  in  water  being  marked,  and  the  author  is  of  the  opinion 
that  had  briquettes  enough  been  made  for  fifteen  and  eighteen 
months'  breakings  there  would  have  been  a  uniform  increase 
in  strength,  comparing  favorably  with  general  results  from 
laboratory  tests,  a  summary  of  which  has  been  added  to  the 
tabular  statements.  The  six  months'  breakings  of  the  various 
sets  show  a  much  greater  uniformity  than  those  of  one  month 
and  three  months,  as  might  have  been  expected,  the  extremes 
being  287  and  366  pounds. 

At  nine  months  sets  1  to  4  agree  closely, 
"      "          "  "  3  to  5  agree  closely, 

while  set  2  is  lower  in  its  breaking  weight  than  either  of  the 
others. 


TESTS  OF  MORTAR  EXPOSED  TO  COLD.       161 

At  twelve  months  sets  2  to  4  agree  closely, 
"        "  "    3  to  5  agree  closely, 

while  set  1  comes  between  these  extremes,  which  vary  between 
510  and  602  pounds,  an  extreme  variation,  not  much  greater 
than  indicated  by  the  six  months'  breakings,  and  much  less 
than  that  shown  by  the  nine  months'  results. 

Conclusion. — The  general  result  is  favorable  to  the  use  of 
brine  at  low  temperatures;  also  there  is  no  indication  that 
freezing  reduces  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  mortar,  although 
it  delays  the  action  of  setting. 

In  this  particular  example  the  frozen  set  No.  2  shows  better 
at  twelve  months  than  frozen  set  No.  5,  but  not  so  well  at  nine 
months,  where  the  relative  difference  is  the  other  way. 

At  twelve  months  sets  Nos.  2  and  4  ("frozen  at  low  tempera- 
ture" and  "brine")  agree  closely. 

Set  No.  1  comes  next  ("mixed  at  moderate  temperature"), 
and  sets  Nos.  3  and  5  follow. 

There  seems  to  be  nothing  in  the  results  shown  in  set  No.  3 
to  indicate  an  advantage  in  securing  a  set  before  exposure  to 
freezing  temperature. 

The  above  results  are  relative  rather  than  conclusive,  as  it 
is  impossible  to  say  what  would  have  been  the  results  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  and  how  they  would  have  compared  with  the 
general  average  given  for  briquettes  tested  under  normal  con- 
ditions if  they  had  not  been  exposed  to  the  varying  tempera- 
tures of  spring  and  early  summer  and  to  "drying  out." 

These  briquettes  were  mixed  in  February,  1897,  as  oppor- 
tunity and  the  required  temperatures  occurred,  and  the  records 
of  the  time  of  setting  were  made  as  carefully  as  was  practi- 
cable under  the  circumstances. 

The  temperatures  of  the  air  at  the  time  of  the  final  test  for 
the  set  were  not  taken,  but  as  a  rule  the  temperature  rose  or 
fell,  as  indicated,  steadily  during  the  time  that  elapsed  while 
the  observation  was  made.  These  results  are  submitted  for 
what  they  may  be  worth,  as  the  author  does  not  know  of  any 
series  of  tests  extending  over  so  long  a  time  and  at  the  same 
time  covering  such  extremes  and  variations  of  temperature. 

The  following,  showing  the  results  obtained  by  tests  made 
under  ordinary  laboratory  conditions,  when  brine  was  used, 
are  added  here,  and  the  conclusion  seems  to  be  plain  that  the 
effect  of  brine  is  to  delay  setting  temporarily,  while  not  affect- 
ing the  ultimate  strength  of  the  mortar  materially. 


162      TESTS  OF  MORTAR  EXPOSED  TO  COLD. 

Giant  Portland  2  to  1  briquettes. 
Per  cent  of  water  used  to  weight  of  cement,  40. 
Time  to  take  heavy  wire,  fresh- water  briquettes,  241  minutes; 
salt-water  briquettes,  306  minutes. 


One 

Week. 

One 
Month. 

Three 
Months. 

Six 
Months. 

Nine 
Months. 

Twelve 
Monthe. 

Fresh  water  used  
Salt  water  used  

236 
126 

289 
231 

414 
294 

549 
424 

554 
452 

572 
576 

Giant  Portland  3  to  1  briquettes. 
Per  cent  of  water  used  to  weight  of  cement,  50. 
Time  to  take  heavy  wire,  fresh- water  briquettes,  350  minutes; 
salt-water  briquettes,  407  minutes. 


One 

Week. 

One 
Month. 

Three 
Months. 

Six 
Months. 

Nine 
Months. 

Twelve 

Months. 

Fresh  water  used  
Salt  water  used  . 

112 
68 

183 
131 

268 
215 

335 
266 

351 
301 

458 
413 

Standard  sand  used  (crushed  quartz). 

The  brine  used  was  strong  enough  to  float  a  potato,  about 
a  10  per  cent  solution  by  weight. 

Each  of  the  above  results  is  the  mean  of  ten  breakings,  in 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  briquettes  were  placed  in  air  twenty-four  hours  and 
then  immersed  in  water  until  broken. 

The  following  shows  the  result  of  tests  for  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing of  cement,  made  by  H.  W.  Parkhurst,  Engineer  of  Bridges 
and  Buildings,  Illinois  Central  Railroad  Company. 

" Briefly  described,  these  were  made  as  follows:  Sets  of 
briquettes  were  made,  one-half  of  which  were  put  on  the  flat 
roof  of  our  office-building,  where  they  were  exposed  to  all  the 
changes  of  weather,  commencing  in  December,  1902.  The 
other  half  of  the  briquettes  were  treated  in  the  usual  way- 
being  put  in  pans  of  water  kept  at  pretty  nearly  uniform  tern, 
perature  (between  60  and  70  degrees  F.),  and  sets  of  ten  were 
taken  from  each  of  these  lots  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight  days, 
two  months,  three  months,  four  months,  five  months,  and  six 
months.  Column  headed  "Frozen"  contains  results  of  those 
that  were  out  of  doors  exposed  to  the  weather.  Column  headed 


GROUTING. 


163 


"Warm"  shows  results  of  those  that  were  kept  in  the  house 
at  uniform  temperature.  The  column  headed  "Per  Cent" 
shows  percentage  of  strength  of  briquettes  exposed  to  freezing 
as  compared  with  those  of  the  same  date  and  age  which  were 
not  so  exposed.  You  will  note  that  in  the  case  of  the  "one-to- 
three"  mortar,  the  briquettes  that  were  exposed  to  the  weather 
came  out  considerably  stronger  at  four,  five,  and  six  months' 
age  than  those  which  were  kept  in  the  water  all  the  time.  This 
speaks  well  for  the  probable  condition  of  concrete  under  the 
usual  exposure." 

The  freezing  and  thawing  tests   are  shown  in  the  following 
tabular  statement : 

AA  PORTLAND  CEMENT— 1902-1903. 

FREEZING  AND  THAWING. 
Sieves:  No.  50,  100  per  cent;  No.  100,  99.8  per  cent. 


Age. 

» 

One  to  Two. 

One  to  Three. 

Re- 
marks. 

Date 
Brok'n 
1903. 

Frozen 

Warm 

Per 
Cent. 

Date 
Brok'n 
1903. 

Frozen 

Warm 

Per 

Cent. 

28  days 
2.mos. 
3  mos. 
4  mos. 
5  mos. 
6  mos. 

1/23 

2/26 
3/26 
4/26 
5/26 
6/26 

233 
334 
363 
395 

462 
628 

425 
535 
572 
595 
611 
531 

55 
62 
63 
66 
76 
118 

'2/28' 
3/30 
4/30 
5/30 
6/30 

189 
259 
331 
453- 
441 
563 

290 
348 
381 
325 
373 
363 

65 
74 
87 
139 
118 
155 

f 

Grouting". — Grout  is  a  thin  mortar  usually  made  of  sand 
and  cement,  and  is  generally  used  in  brickwork,  by  building  up 
the  two  outside  courses  of  the  wall,  then  laying  the  inside  brick 
and  pouring  the  thin  mortar  over  them,  working  it  well  into  all 
the  joints.  The  grouting  should  be  done  every  course,  so  that 
all  the  joints  will  be  filled. 

Brick  wet  and  laid  with  ordinary  mortar  and  the  mortar 
slushed  into  all  the  joints  makes  just  as  strong  a  wall  as  grout- 
ing, but  because  it  is  hard  to  get  brick-masons  to  lay  brick  as 
they  should  be,  grouting  is  often  resorted  to  when  a  strong 
wall  is  desired. 

Concrete. — Concrete  is  a  mixture  composed  of  broken 
stone,  gravel,  or  similar  material  held  together  by  cement 
mortar.  The  theory  of  concrete  is  that  enough  cement  mortar 
should  be  used  to  fill  all  me  voids  between  the  stones. 

On  large  engineering  works,  the  proportions  of  cement, 
sand,  and  broken  stone  or  gravel  should  be  accurately  determined 


164  CONCRETE. 

and  specified.  For  general  purposes  it  is  possible  to  state 
approximate  proportions,  as  the  sand,  broken  stone,  and  gravel 
vary  in  size  and  proportions  of  voids  according  to  their  source 
and  preparation. 

The  proportion  of  sand  and  stone  must  also  be  adapted  to 
the  character  of  the  work  in  which  the  concrete  is  to  be  used 
and  the  strength  required.  The  superintendent  can  tell  when 
the  first  batch  of  concrete  is  rammed  in  place  if  the  proportions 
of  mortar  and  aggregate  are  such  that  the  concrete  will  ram 
well  and  all  the  voids  will  be  filled  solid. 

Concrete  is  being  used  more  and  more  every  day  and  is  now 
one  of  the  most  used  building  materials,  and  as  it  is  one  most 
easily  slighted,  will  require  the  closest  attention  from  the  super- 
intendent. When  any  concrete  work  is  being  done  the  super- 
intendent should  be  present  at  all  hours  while  the  work  is  in 
progress,  and  see  that  each  batch  of  concrete  is  made  of  the  cor- 
rect proportions  and  mixed  thoroughly,  and  that  it  is  put  in 
place  as  soon  as  mixed. 

Any  time  he  sees  any  of  it  slighted  he  should  reject  it  at  once, 
or  have  it  mixed  over.  He  should  also  see  that  no  concrete  is, 
used  after  initial  set  has  commenced;  any  concrete  over  three 
hours  old  should  be  rejected. 

WET  AND  DRY  -CONCRETE.  —  There  is  quite  a  difference 
of  opinion  among  engineers  and  architects  as  to  just  what 
amount  of  water  should  be  used  in  mixing  concrete  to  get  the 
best  results.  Some  claim  that  it  should  be  mixed  with  as  little 
water  as  possible,  others  think  that  a  very  plastic  or  wet  con- 
crete is  best.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  author  that  either  accord- 
ing to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  to  be  used  is  better  than 
the  other.  For  instance,  in  a  large  foundation  or  any  place 
where  the  concrete  can  be  spread  in  thin  layers  and  where  no 
trouble  will  be  experienced  in  ramming,  a  mixture  that  when 
rammed  enough  to  make  it  a  solid  and  compact  mass  with  no 
voids,  and  which  at  the  end  of  this  ramming  shows  just  a  little 
water  at  the  top,  will  make  as  good  a  concrete  as  it  is  possible 
to  obtain.  On  the  other  hand,  in  narrow  walls  or  foundations, 
between  beam  grillage,  and  all  places  where  any  difficulty  will 
be  had  in  ramming,  then  a  wet  concrete  will  work  the  best. 

The  author  has  used  concrete  in  such  places,  mixed  so  it 
would  just  carry  the  man  ramming,  and  which  when  he  walked 
or  tamped  on  it,  caused  it  to  "quake,"  which  gave  excellent 
results,  and  contained  no  cavities.  Where  a  concrete  is  to  be 


CONCRETE.  165 

made  water-tight  a  mixture  of  this  kind  will  give  the  best 
results. 

Tests  have  been  made  which  show  while  the  dry  concrete 
becomes  much  stronger  in  a  short  period  of  time,  the  wet  mix- 
ture if  allowed  to  harden  for  a  long  period  will  ultimately  become 
stronger  than  the  dry  mixture. 

The  superintendent  must  decide,  according  to  the  work  to  be 
done,  just  how  wet  the  concrete  should  be  mixed,  and  he  can 
determine  this  after  a  little  of  it  has  been  put  in  place  and 
rammed. 

Where  a  wet  concrete  is  to  be  used  the  forms  or  moulds  should 
be  nearly  \vater-tight. 

MIXING  CONCRETE. — This  is  another  point  in  concrete  work 
where  engineers  and  architects  differ  in  opinion,  some  even 
preferring  hand-mixing  to  that  done  with  a  machine.  There 
are  a  number  of  ways  or  methods  employed  for  mixing  concrete 
by  hand,  and  they  will  nearly  all  give  good  results  providing 
enough  labor  is  expended. 

This  is  where  the  contractor  usually  tries  to  save  a  little, 
turning  the  mass  once  or  twice,  when  it  should  be  turned  four 
or  five  times.  Then  experience  is  a  factor  in  turning  concrete 
by  hand;  a  man  who  has  had  experience  in  turning  will  mix 
better  with  two  or  three  turnings  than  a  man  with  no  experience 
will  do  in  four  or  five.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  superintendent 
to  examine  the  first  batch  after  it  is  mixed  and  see  if  it  is  satis- 
factory; if  not,  he  should  have  it  turned  and  mixed  until  it  is,  and 
then  see  that  all  subsequent  batches  are  mixed  the  same. 

It  is  well  to  let  the  contractor  use  his  own  method  of  mixing 
provided  it  gives  the  desired  results. 

A  method  which  the  author  has  used  for  hand-mixing  and 
which  gave  excellent  results  as  to  cost  of  labor  and  result  of 
mixing  is  subjoined: 

Make  a  tight  platform  about  30  feet  long  and  14  feet  wide. 
On  one  end  of  this  platform  mix  the  sand  and  cement  dry  in 
the  following  manner:  Have  a  bottomless  box  of  sufficient  size 
and  depth  to  measure  the  exact  proportion  of  sand,  place  it  on 
the  platform  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  123,  and  fill  it  with  sand,  using 
a  straight-edge  to  strike  it  level  full.  On  top  of  this  set  another 
bottomless  box  of  the  correct  depth  to  measure  the  correct  pro- 
portion of  cement  and  fill  it  in  like  manner;  now  lift  the  two 
boxes  and  thoroughly  mix  the  sand  and  cement  until  it  is  of  a 
uniform  color. 


166 


CONCRETE. 


While  the  cement  and  sand  are  being  mixed  by  part  of  the 
"gang,"  let  the  rest  prepare  the  aggregate.  Place  a  bottomless 
box  on  the  platform  close  to  the  pile  of  cement  and  sand  as 
shown  by  B,  Fig.  123,  the  box  to  be  of  a  depth  to  measure  the 


FIG.  123. 


FIG.  124. 


aggregate;  fill  it  level  full  and  set  on  top  another  box  to  measure 
the  combined  cement  and  sand ;  fill  this  box  level  full,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  124;  now  remove  the  boxes  and  the  mass  is  left  in  a  flat  pile 
with  the  cement  and  sand  spread  uniformly  over  the  aggre- 
gate. Now  let  two  men,  as  1,  1,  Fig.  123,  start  turning  the 
pile  toward  the  vacant  end  of  the  platform,  and  as  they  turn  keep 
the  new  pile  about  the  same  width  and  depth  as  the  one  made 
by  the  boxes. 

After  they  have  started  turning  start  two  more  men  as  shown 
at  2,  2,  giving  the  second  turning;  but  as  it  is  turned  and  spread 
in  the  pile  have  a  man  with  the  hose  and  sprinkler  (or  a  good 
plan  is  to  tie  the  nozzle  of  the  hose  on  a  shovel-blade  so  the 
blade  will  spray  the  water)  and  wet  the  mass  as  it  is  spread  in 
the  pile.  Then  give  it  two  more  turnings  by  men  at  3,  3  and 
4,  4,  and  when  it  reaches  the  pile  C,  as  shown  in  Fig.  123,  it  is 
thoroughly  mixed.  With  a  little  experience  the  man  with  the 
water  will  be  able  to  regulate  it  so  that  each  batch  will  have 
about  the  same  amount  of  water. 

The  author  has  also  used  three  boxes  as  described,  on  top  of 
each  other,  one  for  the  aggregate,  one  for  the  sand,  and  one  for 
the  cement;  then  turning  and  mixing  the  mass  as  described, 
it  gave  a  very  uniform  mixture.  In  mixing  by  hand  the  men 
should  be  provided  with  long-handled,  square-bladed  shovels, 
as  they  can  reach  the  centre  of  the  pile  better  and  will  not  tire 
themselves  as  with  a  short-handled  shovel.  In  large  work  the 
concrete  can  be  mixed  very  rapidly  as  described;  as  one  batch 
is  being  finished  another  one  can  be  got  ready,  and  thus  a 
continuous  stream  of  concrete  can  be  turned  out.  The  author 
has  seen  concrete  mixed  in  this  way  in  competition  with  a 


CONCRETE.  167 

machine  where  the  amount  mixed  by  hand  in  a  day  was  equal 
to  that  done  by  the  machine  with  the  same  amount  of  labor. 

On  small  work  where  it  would  not  pay  to  go  to  the  trouble 
as  described  above,  a  good  method  is  to  mix  the  sand  and 
cement  dry,  then  add  the  water,  making  a  wet  mortar;  spread 
this  out  and  add  the  aggregate  which  has  already  been  wet 
and  washed;  now  turn  and  mix  until  a  uniform  mass  is  ob- 
tained. 

Where  machine-mixing  is  done,  the  superintendent  must  see 
that  the  proper  proportions  are  used,  and  it  is  well  for  him 
to  have  the  sand  and  cement  mixed  dry  by  hand  before  going 
into  the  machine.  Some  machines  are  so  arranged  with  a 
spiral  feed  that  they  are  supposed  to  feed  themselves.  When 
a  machine  of  this  kind  is  used,  the  superintendent  should  have 
a  batch  of  concrete  measured  out  in  the  desired  proportions 
and  run  through  the  machine  to  see  if  it  feeds  correctly.  After 
the  concrete  comes  through  he  should  examine  it  and  see  if  it 
is  thoroughly  mixed  and  if  too  wet  or  dry.  If  not  mixed  right, 
he  should  have  it  run  through  again  or  mixed  by  hand. 

AGGREGATE. — The  aggregate  for  concrete  is  usually  broken 
stone,  gravel,  or  cinders,  or  two  or  all  of  them  combined.  Along 
the  seashore  and  rivers  gravel  is  often  used  because  it  can  be 
obtained  much  cheaper  than  the  broken  stone,  and  makes  very 
good  concrete,  but  on  account  of  the  smooth  surface  of  the 
stones  does  not  make  quite  as  strong  a  concrete  as  broken 
stone,  which  with  its  rough  angular  surfaces  and  corners  causes 
the  mortar  to  take  a  better  hold. 

Broken  stone  from  J  to  2  inches  makes  the  best  concrete 
and  does  not  require  quite  as  much  mortar,  the  voids  not  being 
so  large  as  if  the  stone  were  all  of  the  2-inch  size. 

Cinder  aggregate  is  usually  used  for  fireproofing  of  floors, 
etc. 

When  broken  stone  is  used  it  should  be  cleaned  from  dust 
and  dirt,  by  passing  it  over  a  f-inch  mesh  sieve. 

Gravel  can  usually  be  cleaned  by  washing  it  to  take  out  the 
clay  or  earthy  matter.  It  should  vary  from  J  to  2  inches  in 
size. 

Cinders  for  concrete  should  be  nearly  all  clinkers  which 
will  pass  through  a  1-inch  mesh  sieve,  and  if  very  dirty,  they 
should  in  addition  be  passed  over  a  f-inch  mesh  sieve.  They 
should  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  of  ash  or  unburned 
coal.  Specifications  usually  call  for  rolling-mill  slag  or  good, 


168  CONCRETE. 

clean,  crushed  vitrified  clinkers,  and  the  superintendent  should 
see  that  such  material  is  used,  as  the  ordinary  cinders  are  not 
fit  for  fire-proof  work. 

CRUSHED  STONE  should  be  clean  and  free  from  dust  or  dirt, 
and  should  not  exceed  1J  to  2  inches  in  size.  The  best  results 
are  obtained  from  strong,  hard,  durable  rocks,  with  fracture 
into  sharp  angular  fragments,  such  as  trap-rock  or  limestone. 
Soft,  porous,  friable  rocks,  or  rocks  of  a  slaty  fracture,  should 
be  avoided.  For  some  purposes  certain  kinds  of  slag  make 
an  excellent  concrete.  Dust  in  crushed  stone  weakens  the 
concrete.  The  best  concrete  is  obtained  from  crushed  stones 
of  various  sizes.  In  some  cases  the  stone  is  screened  to  sepa- 
rate the  different  sizes,  which  are  then  remixed  in  the  proper 
proportions. 

SAND  FOR  CONCRETE. — Sand  should  be  clean,  coarse,  and  sharp. 
A  quartz  sand  gives  the  best  results.  Loamy  sand  or  that 
containing  much  clay  should  not  be  used;  it  will  give  poor 
results  and  retard  the  set.  Organic  matter  and  dirt  are  objec- 
tionable in  any  sand.  A  very  fine  sand  or  gravel  is  not*  good, 
as  it  weakens  the  work.  A  very  coarse  sand  gives  the  greatest 
strength  in  concrete,  but  when  the  proportions  of  sand  exceed 
2  parts  to  1  of  cement,  a  sand  of  mixed  grains,  fine  to  coarse, 
with  the  coarse  predominating,  is  preferable,  as  the  fine-  sand 
helps  to  fill  the  voids  in  the  coarse  sand  and  makes  a  more 
dense  and  less  absorbent  mortar. 

PROPORTIONS  AND  STRENGTH. — The  proportion  of  the  mortar 
to  the  aggregate  should  be  such  that  it  will  a  little  more  than 
fill  all  the  voids  of  the  aggregate,  the  strength  of  the  con- 
crete depending  a  great  deal  on  the  proportion  of  sand  to  the 
cement. 

For  all  ordinary  purposes,  such  as  heavy  foundations,  machin- 
ery foundations,  reservoirs,  cisterns,  retaining-walls,  sub-sur- 
faces of  sidewalks,  cellars,  and  street-paving,  1  part  of  cement, 
2  or  3  parts  of  sand,  with  5  parts  of  broken  stone,  will  give  the 
best  results;  for  footings  and  sub  work  1  part  of  cement,  3  parts 
of  sand,  and  7  parts  of  broken  stone  will  give  excellent  results. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  proportious  are  such 
that  the  mortar  will  fill  all  the  voids  in  the  aggregate,  and 
the  mass  will  tamp  solid.  The  proportion  of  cement  and  sand 
to  the  aggregate  depends  a  great  deal  on  the  nature  of  the 
aggregate;  if  it  is  of  coarse  stone  with  large  voids  then  it  will 
require  more  mortar  to  fill  them  than  if  the  aggregate  was  of  a 


CONCRETE.  169 

finer  stone  or  gravel.  To  determine  the  voids  in  any  aggregate, 
take  a  box  containing  a  cubic  foot  and  fill  it  with  the  aggregate, 
which  should  already  be  soaked  with  water,  then  pour  water 
in  the  box  until  it  is  full;  now  pour  off  the  water  and  measure 
it,  which  will  show-  the  voids  contained  in  a  cubic  foot  of  the 
aggregate. 

A  good  method  of  determining  the  voids  in  concrete  materials 
is  to  fill  a  box  of  exactly  1  cubic  foot  capacity,  or  a  convenient 
fraction  thereof,  with  the  substance  and  weigh  the  contents. 
A  solid  block  of  quartz  or  limestone,  measuring  exactly  1  cubic 
foot,  will  weigh  165  pounds;  a  cubic  foot  of  sand,  gravel,  or 
broken  stone,  considerably  less :  and  the  difference  will  represent 
the  voids.  For  example,  if  1  cubic  foot  of  gravel  weighs  95 
pounds,  the  difference  is  165  —  95  =  70.  The  percentage  of  voids 
is  then  70X100-^165  =  42.4. 

The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  voids  found 
in  some  common  concrete  materials: 

Sand,  not  screened 32.3  per  cent  voids 

Gravel,  J-  to  f-mch 42.4       " 

Broken  stone,  1-  to  2-inch. ...   47 . 0       " 

Mixed  materials,  which  contain  the  greatest  variety  of  sizes 
from  fine  to  very  coarse,  will  be  found  to  have  the  least  voids. 
With  any  two  materials,  one  fine  and  one  coarse,  there  is  one 
mixture,  and  only  one,  which  will  give  the  greatest  possible 
density.  This  may  be  determined  by  calculation;  for  example, 
taking  the  gravel  given  above,  since  it  contains  42.4  per  cent 
voids,  we  must  fill  these  by  adding  sand  to  the  amount  of  42.4 
per  cent  of  its  volume.  For  this  we  require  42.4  measures  of 
sand  to  100  measures  of  gravel,  or  1  to  2J.  For  the  stone,  47 
measures  to  100  will  be  required,  or  1  to  2.13.  With  mixed 
materials,  such  as  are  generally  met  with  in  practice,  in  which 
no  sharp  division  between  sand  and  gravel  can  be  made,  practical 
test  will  be  found  more  satisfactory  than  calculation.  The  sand 
and  gravel  or  stone  should  be  mixed  in  the  calculated  propor- 
tion, and  also  in  other  proportions,  and  the  weight  per  cubic 
foot  of  each  mixture  taken,  until  that  giving  greatest  density  is 
found.  With  favorable  materials  it  will  be  found  possible  to 
make  a  mixture  weighing  140  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  correspond- 
ing to  15  per  cent  voids.  If  the  greatest  weight  obtainable 
is  less  than  this,  the  materials  are  not  the  best. 


170 


CONCRETE. 


The  proportion  of  cement  to  be  used  depends  upon  the  per 
cent  of  voids  in  the  mixture  of  sand  and  gravel  or  stone,  and 
also  upon  the  purpose  for  which  the  concrete  is  required.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  an  amount  of  cement  sufficient  to 
fill  the  voids  in  the  mixture  will  give  a  first-class  concrete. 
With  mixed  materials  weighing  140  pounds  per  foot  and  con- 
taining 15  per  cent  voids,  cement  to  the  amount  of  15  per  cent, 
by  measure,  or  1  to  6f ,  will  theoretically  be  required.  Greater 
compression  strength  may  be  obtained  by  increasing  the  pro- 
portion of  cement,  and  for  the  foundations  of  engines  or  other 
heavy  machinery  as  high  a  proportion  as  1  to  5  may  well  be 
used.  On  the  other  hand,  for  foundations  of  buildings,  filling 
of  abutments,  and  other  purposes  requiring  less  strength,  mix- 
tures of  1  to  10  or  1  to  12  will  be  found  fully  satisfactory. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  strength  of  the  concrete 
will  depend  on  its  density.  A  mixture  of  cement  and  sand, 
1  to  3,  will  usually  be  found  weaker  than  a  1  to  7  mixture, 
rightly  proportioned,  of  cement,  sand,  and  gravel  or  stone. 
Mixtures  of  cement  and  sand  are  greatly  strengthened  by  the 
addition  of  a  suitable  amount  of  coarse  material,,  though  the 
proportion  of  cement  is  thus  decreased.  It  is,  therefore,  well 
worth  while  to  give  careful  study  to  the  concrete  materials 
which  it  is  proposed  to  use. 

The  following  table,  showing  the  result  of  tests  of  cement 
mortar  of  different  proportions  and  age,  was  made  at  the  United 
States  Arsenal,  Watertown,  Mass.  The  cement  used  was 
Peninsula  Portland  cement. 


COMPRESSIVE    STRENGTH     OF    PORTLAND-CEMENT 
IN   POUNDS   PER    SQUARE   INCH. 


MORTAR 


Age  in 

1  Cement, 

1  Cement, 

1  Cement, 

1  Cement, 

Air. 

Water. 

Air. 

1  Sand. 

2  Sand. 

3  Sand. 

4  Sand. 

7 
1 
30 
1 
92 
1 
1 
1 
93 
100 
101 

"e" 

"29" 

"gi" 

91 
90 

"  2  " 
2 

4970 
6260 
6140 
8870 
6080 
9560 

2350 
2380 
3400 
4680 
3410 

7570 

1370 
1440 
1490 
2750 

4990 
2635 

isio 

473 
557 
656 
950 

1630 

1 
1 
1 

96 
95 
70 

4 
4 

... 

3140 
2570 

1970 

CONCRETE. 


171 


The  following  tests  of  the  tensile  strength  of  Portland-cement 
mortar  of  different  proportions  and  age  were  made  by  the  New 
York  State  Canal  Commission.  The  cement  used  was  Glens 
Falls  "Iron  Clad." 

NEW    YORK    STATE   CANALS. 
DEPARTMENT  OF  CEMENT  TESTS. 

Record  of  cement  tests  made  with  the  Glens  Falls  "Iron  Clad"  Portland 
cement,  showing  tensile  strength  in  pounds  per  square  inch.  All  briquettes 
kept  in  air  twenty-four  hours,  balance  of  time  in  water.  Figures  below  rep- 
resent in  each  case  the  average  of  five  briquettes.  Quartz  was  used  in  mix. 
ing  all  briquettes. 


Amount  of  Water  Used. 

Kept  in 
Water. 

2*oz. 

HOZ. 

HOZ. 

Hoz. 

lioz. 

loz. 

Proportions  Used  in  Mixing. 

Number 

Neat. 

1  Sand, 

2  Sand, 

3  Sand, 

4  Sand, 

5  Sand, 

of  Days. 

1  Cement. 

1  Cement. 

1  Cement. 

1  Cement. 

1  Cement. 

6 

516 

549 

237 

210 

162 

133 

12 

609 

569 

349 

242 

186 

150 

18 

651 

651 

423 

267 

222 

169 

24. 

671 

660 

435 

277 

227 

169 

30 

715 

665 

446 

285 

233 

171 

Number 

of  Months 

3 

776 

714 

549 

347 

225 

184 

6 

784 

651 

540 

441 

217 

189 

9 

744 

742 

490 

375 

259 

202 

12 

764 

714 

535 

380 

287 

194 

15 

836 

738 

536 

395 

292 

204 

18 

848 

775 

576 

396 

271 

216 

21 

920 

789 

555 

411 

298 

238 

(Signed)     HERSCHEL  ROBERTS, 

Deputy  State  Engineer  and  Surveyor. 

The  following  tests  as  to  the  tensile  strength  of  natural- 
cement  mortar  were  made  with  the  "Improved  Shield"  brand 
of  Rosendale  cement : 


Neat 
Cement. 

1  Cement, 
2  Sand. 

Ten 

sile  stre 

ngth  i 

n  

24  he 
3  da 
7 
30 
60 
90 
180 
360 

urs 

ys 

118  Ib 
161 
204 
318 
374 
398 
440 
501 

3. 

1  42  Ib 
278 
352 
418 
500 
568 

i. 

172 


CONCRETE. 


The  following  tests  on  the  crushing  strength  of  concrete  were 
made  by  Lathbury  &  Spackman,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

REPORT   ON    CRUSHING    STRENGTH    OF   SIX-INCH   CUBES. 


Composition. 

Age. 

Average  Crush- 
ing Strength, 
Three  Cubes  to 
Earh  Test. 

1  part  Lehigh  Portland  cement  
2  parts  sand.  ... 

7  days 
30     " 

36,270  Ibs. 
85810     " 

4  parts  crushed  stone  

90     " 

98,087    " 

1  part  Lehigh  Portland  cement  
3  parts  sand  
6  parts  crushed  stone 

7  days 
30     " 
90     " 

28,433  Ibs. 
62,003     " 
73  073    ' 

1  part  Lehigh  Portland  cement   . 

7  flays 

22  687  Ibs 

4  parts  sand  
8  parts  crushed  stone 

30     " 
90     " 

48,790     " 
61  230    '  ' 

The  following  report  of  U.  S.  Engineer  Corps  gives  the  result 
of  tests  made  with  Atlas  Portland  cement  in  concrete  of  different 
proportions. 

OFFICIAL  REPORT  U.  S.  GOVERNMENT  ENGINEERS  ON  ATLAS 

PORTLAND  CEMENT. 

REPORT  OF  TESTS  OF  CRUSHING  STRENGTH  OF  ONE-FOOT  CUBE  OF  CONCRETE. 

Made  by  Capt.  Wm.  M.  Black,  Corps  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.,  Washington,  D.  C., 

Dec.  1,  1897. 


No. 

Composition. 

Age. 

Crushing 
Strength. 

137,500  Ibs. 
255,000    " 
320,000     " 
440,000     ' 

•1 

1  part  Atlas  cement 
2  parts  sand 
6  parts  broken  stone 

10  days 
2  months 
6        " 
12        " 

"i 

1  part  Atlas  cement 
2  parts  sand 
3  parts  gravel 
3  parts  broken  stone 

10  days 
2  months 
6       " 
12 

10  days 
2  months 
6        " 
12       " 

95,000  Ibs. 
232,500     " 
280,000    " 
405,000    " 

•i 

1  part  Atlas  cement 
2  parts  sand 
2  parts  gravel 
4  parts  broken  stone 

32,500  Ibs. 
267  500     '  ' 
295000    " 
390,000    ' 

The  following  are  the  requirements  of  the  U.  S.  Navy  for 
tensile  tests  of  Portland  cement. 

TENSILE  STRENGTH. — The  neat  briquettes,  prepared  as  'speci- 
fied, shall  stand  a  minimum  tensile  strain  per  square  inch,  with- 
out breaking,  as  follows: 


CONCRETE. 


173 


For  12  hours  in  air  and  12  hours  in  water 200  Ibs. 

"       1   day    "   "     "     6  days  "     "     550    " 

((          1       ft  it     f(        ft     <yj        ((         it        ft  fi^iO      " 

The  mortar  briquettes,  prepared  as  specified,  shall  stand  a 
minimum  tensile  strain  per  square  inch,  without  breaking,,  as 
follows : 

After  12  hours  in  air  and  12  hours  in  water 150  Ibs. 

"       1   day     "   "      "      6   days  "     " 200    " 

(I  i          it          It     tl         ft     07         tt          ft        tt  2^0       " 

CRUSHING  STRENGTH  OF  NATURAL-CEMENT  CONCRETE. — Re- 
port of  crushing  tests  made  by  the  U.  S.  Government  at  the 
Watertown  Arsenal,  Watertown,  Mass.,  of  concrete  blocks 
made  with  Akron  Star  Brand  Natural  Cement,  the  blocks  being 
cubes,  12  inches  each  way,  thus  making  each  block  one  cubic 
foot  of  concrete.  The  strength  given  is  the  average  of  three 
blocks  of  each  kind. 


Cement. 

Sand. 

Gravel. 

Broken 
Stone. 

Thirty 
Days, 
Lbs. 

Seven 
Months, 
Lbs. 

One 
Year, 
Lbs. 

1  part 
1     " 
1     " 
1     " 
1     " 

1£  parts 
3 
2        " 
2 

2i      " 

0  parts 
0      " 
3      " 

7     " 
8     " 

4    parts 

4 
0 

0        " 

215,835 
150,367 
161,200 
110,267 
109.467 

321,833 
290,167 
319,867 
239,533 
225,733 

432,333 
306,667 
329,500 
264,700 
232,733 

PROTECTION  OF  STEEL  BY  CONCRETE. — By  tests  made,  it 
has  been  found  that  steel  or  iron  when  properly  covered  with 
cement  mortar  or  concrete  is  perfectly  protected  from  rust, 
but  the  mortar  must  have  contact  with  and  cover  all  surfaces 
of  the  steel.  The  concrete  should  be  made  wet^enough  so  that 
it  can  be  tamped  close  around  the  steel.  With  cinder  concrete 
it  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  wet  enough  so  that  the 
cinders  will  not  absorb  all  the  water  before  the  cement  is  tamped 
in  place. 

The  following  conclusions  were  arrived  at  by  Mr.  C.  L.  Norton 
after  making  a  number  of  tests  as  to  the  value  of  cement  mortar 
and  concrete  to  protect  steel  from  rust: 

"(1)  Neat  Portland  cement,  even  in  thin  layers,  is  an  effective 
preventive  of  rusting. 


174  CONCRETE. 

"(2)  Concretes  to  be  effective  in  preventing  rust  must  be 
dense  and  without  voids  or  cracks.  They  should  be  mixed 
quite  wet  when  applied  to  the  metal. 

"(3)  The  corrosion  found  in  cinder  concrete  is  mainly  due 
to  the  iron  oxide  or  rust  in  the  cinders  and  not  to  the  sulphur. 

"(4)  Cinder  concrete,  if  free  from  voids  and  well  rammed 
when  wet,  is  about  as  effective  as  stone  concrete  in  protect- 
ing steel. 

"(5)  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  steel  be  clean 
when  bedded  in  concrete.  Scraping,  pickling,  a  sand-blast, 
and  lime  should  be  used,  if  necessary,  to  have  the  metal  clean 
when  built  into  a  wall." 

Fred,  von  Emperger,  C.E.,  describes  rods  embedded  in  con- 
crete under  water  for  four  hundred  years  coming  out  free  from 
rust.  W.  G.  F.  Triest  dug  a  wrench  out  of  a  concrete  bridge 
pillar,  which  was  free  from  rust  after  being  embedded  for 
twenty-two  years.  E.  L.  Ransome  partly  embedded  some 
hoop  iron  in  concrete  blocks  and  left  them  exposed  to  sea  air  for 
many  years.  When  the  exposed  iron  had  disappeared  in  rust, 
the  blocks  were  cut  open  and  the  iron  was  found  to  be  free 
from  rust.  The  safety  of  the  Chicago  buildings  supported 
by  steel  grillages  depends  on  the  concrete  protecting  this  steel 
from  corrosion.  The  wire  netting  in  Monier  pipe,  after  thir- 
teen years'  service,  has  been  found  in  the  same  condition  as 
when  embedded.  Professor  Bauschinger  has  found  an  adhe- 
sive action  between  steel  and  cement  mortar  greater  than  the 
tensile  strength  of  the  latter. 

During  the  construction  of  the  Rapid  Transit  subway  in 
New  York  City,  a  sidewalk  laid  in  1883  by  Matt  Taylor  was 
torn  up,  and  embedded  in  the  concrete  were  found  a  number 
of  steel  rods  which  were  in  perfect  condition  after  having  been 
in  the  concrete  for  a  period  of  nearly  seventeen  years. 

DEPOSITING  CONCRETE. — Concrete  should  be  deposited  just 
as  soon  as  mixed;  it  should  be  spread  in  layers  about  8  inches 
thick  and  rammed  solid,  and  each  succeeding  layer  put  on 
before  the  one  below  has  set;  in  this  way  the  concrete  becomes 
one  mass,  and  a  solid  block  is  the  result. 

The  concrete  should  never  be  dumped  from  any  height,  but 
should  be  deposited  with  a  shovel.  If  it  is  dumped  any  dis- 
tance the  stone  aggregate  will  become  separated  from  the 
mortar. 

Where  any  concrete  is  to  be  put  on  top  or  against  any  that 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONCRETE,  ETC.         175 

is  already  set  the  surface  of  the  concrete  already  in  place  should 
be  coated  over  with  a  thick  cement  grout,  as  this  will  insure 
the  two  masses  adhering  together. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONCRETE,  ETC. 

As  a  guide  for  the  superintendent  the  subjoined  extracts* 
from  specifications,  which  are  considered  very  good  are  given. 

The  following  regarding  concrete  was  taken  from  the  speci- 
fications prepared  by  the  Reclamation  Service  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey. 

CONCRETE. — This  includes  all  concrete  in  place,  except  pres- 
sure pipes. 

The  cement  will  be  furnished  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 
The  concrete  to  be  used  on  all  of  the  structures  on  this  canal 
will  be  composed  of  Portland  cement,  sand,  and  gravel,  or 
broken  stone,  in  the  proportion  of  one  barrel  of  cement,  in  the 
packed  condition  in  which  it  is  sold,  to  seven  full  barrels  of  the 
same  size,  of  the  aggregates  when  mixed  together.  To  facili- 
tate the  work  experiments  will  be  made  by  the  contractor  with 
the  carriers,  whether  wheelbarrows,  boxes,  or  cars,  used  by  him, 
so  that  this  proportion  of  cement  to  aggregates  may  be  main- 
tained as  nearly  as  possible,  and  the  engineer  will  supervise 
these  experiments  and  fix  said  proportion  for  the  kind  of 
carrier  used  at  each  piece  of  work.  He  will  also  make  experi- 
ments with  the  aggregates  themselves  so  as  to  get  the  most 
compact  mass  that  can  be  made  from  them,  and  for  such  experi- 
ments no  extra  allowance  will  be  made  to  the  contractor.  If 
the  cement  comes  in  sacks,  then  380  pounds  net  of  cement  will 
constitute  a  barrel,  and  any  ordinary  cement  barrel  open  at 
one  end  containing  not  more  than  3.7  cubic  feet  will  be  used 
for  measuring  the  aggregates.  If  broken  stone  is  used,  it  must 
be  hard  and  compact,  and  satisfactory  to  the  engineer.  The 
entire  product  of  the  crusher  will  be  taken,  provided  there  is 
not  more  than  ten  (10)  per  cent  of  the  volume  composed  of 
dust  or  screenings.  All  of  the  rock  must  be  of  such  sizes  as 
will  pass  through  a  screen  with  two  (2)  inch  square  mesh.  If 
gravel  is  used  it  must  be  clean,  hard,  and  heavy,  having  at  least 
a  specific  gravity  of  2,  and  screened  into  three  different  sizes. 
None  of  the  gravel  is  to  exceed  2  inches  in  diameter.  The 
mixture  of  such  sizes  will  be  made  in  the  proportion  fixed  by 


176         SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONCRETE,  ETC. 

the  engineer.  A  promiscuous  mixture  of  sand  and  gravel  will 
not  be  accepted.  The  sand  must  be  clean  and  sharp  and  free 
from  any  clayey  matter.- 

The  mixing  of  the  concrete,  if  hand  labor  is  used,  will  be 
done  in  the  following  manner:  A  tight  floor  of  either  planks 
or  sheet  iron  will  be  used  for  the  mixing  in  all  cases.  The  sand 
must  be  dry,  and  will  first  be  piled  on  the  floor  with  the  cement 
•in  the  proper  proportions;  the  mass  will  then  be  shovelled 
over  as  many  times  as  are  necessary  to  make  a  thorough  mix- 
ture of  sand  and  cement;  sufficient  water  will  then  be  added 
to  make  a  stiff  mortar  and  the  mass  shovelled  over  twice  or 
more,  as  may  be  necessary.  The  stone  or  gravel,  which  should 
be  well  wet,  will  then  be  added,  and  the  entire  mass  shovelled 
over  twice  or  more  before  shovelling  into  the  carriers.  This 
mixing  must  be  done  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  engineer.  If  the 
mixing  is  done  by  machine,  the  latter  will  be  subject  to  approval 
by  the  engineer.  If  at  any  time  the  machine  fails  to  per- 
form the  mixing  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  engineer,  it 
must  be  made  satisfactory  or  removed,  and  another  machino 
substituted,  or  mixing  by  hand  resorted  to.  .  .  . 

In  all  concrete  walls  over  2  ft.  thick  hard  boulders,  or  frag- 
ments of  hard  sound  rock,  not  exceeding  1  ft.,  or  less  than 
6  ins.,  in  any  dimension,  may  be  placed  by  hand  in  the  soft 
concrete,  provided  no  such  stone  comes  nearer  than  2  ins. 
to  the  exterior  surface  of  the  wall,  or  to  any  other  boulder 
or  stone  so  placed.  ...  All  concrete  shall  be  well  tamped,  if 
put  in  dry,  with  heavy  tamping-bars,  until  moisture  appears 
on  the  surface;  and,  if  wet,  with  suitable  bars  and  shovels, 
so  that  porosity  and  rough  surface  may  be  avoided.  Con- 
crete will  be  used  "wet"  wherever  practicable,  and  "dry" 
only  when  the  nature  of  the  work  renders  its  use  unavoidable. 

MORTAR. — The  following,  regarding  proportions  of  mortar,  is 
taken  from  Cooper's  "General  Specifications  for  Foundations 
and  Substructures": 

"24.  Cement  mortar  will  be  made '  by  thoroughly  incor- 
porating the  cement  and  sand  in  the  following  proportions, 
viz.,  one  barrel  of  300  pounds  of  natural  cement  and  12  cubic 
feet  of  sand,  or  one  barrel  of  375  pounds  of  Portland  cement 
and  16  cubic  feet  of  sand,  with  sufficient  water  to  obtain  the 
proper  consistency. 

"28.  For  foundations  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  where 
the  concrete  will  not  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  running  water 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONCRETE,  ETC.         177 

or  to  weather,  the  concrete  shall  be  made  of  the  following 
proportions:  For  each  barrel  of  natural  cement,  12  cubic  feet 
of  sand  and  24  cubic  feet  of  broken  stone  or  coarse  gravel. 

"29.  For  monolithic  piers  and  abutments,  for  cylindrical 
and  wooden  box  piers,  and  for  foundations  where  there  is  a 
liability  to  the  action  of  running  water  or  where  the  bottom 
is  soft  or  of  unequal  firmness,  the  concrete  shall  be  made  of 
the  following  proportions:  One  barrel  of  Portland  cement, 
10  cubic  feet  of  sand  and  20  cubic  feet  of  broken  stone  or  coarse 
gravel." 

MORTAR,  GROUT,  AND  CONCRETE. — The  following  specifica,- 
tions  were  prepared  for  the  concrete  work  of  the  retaining- 
walls  of  the  Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Terminal  Station,  New  York 
City: 

In  proportioning  materials  for  mortar,  grout,  and  concrete, 
1  volume  of  cement  shall  be  taken  to  mean  3£0  Ibs.  net.  One 
volume  of  sand  or  broken  stone  shall  be  taken  to  mean  3|  cu. 
ft.  packed  or  shaken  down.  Sand  and  broken  stone  shall  be 
measured  in  barrels  or  rectangular  boxes.  Measurements  in 
wheelbarrows  will  not  be  permitted. 

In  preparing  mortar,  the  specified  amounts  of  cement  and 
sand  shall  first  be  mixed  dry  to  a  uniform  color.  The  water 
shall  be  added  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  wash  out  any  of  the 
cement  and  the  mixing  proceeded  with  until  the  mortar  is 
thoroughly  mixed  and  of  uniform  consistency.  The  propor- 
tions of  cement  and  sand  will  generally  be  1  to  2|  by  volume* 
but  when  the  work  is  wet,  the  proportion  of  sand  shall  be  reduced 
as  required  by  the  engineer. 

Grout  will  generally  be  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  of  cement 
to  1  part  of  sand  by  volume.  The  materials  shall  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  dry,  and  water  then  added,  while  the  mixing 
proceeds,  until  the  grout  is  of  the  required  consistency.  The 
mixing  shall  be  continued  vigorously,  preventing  the  separa- 
tion of  sand,  until  the  entire  amount  mixed  is  used. 

Concrete  will  be  in  the  proportion  of  1  volume  of  cement  to 
3  volumes  of  sand  and  6  volumes  of  stone,  except  in  special 
cases  where  the  engineer  may  require  different  proportions. 
For  copings  and  bridge  seats  to  a  depth  of  9  ins.  and  in  narrow 
confined  places,  the  smaller  sized  stone  shall  be  used,  and  the 
proportions  of  sand  and  stone  may  be  reduced  to  2  volumes  of 
the  former  and  3  volumes  of  the  latter  to  1  volume  of  cement. 
Whenever  practicable  the  concrete  shall  be  machine-mixed; 


178        SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONCRETE,  ETC. 

the  mixing-machine  shall  be  a  rotary  mixer,  and  of  a  pattern 
that  will  mix  the  concrete  in  batches  and  permit  the  definite 
measurement  of  the  materials  for  each  batch.  When  the  engi- 
neer considers  it  impracticable  to  mix  by  machine,  it  may  be 
mixed  by  hand,  in  the  same  proportions  as  above  specified. 
The  mixing  shall  be  done  on  a  platform  of  boards  or  planks 
securely  fastened  together.  The  cement  and  sand  shall  first 
be  mixed  and  made  into  mortar  as  described.  The  broken 
stone,  previously  wetted,  shall  then  be  added  and  the  mortar 
and  stone  turned  over  with  shovels  until  the  mortar  is  uniformly 
distributed  through  the  mass  and  every  stone  is  coated  with 
mortar. 

Where  the  walls  of  concrete  masonry  exceed  6  ft.  in  thick- 
ness, masses  of  stone  may  be  built  in ;  such  stone  shall  be  clean, 
hard,  compact,  and  free  from  cracks  or  other  unsoundness. 
They  shall  be  set  in  at  least  6-in.  beds  of  concrete  and  have 
full  bearings  therein.  They  shall  be  set  on  their  largest  beds 
and  shall  be  at  least  6  ins.  apart  at  every  point  and  at  least  12 
ins.  from  the  face  of  the  wall.  No  stone  shall  be  more  than 
2  ft.  in  thickness.  The  large  stones  shall  not  in  the  aggregate 
exceed  25  per  cent  of  the  total  volume  of  the  masonry  contain- 
ing them. 

The  degree  of  moisture  for  mortar,  grout,  and  concrete  shall 
be  at  all  times  as  required  by  the  engineer  or  his  inspector; 
in  general  mortar  shall  be  plastic,  grout  shall  be  fluid  enough 
to  be  pumped,  and  concrete  shall  be  of  such  consistency  that  it 
will  quake  when  being  deposited,  but  not  wet  enough  to  cause 
the  stone  to  separate  from  the  mixture. 

Concrete  shall  be  deposited  in  the  work  in  such  a  manner 
as  not  to  cause  separation  of  mortar  and  stone.  It  shall  be 
laid  quickly  in  layers  not  exceeding  9  ins.  in  thickness  and 
thoroughly  rammed  with  rammers  of  such  form  and  material 
as  the  engineer  may  approve;  special  shaped  rammers  will  be 
required  for  corners  and  other  places  where  ordinary  rammers 
would  not  be  effective.  Compact,  dense  concrete  must  be 
obtained  with  all  the  voids  between  the  stones  filled  with 
mortar.  If  voids  are  discovered  at  any  time,  the  defective 
concrete  shall  be  removed  and  immediately  replaced  by  con- 
crete of  such  mixture  and  in  such  manner  as  the  engineer  may 
direct. 

When  the  placing  of  the  concrete  is  suspended,  the  engineer 
may  require  a  joint  to  be  formed  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONCRETE,  ETC.        179 

him,  so  that  the  fresh  concrete,  when  added,  may  have  a  bond. 
Before  depositing  fresh  concrete  the  entire  surface  on  which 
it  is  to  be  laid  shall  be  cleaned,  washed,  brushed,  and  slushed 
over  with  grout  of  cement  without  sand. 

The  surface  of  freshly  laid  concrete  shall  be  protected  from 
injury  in  such  a  manner  and  for  such  time  as  the  engineer  may 
require;  concrete  injured  in  any  manner  shall  be  removed. 

Water  used  in  mortar,  grout,  and  concrete  shall  be  clean 
fresh  water. 

No  mortar,  grout,  or  concrete  which  has  commenced  to  sefc 
shall  be  used  anywhere  in  the  work.  Retempering  of  mortar 
or  grout  which  has  commenced  to  set  will  not  be  permitted. 

Forms  for  concrete  shall  be  substantial  and  must  preserve 
their  accurate  shape  until  the  concrete  has  set.  Where  the 
concrete  will  show  in  the  finished  work,  the  face  of  the  form 
shall  be  built  of  matched  and  dressed  planking  finished  truly 
to  the  lines  and  surfaces  shown  on  the  plans.  Adequate  meas- 
ures shall  be  taken  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of  mortar  to  the 
forms.  Forms  which  have  become  warped  or  distorted  shall 
be  replaced  immediately. 

Faces  which  will  show  in  the  finished  work  shall  be  true 
to  the  form  intended  and  shall  be  smooth  and  free  from  cavi- 
ties due  to  shortage  of  mortar.  Exposed  faces  shall  have  a 
facing  of  mortar,  2  ins.  thick,  deposited  simultaneously  with 
the  corresponding  layers  of  concrete  and  separated  from  the 
concrete  by  a  metal  diaphragm  of  approved  form.  After  the 
mortar  and  concrete  have  been  deposited  the  diaphragm  shall 
be  removed  and  the  materials  well  worked  together  by  spading 
and  tamping,  so  as  to  insure  their  bonding.  Plastering  the 
face  after  removing  the  forms  will  not  be  permitted.  The 
facing  mortar  shall  contain  1  volume  of  cement  to  2J  volumes 
of  sand.  Copings  and  bridge  seats  shall  be  finished  with  a 
layer  of  mortar  1  in.  thick  laid  on  the  fresh  concrete,  thoroughly 
worked  into  its  surface  and  finished  smooth  to  true  lines  and 
surface  by  trowelling.  They  shall  be  kept  damp  and  protected 
from  the  sun  and  rain  for  a  period  of  at  least  10  days. 

Forms  shall  not  be  removed  until  permission  has  been  given 
by  the  engineer. 

Immediately  after  the  forms  are  removed  the  exposed  faces 
of  the  walls  shall  be  washed  over  with  a  neat  cement  grout 
applied  with  a  whitewash-brush. 

Rock  surfaces  shall  be  thoroughly  washed  and  cleaned  before 


180         SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONCRETE,  ETC. 

concrete  is  deposited  against  them,  and  no  concrete  shall  be 
deposited  in  water. 

If  leaks  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  concrete  at  any  time 
after  removing  the  form,  the  contractor  shall,  at  his  own  cost 
and  expense,  remove  the  concrete  through  which  the  water 
passes  and  replace  it  with  sound  concrete,  and  shall  conduct 
the  water  to  the  base  of  the  wall  through  channels  or  pipes 
in  the  concrete  or  take  such  other  measures  as  the  engineer 
may  require. 

SIDEWALK  CONSTRUCTION.  —  In  sidewalk  work  the  super- 
intendent must  see  that  the  foundations  are  excavated  to  the 
required  depth,  and  that  the  foundation  is  put  in  of  the  material 
specified  (broken  stone  or  cinders  are  usually  used  for  this  pur- 
pose). Whatever  material  is  used  it  should  be  rammed  solid, 
and  it  is  well  to  have  it  wet  as  it  is  laid,  as  it  will  then  pack 
more  solid. 

When  the  concrete  base  of  the  walk  is  put  down  the  superin- 
tendent should  see  that  it  is  not  made  too  wet  or  the  water 
will  run  down  through  the  foundation,  taking  a  large  part  of 
the  cement  with  it.  The  base  of  concrete  should  be  thoroughly 
rammed,  and  before  it  sets  the  top  or  finishing  coat  should  be 
put  on.  so  that  the  top  coat  will  take  firm  hold  of  the  base 
and  they  will  set  and  dry  as  one  layer.  The  base  and  top 
coat  are  usually  put  down  in  blocks  or  sections  about  4  or  5  feet 
wide,  according  to  the  size  blocks  it  is  desired  to  divide  the 
walk  into.  Each  alternate  section  is  put  down  and  laid  between 
two  pieces  of  2X4  studding  as  guides.  In  this  way  a  man 
can  work  from  both  sides  of  the  section.  After  the  first  series 
of  alternate  sections  are  laid  and  set  hard  enough,  they  can  be 
covered  with  plank  and  the  men  can  work  off  these  to  fill  in 
the  balance  of  the  walk. 

The  blocks  should  be  cut  through  with  a  trowel  or  a  strip  of 
paper  laid  in  the  joints  so  the  blocks  will  not  become  cemented 
together,  which  is  likely  to  cause  the  blocks  to  crack  through 
the  middle  in  case  there  is  any  settlement.  Some  contractors 
use  a  thin  strip  of  steel  in  the  joint,  which  is  taken  out  after 
the  cement  sets,  but  a  strip  of  paper  can  easily  be  cut  at  the 
top  of  the  cement  and  there  is  no  danger  of  breaking  off  corners 
as  with  the  steel  plate  when  it  is  pulled  out  of  the  joint. 

In  finishing  the  top  coat,  the  superintendent  should  see  that 
it  is  floated  and  trowelled  smooth,  and  that  all  joints  and  out- 
side edges  of  the  blocks  are  run  with  the  jointing-tool;  he  should 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONCRETE,  ETC.        181 

see  that  the  top  coat  is  mixed  stiff  enough  so  it  will  set  up  ready 
for  trowelling  as  desired,  and  should  not  permit  any  dry  cement 
to  be  sprinkled  on  to  take  up  the  surplus  water.  Dry  cement 
used  for  this  purpose  will  cause  the  finished  top  to  have  a 
mottled  appearance,  or  cause  small  hair  cracks;  these  cracks 
are  also  caused  by  too  much  trowelling,  as  this  brings  the  cement 
to  the  top  and  makes  the  top  too  rich.  The  cement  should  be 
floated  and  not  trowelled  until  it  is  stiff  enough,  so  that  with  a 
little  trowelling  it  can  be  brought  to  a  smooth  surface.  The  top 
coat  should  not  be  less  than  1  inch  thick,  and  should  be  mixed 
in  proportions  of  1  cement  to  1  of  sand  or  fine  granite  chips. 

Sidewalks  should  never  be  laid  in  freezing  weather,  and  if 
laid  in  hot  weather  must  be  well  protected  from  the  heat. 

They  should  be  kept  covered  for  four  or  five  days  and  wet 
several  times  a  day  during  this  period. 

The  base  and  top  coat  must  be  made  of  the  same  cement; 
Portland  and  natural  cements  will  not  adhere  together  and 
should  never  be  used,  one  for  the  base  and  the  other  for  the 
top  coat. 

The  following  specifications  are  used  by  the  city  of  Seattle, 
Wash.,  for  sidewalks,  etc. 

Concrete  shall  be  mixed  as  follows:  Upon  a  tight  platform 
of  evenly  laid  plank  of  sufficient  size;  a  correct  proportion  of 
gravel  shall  be  evenly  spread,  and  in  no  case  more  than  8  ins. 
deep.  All  material  for  concrete  shall  be  accurately  measured 
in  suitable  sized  boxes.  No  counting  by  shovels  or  other 
approximation  will  be  allowed.  To  determine  the  proper 
proportions,  a  barrel  of  cement  weighing  not  less  than  400  Ibs. 
gross  shall  be  taken  as  measuring  3^  cu.  ft.  In  a  separate  box 
the  correct  proportion  of  sand  and  cement  shall  be  mixed  dry 
until  the  whole  mass  is  one  even  color.  The  gravel  shall  then 
be  wetted  and  the  mixture  of  dry  sand  and  cement  shall  be 
evenly  spread  over  it.  Commencing  at  the  corners,  the  men 
shall,  with  shovels,  turn  the  mass  over,  away  from  the  centre, 
and  coming  back,  turn  it  to  the  centre.  In  addition  to  the 
thorough  wetting  of  the  stones,  if,  in  the  judgment  of  the  city 
engineer,  it  will  be  necessary,  sufficient  water  shall  be  added 
to  the  mass  by  a  rosehead  sprinkler  to  enable  the  material  to 
become  thoroughly  incorporated,  and  the  process  of  mixing 
shall  be  continued  until  the  surface  of  each  stone  is  well 
covered  with  mortar.  The  concrete  shall  be  spread  upon  the 
foundation  as  soon  as  mixed  in  a  layer  of  such  depth  that  after 


182        SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONCRETE,  ETC. 

having  been  thoroughly  compacted  with  iron-shod  rammers, 
7  ins.  square  and  weighing  not  less  than  40  Ibs.,  it  shall  not 
be  in  any  place  less  than  3^  ins.  thick,  and  the  upper  surface 
shall  be  parallel  with  and  not  less  than  £  in.  below  the  pro- 
posed surface  of  the  completed  pavement.  To  insure  this 
the  concrete  shall  be  struck  with  a  gauge  which  shall  be  shod 
with  a  steel  plate  not  less  than  £  in.  in  thickness.  Special  care 
shall  be  taken  to  thoroughly  tamp  the  concrete  in  all  cases.  It 
shall  be  tamped  until  a]thin  layer  of  water  appears  on  the  surface. 

At  such  points  as  may  be  directed  by  the  city  engineer, 
and  which  shall  be  approximately  120  ft.  apart,  all  concrete 
sidewalks  shall  have  a  joint  £  in.  in  width,  extending  entirely 
through  the  concrete  base  and  wearing  surface.  As  soon  as 
the  concrete  is  thoroughly  set,  this  joint  shall  be  carefully 
cleaned  and  immediately  poured  full,  even  with  the  surface, 
with  hot  grade  "D"  asphalt,  or  with  pavers'  pitch  No.  6. 

When  the  bottom  course  is  completed,  and  before  the  con- 
crete has  begun  to  set,  the  finishing  or  wearing  course  shall 
be  laid  down.  The  correct  proportions  of  sand  and  cement 
shall  be  thoroughly  mixed  dry  until  of  one  uniform  color  and 
sufficient  water  added  to  make  a  mortar  of  proper  consistency. 
The  mortar  shall  be  colored  by  mixing  lampblack  therewith, 
at  the  rate  of  about  2  Ibs.  of  lampblack  to  1  bbl.  of  cement. 
This  quantity  may  be  varied  to  produce  the  shade  desired. 
The  lampblack  shall  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  cement 
mortar  in  such  manner  as  to  produce  a  uniform  and  even  shade 
satisfactory  to  the  city  engineer.  Special  care  must  be  taken 
to  thoroughly  trowel  down  the  mortar  in  order  to  secure  a 
perfect  bond  with  the  concrete  base.  It  shall  then  be  care- 
fully smoothed  to  a  uniform  surface,  which  must  not  be  dis- 
turbed after  the  first  setting  takes  place. 

V-shaped  grooves  J  inch  in  depth  shall  then  be  made  with 
a  suitable  tool,  dividing  the  pavement  into  blocks  2  feet  square. 
The  thickness  of  the  completed  wearing  surface  must  not  be  less 
than  |  in.  at  any  point.  On  steep  grades  the  cement  coating 
shall  be  roughened  in  such  manner  as  the  city  engineer  may  direct. 

When  the  sidewalk  is  completed  it  shall  be  covered  with 
such  material  as  may  be  directed  and  kept  moist  by  sprinkling 
for  at  least  one  week.  The  sprinkling  shall  be  done  as  often 
as  may  be  necessary  to  keep  the  sidewalk  constantly  moist. 

The  contractor  will  be  required  to  stamp  his  name  in  letters  1 
in.  high  and  \  in.  deep  twice  in  each  block  on  each  side*of  street. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONCRETE,  ETC.        183 

All  concrete  shall  be  laid  in  short  sections  and  immediately 
covered  with  the  wearing  surface.  Retempering  of  concrete 
cr  mortar  will  not  be  permitted.  All  mortar  or  concrete  that 
has  begun  to  set  before  ramming  is  completed  shall  be  removed 
from  the  work.  Any  concrete  or  mortar  that  fails  to  show 
proper  bond,  or  that  fails  to  set  after,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
city  engineer,  it  has  been  allowed  sufficient  time,  shall  be 
taken  up  and  replaced  by  the  contractor  at  his  own  expense 
with  new  concrete  or  mortar  of  proper  quality. 

Granolithic  Sidewalk. — The  following  extract  is  taken  from 
specifications  prepared  and  used  by  the  supervising  architect  of 
the  U.  S.  Treasury  Department : 

The  sidewalk  shall  be  of  4  ins.  of  concrete  with  1-in.  finish- 
ing coat  laid  on  8  ins.  of  broken  stone  or  cinders,  the  stone  or 
cinders  to  be  well  rolled  or  tamped  before  the  concrete  is  laid. 
The  concrete  shall  be  composed  of  one  volume  of  Portland 
cement,  two  volumes  of  sand,  and  three  volumes  of  clean  hard 
stone  broken  to  pass  through  a  l-in.-mesh  sieve.  Lay  off  in 
rectangular  slabs  about  4  ft.  square,  the  joints  to  extend  at  least 
half  way  through  the  concrete,  and  before  the  concrete  com- 
mences to  set  spread  the  finish  coat,  composed  of  equal  volumes 
of  Portland  cement  and  finely  crushed  granite,  mixed  with  only 
enough  water  to  dampen  the  mass,  as  dusting  with  dry  cement  in 
finishing  will  not  be  permitted. 

Trowel  to  smooth  even  surface  cut  through  on  lines  coinciding 
with  the  joints  in  the  concrete  and  [finish  the  joints  with  a 
V-shaped  tool.  Leave  1^-in.  margin  around  each  slab. 

In  all  work  under  the  supervising  architect  samples  of  ma- 
terials to  be  used  must  be  submitted  and  approved  before  the 
work  is  commenced. 

Weight  of  Concrete: 

Cinder  concrete.  . about  105  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot 

Crushed-stone  concrete.  .  .  "      140    "     "       "        " 

Gravel  concrete "      150    ""       " 

Slag  concrete "      135    "     "       "        " 

Per  cent  of  strength  of  concrete  at  different  ages: 
30  days  old,    60  per  cent  of  full  strength. 

60      "      "  75         "         "     "  " 

90      "      "  85         "         "     "  " 

120      "      "  90         "         "     "  " 

180      "      "  95        /         "     "  " 

360      "      "  100         "         "     "          " 


184 


COMPOSITION  OF  CONCRETE. 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  CONCRETE  FOR  VARIOUS  USES. 


Nature  of  Work. 

Proportions. 

Cement 

Sand. 

Broken 
Stone. 

5 

7 

Lime. 

Sidewalks,  base  

Sidewalks,  surface.  .  . 
Concrete,  general  use  . 

Portland  cement,  lime, 
mortar 

1 

1 
1 

1 

2 

1 
3 

7 

1 

3-in,    foundation  of 
broken  stone,  grav- 
el, or  cinders  from 
6  to  12  ins.  deep. 
1.  -in.  crushed  granite 
or  sand. 
Broken  stone  from  i 
to  2  ins.  in  diam- 
eter. 

Stone  to   pass   ring 
1£  ins-  in  diameter. 
Stone   to   pass   ring 
1^  ins.  in  diameter. 

3  ins.  thick. 
2    ins.    thick,  hard- 
trowelled.        Very 
fine  sand,  or  pref- 
erably        crushed 
granite. 

i  to  fin.  thick. 
£  in.  thick. 

i  in.  thick. 

Stone  to   pass  1-in. 
ring. 
Broken  stone  to  -f- 
in.  ring. 
Fine-crushed    gran- 
ite. 

Water     should     be 
added  in  sufficient 
quantity    to    pro- 
duce a  fluid  con- 
dition. 

Concrete  bridge  foun- 
dations   and    abut- 
ment walls  
Concrete       haunches, 
arches,  catch-basins 
Plastering     faces     of 
concrete    arch  and 
catch-basins  
Stable  floors,  base.  .  . 
Stable  floors,  surface. 

Repairing  masonry.  .  . 
Stucco.  .  . 

1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 

3 
2 

P 

3 
3 

6 
5 

"3" 

"i" 

* 

Plastering  brick  wall, 
first    coat    contain- 
ing hair  
Plastering  brick  wall, 
second  coat  applied 
before  the  first  has 
set  
Concrete     tanks,    cis- 
terns, etc  
Concrete  pillars,  posts, 
walls,  etc  

Ornamental  work.  .  .  . 

Cinder     and    cement 
concrete     for     fire- 
proof floors  

Cement       grout      for 
pouring  between 
concrete  blocks..  .  . 

2 
2 
2 
2 

31 

i 

5 
3 
3 

6  parts 
steam 
cinders 

CONCRETE  WASH. — The  facing  of  concrete  work  employed 
by  the  Wabash  Ry.  for  bridge  abutments  of  concrete  and  con- 
crete-steel consists  in  applying  a  facing  wash  composed  of 
1  part  of  plaster  of  Paris  to  3  parts  of  cement,  made  very  thin 


COMPOSITION  OF  CONCRETE. 


185 


bfi 

Ij 


00 

• 


i-l  CO  C<ICOT-!r-li-!C<l 


I:l!l§ 
IB    &°    fe^ 


go 


a     a     c     s 
0000 


186 


COMPOSITION  OF  CONCRETE. 


and  put  on  with  whitewash-brushes.  This  has  been  found  very 
satisfactory. 

LIME  CONCRETE. — In  Paris  a  concrete  is  much  used,  composed 
as  follows: 

Sand  and  gravel  8  parts,  burned  and  powdered  earth  1  part, 
pulverized  clinkers  and  cinders  1  part,  and  unslaked  hydraulic 
lime  li  parts.  These  materials  are  thoroughly  mixed  while  dry 
and  then  dampened.  This  mixture  sets  in  a  short  while  and 
becomes  very  hard  and  strong  in  a  few  days.  It  is  claimed  for 
this  concrete  that  it  is  not  liable  to  crack  or  scale. 

Experiments  for  volume  on  cement,  sand,  gravel,  broken 
stone,  mortar,  and  concrete  are  shown  in  the  following  table, 
the  volumes  being  measured  loose : 


Cement. 

Volume 
of  Loose 
Cement. 

Water 
Added  by 
Measure. 

Volume  of 
Stiff  Cement 
Paste. 

Portland  cement  (Atlas)   . 

1  00 

0  35 

0  78 

Natural  cement,  Louisville  

1:00 

0.43 

0.78 

Remarks. — 6.56  barrels  of  cement  ==  1  cubic  yard  measured  loose. 


Aggregates. 

Volume 
Loose. 

Solids. 

Voids. 

1.  Sand,  moist,  fine,  will  pass  18-mesh  sieve.  . 
2.  Sand,  moist,  coarse,  will  not  pass  18-mesh 

1.00 
1  00 

0.57 
0  65 

0.43 
0  35 

3.  Sand,  moist,  coarse  and  fine  mixed  (ordi- 

1  00 

0  62 

0  38 

4.  Sand,  dry,  coarse  and  fine  mixed  
5.  Stone  screenings  and  stone  dust  
6.  Gravel,  f  in.  and  under,  6  per  cent  coarse 
sand  

1.00 
1.00 

1.00 

0.70 
0.58 

0  67 

0.30 
0.42 

0  33 

7.  Broken  stone,  1  in.  and  under  
8.  Broken  stone,  2£  ins.  and  under,  dust  only 

1.00 
1.00 

0.54 
0  59 

0.46 
0  41 

9.  Broken  stone,  2$  ins.  and  under,  most  small 
stones  screened  out  

1.00 

0  55 

0  45 

MORTARS  WITH   NO.   3   SAND. 


Parts  of  sand  mixed  with  1  part  of 

cement 

Volume  of  slush  mortar 

Required  for  1  cubic  yard: 

Cement,  bbls 

Sand,  cubic  yards 

Volume  of  dry  facing  mortar 

(rammed) 

Required  for  1  cubic  yard: 

Cement,  bbls 

Sand,  cubic  yards 


1.40 


4 
6.71 


5.404. 
0.820 


1.5 


2.0 


1.782.172.552.983.393.82 


703.70 
0.84 


1.221.57 


2.5 


3.0 


3.042.582.21 
0.920.98  1.01 


3.41 
1.04  1.10 


2.882.492.20 
1.141.17 


3.5 


1.94 
1.03 


1.932.282.642.993.354.08 


4.0 


1.72 
.05 


1.20 


5.0 

4.65 


1.41 
1.08 


1.961.61 


1.23 


COMPOSITION  OF  CONCRETE.  187 

MATERIALS  REQUIRED  TO  MAKE  DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  CON- 
CRETE FOR  CONNECTICUT  AVE.  BRIDGE,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

The  following  concrete  preparations  were  determined  by 
Mr.  A.  W.  Dow,  Inspector  of  Asphalts  and  Cements,  and  W.  J. 
Douglas,  Engineer  of  Bridges,  D.  C. 

Class  A. 

4  bags  =  l  bbl.  Vulcanite  cement  =378.25  lbs.=4.5  cu.  ft. 
9.00  cu.  ft.  sand. 
20.25   "   "    stone. 
Yielded  21.4  cu.  ft.  concrete  when  rammed  into  place. 

Class  B. 
1 : 2^ :  6  (broken  stone). 

4  bags  =  l  bbl.  Vulcanite  cement  =378.25  lbs.=4.5  cu.  ft. 
11.25  cu.  ft.  sand. 
27.00   "   "    stone. 
Yielded  27.66  cu.  ft.  concrete  when  rammed  into  place. 

Class  B. 
1:2&:3:3  (3  gravel  and  3  stone). 

4  bags  =  l  bbl.  Vulcanite  cement  =378.25  lbs.=4.5  cu.  ft. 
11.25  cu.  ft.  sand. 
13.50   "   "    gravel. 
13.50   "   "    stone. 
Yielded  27.66  cu.  ft.  concrete  when  rammed  into  place. 

Class  C. 
1:3:10  (gravel). 

4  bags  =  l  bbl.  Vulcanite  cement  =378.25  lbs.=4.5  cu.  ft. 
13.5  cu.  ft.  sand. 
45.0    "   "    gravel. 
Yielded  45  cu.  ft.  of  concrete  when  rammed  into  place. 

NOTES  ON  CEMENT  CONCRETE,  ETC. — Good  cement  should 
be  a  uniform  bluish-gray  color  throughout;  yellow  checks  or 
places  indicate  an  excess  of  clay  or  that  the  cement  has  not 
been  sufficiently  burned;  and  it  is  then  probably  a  quick-setting 
cement  of  low  specific  gravity  and  deficient  strength. 


188 


COMPOSITION  OF  CONCRETE. 


CONCRETES. 


Material  Required  for  One  Cubic  Yard  Rammed  Concrete. 

Mixtures. 

Stone,  1  Inch 
and  Under, 

Stone,  2^  Ins. 
and  Under, 

Stone,  2£  Ins., 
with  Most 

Gravel,  f  Inch 

Dust  Screened 

Dust  Screenec 

Sm 

all  Stone 

and  Under. 

Out. 

Out. 

Screened  Out. 

•4 

03 

-I 

•1 

-§ 

•9 

a 

T3 

i 

.j 

-J  . 

^ 

K* 

•*r  . 

r* 

>" 

*»  . 

K"1 

f 

+T   • 

H 

Q}     . 

| 

•c 

_o 

IS 

id 

Is 

|ffl 

"BO 

§0 

a« 

"Ho 

§0 

0)    O 

id 

6 

02 

02 

5 

02 

02 

0 

<z 

02 

0 

02 

02 

oW 

a 

02 

o 

i 

i 
i 

1.0 
1.0 
1.0 

2.0 
2.5 
3.0 

2.57 
2.29 
2.06 

0.39 
0.35 
0.31 

0.78 
0.70 
0.94 

2.63 
2.34 
2.10 

0.40 
0.36 
0.32 

0.80 
0.89 
0.96 

2.720.41 
2.410.37 
2.16j0.33 

0.832.300.35 
0.92,2.10'0.32 
0  .  98  1  .  89  0  29 

0.74 
0.80 
0.86 

i 

1.0 

3.5 

1.84 

0.28 

0.98 

1.88 

0.29 

1.00 

1.88 

0.29 

1.05 

1.71J0.26 

0.91 

i 

1.5 

2.5 

2.05 

0.47 

0.78 

2.09 

0.48 

0.80 

2.16 

0.49 

0.82 

1.83 

0.42 

0.73 

i 

1.5 

3.0 

1.85 

0.42 

0.84 

1.90 

0.43 

0.87 

1.96!0.45 

0.89 

1.7110.39 

0.78 

i 

1.5 

3.5 

1.72 

0.39 

0.91 

1.74 

0.40 

0.93 

1.79 

0.41 

0.96 

1.57i0.36 

0.83 

i 

1.5 

4.0 

1.57 

0.36 

0.96 

1.61 

0.37 

0.98 

1.64 

0.38 

1.00 

1.460.33 

0.88 

i 

1.5 

4.5 

1.43 

0.33 

0.98 

1.46 

0.33 

1.00 

1.51 

0.35 

0.16 

1.340.31 

0.91 

i 

2.0 

3.0 

1.70 

0.52 

0.77 

1.73 

0.53 

0.79 

1.78 

0.54 

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NOTES  ON  CEMENT  CONCRETE,  ETC.          189 

Cement  that  will  stand  a  high  test  for  seven  days  may  have 
an  excess  of  lime,  which  will  cause  it  to  deteriorate.  The 
twenty-eight-day  test  is,  therefore,  very  useful. 

The  most  dangerous  feature  in  Portland  cement  is  the  presence 
of  too  much  magnesia  and  an  excess  of  free  lime,  the  latter 
indicated  by  the  cracks  and  distortions  in  the  test  cakes  and 
the  former  in  the  deficiency  of  tensile  strength  of  the  briquettes- 
Over  3  per  cent  of  magnesia  is  excessive  and  dangerous. 

For  general  information  the  following  building  material  will 
make  1  cubic  yard  of  concrete:  2400  pounds  crushed  stone, 
295  pounds  cement,  880  pounds  sand,  700  pounds  rough  building 
stone. 

Cement  work  which  is  to  be  painted  must  be  fully  hardened 
and  dry.  The  best  results  are  obtained  after  the  concrete  is 
a  year  old.  A  good  preparatory  coating  for  oil  paint  is  a  solu- 
tion of  water-glass  in  4  parts  of  water.  After  two  applications 
the  surface  is  washed  with  water  and  water-glass  applied  again. 
When  thoroughly  dry  the  paint  can  be  used. 

The  quality  of  cement-work  is  always  improved  by  keeping 
it  wet,  especially  during  the  process  of  setting.  Cement  should 
in  no  case  be  disturbed  after  it  has  attained  its  initial  set. 

When  metal  moulds  are  used  for  forming  concrete,  or  metal 
lining  for  wooden  forms,  ordinary  pork  fat  has  been  successfully 
used  to  prevent  adhesion. 

The  white  efflorescence  sometimes  seen  defacing  concrete  is 
not  permanent  or  serious,  and  it  is  easily  removed  by  scrubbing 
with  broom  and  water.  It  is  caused  by  the  wetting  and  drying 
of  the  concrete,  which  leaches  out  the  alkali  in  the  masonry 
from  sand,  water,  and  cement. 

Sieves  used  to  ascertain  the  fineness  of  cement: 

No.  50 2,500  meshes  to  the  square  inch 

No.  74 5,476        "      "    "        "        " 

No.  100 10,000        "      "    " 

No.  200 40,000        "      "    "        "        " 

In  moulding  a  concrete  block  the  operation  should  always  be 
continuous  and  great  care  exercised  in  compacting  the  cement 
next  to  all  parts  of  mould  which  mould  the  exterior  surfaces. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  removing  the  moulds,  which 
under  ordinary  circumstances  can  be  done  twenty-four  hours 
after  the  concrete  has  been  in  place.  The  block,  after  removal 


100  CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION. 

of  the  mould,  should  be  shaded  by  canvas  or  heavy  burlap  and 
kept  thoroughly  wetted  for  a  number  of  days. 

Neat  cement  reaches  a  greater  strength  at  short  periods  than 
sand  mixtures.  Long-time  tests  prove,  however,  that  sand  mix- 
tures ultimately  attain  equal  and  often  greater  strength  than 
neat  cement. 

The  compressive  strength  of  cement  is  from  eight  to  twelve 
times  the  tensile  strength. 

White  sand  or  marble  dust  used  in  making  concrete  gives 
the  finished  work  a  lighter  color  than  is  attained  by  using 
ordinary  sand. 

When  salt  is  used  in  concrete,  to  prevent  freezing,  it  should 
always  be  thoroughly  dissolved  in  water  before  it  is  added  to 
the  cement — one  pound  of  salt  to  every  18  gallons  of  water 
when  the  thermometer  is  at  32°  F.,  .and  one  additional  ounce 
of  salt  for  every  further  degree  below  32. 

CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION. — Concrete  was  the  most  important 
of  all  the  building  materials  used  by  the  Romans,  and  the 
developments  of  the  past  few  years  have  brought  about  changes 
until  it  is  now  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  important  mate- 
rials used  at  the  present  time. 

A  test  as  to  the  durability  of  concrete  is  found  in  the  Pantheon 
at  Rome,  which  was  built  by  Agrippa,  27  B.C.,  nearly  2000 
years  ago.  The  circular  walls  are  about  20  feet  in  thickness, 
and  the  roof  is  a  hemispherical  cement  concrete  dome  with 
a  30-foot  opening  in  the  top  and  spanning  in  the  clear  142  feet 
6  inches.  This  is  the  most  remarkable  instance  in  the  world's 
history,  showing  the  great  strength  and  durability  in  cement- 
concrete  construction. 

Concrete  construction  is  usually  done  by  building  wood 
forms  or  moulds  and  ramming  them  full  of  concrete,  either 
solid  or  with  hollow  walls.  The  superintendent  must  see  that 
these  forms  are  built  tight  and  strong  enough  to  withstand 
the  pressure  of  the  concrete  while  being  rammed.  If  the  con- 
crete is  to  be  reinforced  with  steel  of  any  kind  he  must  see 
that  it  is  put  in  at  the  proper  place  and  in  sufficient  quantity. 

Forms. — Pine  is  the  best  wood  for  building  forms  or  moulds; 
some  other  woods  (especially  California  redwood)  will  stain 
the  finished  surface  of  the  concrete. 

Mouldings,  rustications,  etc.,  are  built  in  the  form  and  the 
concrete  is  rammed  into  them. 

It  is  advisable  to  wet  the  concrete  several  times  a  day  for 


CONCRETE-STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.  101 

several  days  after  it  has  been  put  in  place,  to  prevent  it  drying 
too  fast.  In  building  forms  for  foundations,  walls,  etc.,  care 
must  be  taken  to  provide  chases  and  openings  for  all  pipes,  etc. , 
and  where  any  wood  is  to  be  fastened  to  the  concrete  to  build 
in  bolts  with  the  nut  end  sticking  out  from  the  face  of  the 
wall  a  sufficient  distance  to  bolt  up  the  woodwork. 

Concrete  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  reliable  of  building 
materials  when  [mixed  and  put  in  place  in  a  proper  manner; 
where  there  have  been  failures  in  concrete  construction  it  has 
generally  been  due  to  one  of  the  following  causes:  Bad  cen- 
tring and  forms,  bad  material,  poor  mixing,  insufficient  ram- 
ming, or  insufficient  and  poor  reinforcement. 

It  will  be  the  duty  of  the  superintendent  to  see  that  all  the  • 
requirements  of  the  plans  and   specifications  are   carried   out 
to  their  strict  intentions  and  meaning. 

Concrete  building-blocks  in  imitation  of  stone,  etc.,  are  now 
being  made,  which  require  close  inspection  to  tell  that  they 
are  not  the  natural  stone.  These  are  made  in  any  shape  or 
form  desired  and  given  any  desired  finish.  In  use  these  blocks 
are  set  and  pointed  the  same  as  stone  ashlar. 

CONCRETE-STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. — The  following  regulations 
for  reinforced  concrete-steel  construction  were  issued  by  the 
Bureau  of  Buildings  of  the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  Greater  New 
York,  September  9,  1903: 

1.  The  term   "concrete-steel"   in  these  regulations  shall  be 
understood  to  mean  an  approved  concrete  mixture  reinforced 
by  steel  of  any  shape,  so  combined  that  the  steel  will  take  up 
the  tensional  stresses  and  assist  in  the  resistance  to  shear. 

2.  Concrete-steel    construction    will    be    approved    only    for 
buildings  which  are  not  required  to  be  fireproof  by  the  Build- 
ing Code,   unless  satisfactory  fire  and  water  tests  shall  have 
been  made  under  the  supervision  of  this  bureau.     Such  tests 
shall  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  fixed  by  this 
bureau  and  conducted  as  nearly  as  practicable  in  the   same 
manner  as  prescribed  for  fire-proof  floor  fillings  in  Section  106 
of   the   Building   Code.     Each   company   offering   a   system   of 
concrete-steel  construction  for  fire-proof  buildings  must  submit 
such  construction  to  a  fire  and  water  test. 

3.  Before    permission   to   erect   any   concrete-steel   structure 
is  issued  complete   drawings  and  specifications  must  be  filed 
with  the  superintendent  of  buildings,  showing  all  details  of  the 
construction,  the  size  and  position  of  all  reinforcing-rods,  stir- 
rups, etc.,  and  giving  the  composition  of  the  concrete. 


192  CONCRETE-STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 

4.  The   execution   of   work   shall   be   confided   to   workmen 
who   shall  be   under  the  control  of  a  competent  foreman  or 
superintendent. 

5.  The  concrete  must  be  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  one 
of  cement,  two  of  sand,  and  four  of  stone  or  gravel;    or  the 
proportions  may  be  such  that  the  resistance  of  the  concrete 
to  crushing  shall  not  be  less  than  2000  pounds  per  square  inch 
after  hardening  for  28  days.     The  tests  to  determine  this  value 
must  be  made  under  the  direction    of  the  superintendent  of 
buildings.      The    concrete    used    in    concrete-steel    construction 
must  be  what  is  usually  known  as  a  "wet"  mixture. 

6.  Only    high-grade    Portland    cements    shall    be    permitted 
-in    concrete-steel    construction.     Such    cements,    when    tested 

neat,  shall,  after  one  day  in  air,  develop  a  tensile  strength  of 
at  least  300  pounds  per  square  inch;  and  after  one  day  in  air 
and  six  days  in  water  shall  develop  a  tensile  strength  of  at  least 
500  pounds  per  square  inch;  and  after  one  day  in  air  and  27 
days  in  water  shall  develop  a  tensile  strength  of  at  least  600 
pounds  per  square  inch.  Other  tests,  as  to  fineness,  constancy 
of  volume,  etc.,  made  in  accordance  with  the  standard  method 
prescribed  by  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers'  Com- 
mittee, may  from  time  to  time  be  prescribed  by  the  superin- 
tendent of  buildings. 

7.  The  sand  to  be  used  must  be  clean,  sharp,  grit  sand  free 
from  loam  or  dirt,  and  shall  not  be  finer  than  the  standard 
sample  of  the  Bureau  of  Buildings. 

8.  The  stone  used  in  the  concrete  shall  be  a  clean,  broken 
trap-rock   or   gravel  of   a  size  that  will  pass  through  a  f-inch 
ring.     In  case  it  is  desired  to  use  any  other  material  or  other 
kind  of  stone  than  that  specified,  samples  of  same  must  first  be 
submitted  to  and  approved  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings. 

9.  The  steel  shall  meet  the   requirements  of  Section  21   of 
the  Building  Code. 

10.  Concrete-steel  shall  be  so  designed  that  the  stresses  in 
the  concrete  and  the  steel  shall  not  exceed  the  following  limits: 

Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 

Extreme  fibre  stress  on  concrete  in  compression 500 

Shearing  stress  in  concrete 50 

Concrete  in  direct  compression 350 

Tensile  stress  in  steel 16,000 

Shearing  stress  in  steel 10,000 


CONCRETE-STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.     193 

11.  The  adhesion  of  concrete  to  steel  shall  be  assumed  to 
be  not  greater  than  the  shearing  strength  of  the  concrete. 

12.  The  ratio  of  the  moduli  of  elasticity  of  concrete  and 
steel  shall  be  taken  as  1  to  12. 

13.  The  following  assumption  shall  guide  in  the  determina- 
tion of  the  bending  moments  due  to  the  external  forces:   Beams 
and  girders    shall  be    considered  as  simply  supported  at  the 
ends,  no  allowance  being  made  for  the  continuous  construction 
over    supports.       Floor    plates,    when    constructed    continuous 
and  when  provided  with    reinforcement  at  top  of    plate  over 
the  supports,  may  be  treated  as  continuous  beams,  the  bending 
moment  for  uniformly   distributed  loads  being  taken  at  not 

less  than  — —;    the  bending  moment  may  be  taken  as  -^  in 

the  case  of  square  floor  plates  which  are  reinforced  in  both 
directions  and  supported  on  all  sides.  The  floor  plate  to  the 
extent  of  not  more  than  ten  times  the  width  of  any  beam  or 
girder  may  be  taken  as  part  of  that  beam  or  girder  in  com- 
puting its  moment  of  resistance. 

14.  The    moment    of    resistance    of    any    concrete-steel    con- 
struction under  transverse  loads  shall  be  determined  by  for- 
mulas based  on  the  following  assumptions: 

a.  The  bond  between  the  concrete  and  steel  is  sufficient  to 
make  the  two  materials  act  together  as  a  homogeneous  solid. 

6.  The  strain  in  any  fibre  is  directly  proportionate  to  the 
distance  of  that  fibre  from  the  neutral  axis. 

c.  The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  the  concrete  remains  constant 
within  the  limits  of  the  working  stresses  fixed  in  these  regulations. 

From  these  assumptions  it  follows  that  the  stress  in  any 
fibre  is  directly  proportionate  to  the  distance  of  that  fibre 
from  the  neutral  axis. 

The  tensile  strength  of  the  concrete  shall  not  be  considered. 

15.  When  the  shearing  stresses  developed  in  any  part  of  a 
construction    exceed    the    safe    working-strength    concrete,    as 
fixed  in  these  regulations,  a  sufficient  amount  of  steel  shall  be 
introduced  in  such  a  position  that  the  deficiency  in  the  resist- 
ance to  shear  is  overcome. 

16.  When  the  safe  limit  of  adhesion  between  the  concrete 
and  steel  is  exceeded,  some  provision  must  be  made  for  trans- 
mitting the  strength  of  the  steel  to  the  concrete. 

17.  Concrete-steel   may  be   used  for  columns  in  which  the 
ratio  of  length  to  least  side  or  diameter  does  not  exceed  12. 


194  CONCRETE-FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  reiiiforcing-rods  must  be  tied  together  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  the  least  side  or  diameter  of  the  column. 

18.  The  contractor  must  be  prepared  to  make  load  tests 
on  any  portion  of  a  concrete-steel  construction,  within  a  reason- 
able time  after  erection,  as  often  as  may  be  required  by  the 
superintendent  of  buildings.  The  tests  must  show  that  the 
construction  will  sustain  a  load  of  three  times  that  for  which 
it  is  designed  without  any  sign  of  failure. 

Approved  September  9,  1903. 

HENRY  S.  THOMPSON, 
Superintendent  of  Buildings  for  the  Borough  of  Manhattan. 

CONCRETE-FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION.  —  There  are  a  number  of 
different  systems  of  concrete-floor  construction  and  fireproofmg, 
each  being  controlled  by  a  different  company,  and  it  will  be 
the  duty  of  the  superintendent  to  keep  himself  posted  regard- 
ing all  the  different  systems,  so  that  when  one  is  put  under 
his  supervision  he  can  readily  judge  if  it  is  being  done  right. 

A  system  of  floor  construction  may  be  perfectly  reliable  when 
properly  constructed  but  with  poor  material  or  workmanship  it 
may  result  in  a  weak  floor. 

Cinder  concrete  reinforced  in  different  ways  with  steel  is 
the  usual  construction,  and  the  superintendent  must  see  that 
all  the  materials  are  the  best  and  the  reinforcing  and  work- 
manship done  in  a  proper  manner. 

The  proportions  for  a  good  cinder  concrete  are  one  part 
cement,  two  parts  sand,  and  five  parts  cinders.  % 

Regarding  fire-proof  floors  the  New  York  Building  Code  says: 

Sec.  106.  Fire-proof  Floors. — Fire-proof  floors  shall  be  con- 
structed with  wrought-iron  or  steel  floor-beams  so  arranged 
as  to  spacing  and  length  of  beams  that  the  load  to  be  sup- 
ported by  them,  together  with  the  weights  of  the  materials 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  said  floors,  shall  not  cause  a 
greater  deflection  of  the  said  beams  than  one-thirtieth  of  an 
inch  per  foot  of  span  under  the  total  load;  and  they  shall  be 
tied  together  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  eight  times  the 
depth  of  the  beam.  Between  the  wrought-iron  or  steel  floor- 
beams  shall  be  placed  brick  arches  springing  from  the  lower 
flange  of  the  steel  beams.  Said  brick  arches  shall  be  designed 
with  a  rise  to  safely  carry  the  imposed  load,  but  never  less  than 
one  and  one-quarter  inches  for  each  foot  of  span  between 
the  beams,  and  they  shall  have  a  thickness  of  not  less  than 
four  inches  for  spans  of  five  feet  or  less  and  eight  inches  for 


CONCRETE-FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION.  195 

spans  over  five  feet,  or  such  thickness  as  may  be  required  by 
the  Board  of  Buildings.  Said  brick  arches  shall  be  com- 
posed of  good,  hard  brick  or  hollow  brick  of  ordinary  dimen- 
sions laid  to  a  line  on  the  centres,  properly  and  solidly  bonded, 
each  longitudinal  line  of  brick  breaking  joints  with  the  adjoin- 
ing lines  in  the  same  ring  and  with  the  ring  under  it  when  more 
than  a  four-inch  arch  is  used..  The  brick  shall  be  well  wet 
and  the  joints  filled  in  solid  with  cement  mortar.  The  arches 
shall  be  well  grouted  and  properly  keyed.  Or  the  space  be- 
tween the  beams  may  be  filled  in  with  hollow-tile  arches  of 
hard-burnt  clay  or  porous  terra-cotta  of  uniform  density  and 
hardness  of  burn.  The  skew-backs  shall  be  of  such  form  and 
section  as  to  properly  receive  the  thrust  of  said  arch;  and  the 
said  arches  shall  be  of  a  depth  and  sectional  area  to  carry  the 
load  to  be  imposed  thereon,  without  straining  the  material 
beyond  its  safe  working  load,  but  said  depth  shall  not  be  less 
than  one  and  three-quarter  inches  for  each  foot  of  span,  not 
including  any  portion  of  the  depth  of  the  tile  projecting  below 
the  under  side  of  the  beams,  a  variable  distance  being  allowed 
of  not  over  six  inches  in  the  span  between  the  beams,  if  the 
soffits  of  the  tile  are  straight;  but  if  said  arches  are  segmental, 
having  a  rise  of  not  less  than  one  and  one-quarter  inches  for 
each  foot  of  span,  the  depth  of  the  tile  shall  be  not  less  than 
six  inches.  The  joints  shall  be  solidly  filled  with  cement  mor- 
tar as  required  for  common  brick  arches  and  the  arch  so  con- 
structed that  the  key  block  shall  always  fall  in  the  central 
portion.  The  shells  and  webs  of  all  end  construction  blocks 
shall  abut,  one  against  another.  Or  the  space  between  the 
beams  may  be  filled  with  arches  of  Portland-cement  concrete, 
segmental  in  form,  and  which  shall  have  a  rise  of  not  less  than 
one  and  one-quarter  inches  for  each  foot  of  span  between  the 
beams.  The  concrete  shall  be  not  less  than  four  inches  in 
thickness  at  the  crown  of  the  arch  and  shall  be  mixed  in  the 
proportions  required  by  Section  18  of  this  Code.  These  arches 
shall  in  all  cases  be  reinforced  and  protected  on  the  under  side 
with  corrugated  or  sheet  steel,  steel  ribs,  or  metal  in  other 
forms  weighing  not  less  than  one  pound  per  square  foot  and 
having  no  openings  larger  than  three  inches  square.  Or  between 
the  said  beams  may  be  placed  solid  or  hollow  burnt-clay,  stone, 
brick,  or  concrete  slabs  in  flat  or  curved  shapes,  concrete  or 
other  fire-proof  composition,  and  any  of  said  materials  may  be 
used  in  combination  with  wire  cloth,  expanded  metal  wire 


196  CONCRETE-FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 

strands,  or  wrought-iron  or  steel  bars;  but  in  any  such  con- 
struction and  as  a  precedent  condition  to  the  same  being  used, 
tests  shall  be  made  as  herein  provided  by  the  manufacturer 
thereof  under  the  direction  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Board 
of  Buildings,  and  evidence  of  the  same  shall  be  kept  on  file 
in  the  Department  of  Buildings,  showing  the  nature  of  the 
test  and  the  result  of  the  test.  Such  tests  shall  be  made  by 
constructing  within  inclosure  walls  a  platform  consisting  of 
four  rolled  steel  beams,  ten  inches  deep,  weighing  each  twenty- 
five  pounds  per  lineal  foot,  and  placed  four  feet  between  the 
centres,  and  connected  by  transverse  tie-rods,  and  with  a  clear 
span  of  fourteen  feet  for  the  two  interior  beams  and  with  the 
two  outer  beams  supported  on  the  side  walls  throughout  their 
length,  and  with  both  a  filling  between  the  said  beams  and  a 
fire-proof  protection  of  the  exposed  parts  of  the  beams  of  the 
system  to  be  tested,  constructed  as  in  actual  practice,  with  the 
quality  of  material  ordinarily  used  in  that  system  and  the  ceil- 
ing plastered  below,  as  in  a  finished  job;  such'  filling  between 
the  two  interior  beams  being  loaded  with  a  distributed  load  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  per  square  foot  of  its  area  and 
all  carried  by  such  filling;  and  subjecting  the  platform  so  con- 
structed to  the  continuous  heat  of  a  wood  fire  below,  averag- 
ing not  less  than  seventeen  hundred  degrees  Fahrenheit  for 
not  less  than  four  hours,  during  which  time  the  platform  shall 
have  remained  in  such  condition  that  no  flame  will  have  passed 
through  the  platform  or  any  part  of  the  same,  and  that  no 
part  of  the  load  shall  have  fallen  through,  and  that  the  beams 
shall  have  been  protected  from  the  heat  to  the  extent  that  after 
applying  to  the  under  side  of  the  platform  at  the  end  of  the 
heat  test  a  stream  of  water  directed  against  the  bottom  of  the 
platform  and  discharged  through  a  one  and  one-eighth  inch 
nozzle  under  sixty  pounds  pressure  for  five  minutes,  and  after 
flooding  the  top  of  the  platform  with  water  under  low  pres- 
sure, and  then  again  applying  the  stream  of  water  through 
the  nozzle  under  the  sixty  pounds  pressure  to  the  bottom  of 
the  platform  for  five  minutes,  and  after  a  total  load  of  six 
hundred  pounds  per  square  foot  uniformly  distributed  over 
the  middle  bay  shall  have  been  applied  and  removed,  after  the 
platform  shall  have  cooled,  the  maximum  deflection  of  the 
interior  beams  shall  not  exceed  two  and  one-half  inches.  The 
Board  of  Buildings  may  from  time  to  time  prescribe  additional 
or  different  tests  than  the  foregoing  for  systems  of  filling  between 


CONCRETE-FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION.  197 

iron  or  steel  floor-beams,  and  the  protection  of  the  exposed 
parts  of  the  beams.  Any  system  failing  to  meet  the  require- 
•  ments  of  the  test  of  heat,  water,  and  weight  as  herein  prescribed 
shall  be  prohibited  from  use  in  any  building  hereafter  erected. 
Duly  authenticated  records  of  the  tests  heretofore  made  of 
any  system  of  fire-proof  floor  filling  and  protection  of  the  ex- 
posed parts  of  the  beams  may  be  presented  to  the  Board  of 
Buildings,  and  if  the  same  be  satisfactory  to  said  Board,  it 
shall  be  accepted  as  conclusive.  No  filling  of  any  kind  which 
may  be  injured  by  frost  shall  be  placed  between  said  floor-beams 
during  freezing  weather,  and  if  the  same  is  so  placed  during 
any  winter  month,  it  shall  be  temporarily  covered  with  suitable 
material  for  protection  from  being  frozen.  On  top  of  any 
arch,  lintel,  or  other  device  which  does  not  extend  to  and  form 
a  horizontal  line  with  the  top  of  the  said  floor-beams,  cinder 
concrete  or  other  suitable  fire-proof  material  shall  be  placed 
to  solidly  fill  up  the  space  to  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  said 
floor-beams,  and  shall  be  carried  to  the  under  side  of  the  wood 
floor-boards  in  case  such  be  used.  Temporary  centring  when 
used  in  placing  fire-proof  systems  between  floor-beams  shall 
not  be  removed  within  twenty-four  hours  or  until  such  time 
as  the  mortar  or  material  has  set.  All  fire-proof  floor  systems 
shall  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  safely  carry  the  load  to  be 
imposed  thereon  without  straining  the  material  in  any  case 
beyond  its  safe  working  load.  The  bottom  flanges  of  all  wrought- 
iron  or  rolled-steel  floor  and  flat  roof  beams,  and  all  exposed 
portions  of  such  beams  below  the  abutments  of  the  floor-arches, 
shall  be  entirely  encased  with  hard-burnt  clay,  porous  terra- 
cotta, or  other  fire-proof  material  allowed  to  be  used  for  the  filling 
between  the  beams  under  the  provisions  of  this  section,  such 
incasing  material  to  be  properly  secured  to  the  beams. 

The  exposed  sides  and  bottom  plates  or  flanges  of  wrought- 
iron  or  rolled-steel  girders  supporting  iron  or  steel  floor-beams, 
or  supporting  floor-arches  or  floors,  shall  be  entirely  incased  in 
the  same  manner.  Openings  through  fire-proof  floors  for  pipes, 
conduits,  and  similar  purposes  shall  be  shown  on  the  plans. 
After  the  floors  are  constructed  no  opening  greater  than  eight 
inches  square  shall  be  cut  through  said  floors  unless  properly  boxed 
or  framed  around  with  iron.  And  such  openings  shall  be  filled 
in  with  fire-proof  material  after  the  pipes  or  conduits  are  in  place. 

Sec.  107.  Incasing  Interior  Columns. — All  cast-iron,  wrought- 
iron,  or  rolled-steel  columns,  including  the  lugs  and  brackets  on 


198     EXPANDED-METAL  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 

same,  used  in  the  interior  of  any  fire-proof  building,  or  used  to 
support  any  fire-proof  floor,  shall  be  protected  with  not  less 
than  two  inches  of  fire-proof  material,  securely  applied.  The' 
extreme  outer  edge  of  lugs,  brackets,  and  similar  supporting 
metal  may  project  to  within  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  of  the 
surface  of  the  fireproofing. 

Expamled-metal  Floor  Construction. — The  follow- 
ing cuts  show  the  method  of  concrete  floor  construction  used 
by  the  various  expanded-metal  companies.  This  is  a  flat 
cinder  concrete  arch  reinforced  with  expanded  metal  as  shown. 


System  No.  3  A. 


Systems  3  A  and  3  B,  Fig.  125,  are  alike  except  that  3  A  has 
a  flat  ceiling  supported  on  the  under  flange  of  the  floor-beams. 
This  system  fireproofs  the  beam  by  a  haunch  fill  of  the  cinder 
concrete. 


System  No.4  A. 

System  No.  4  B. 
FIG.  126. 


Systems  4  A  and  4  B,  Fig.  126,  are  alike  except  that  4  A  has 
a  flat  ceiling  suspended.  By  changing  the  thickness  of  the 
concrete  and  the  quantity  of  metal  spans,  from  four  to  ten  feet 
can  be  built  on  this  system. 

System  5,  Fig.  127,  differs  from  4  B  in  that  the  floor-beam  is 
protected  with  a  coat  of  plaster  on  a  metal  lath,  which  is  furred  to 
the  beams,  giving  the  panelled  ceiling.  The  usual  way  of  putting 


EXPANDED-METAL'  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION.    109 

on  this  furring  is  to  nail  it  up  to  the  concrete  as  shown,  but 
a  better  way  is  to  put  it  in  place  before  the  floor  is  laid  and 
turn  it  up  over  the  top  of  the  beam  and  wire  it  fast. 


System  No.  5 
FIG.  127. 


System  7,  Fig.  129,  is  developed  from  System  8,  where  the 
beams  are  too  deep  for  a  fill  above  the  concrete  construction. 


System  No.  8 
FIG.  128. 


System  8,  Fig.  128,  is  designed  to  be  used  where  the  floor-beams 
are  light  and  can  be  used  with  economy  with  beams  not  over  7  ins. 
deep  or  more  than  4  ft.  6  ins.  on  centres. 


System  No.  7 
FIG.  129. 


Systems  9  A  and  9  B,  Fig.  130,  are  designed  for  heavy  loads, 
and  is  one  of  the  strongest  systems  used. 


System  No.  9  B. 
FIG.  130. 


In  any  of  the  above  systems  it  will  be  the  duty  of  the  superin- 
tendent to  see  that  the  centring  is  put  up  solid  enough  to 
withstand  the  tamping  of  the  concrete.  See  that  the  concrete 


200          FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 

is  mixed  and  put  in  place  correctly,  and  as  the  strain  on  the 
expanded  metal  is  a  tensile  one,  see  that  it  is  stretched  tight 
before  the  concrete  is  put  on  top. 

A  floor-arch  of  this  construction,  as  shown  by  Fig.  131,  was 
tested  at  the  Government  Hospital  for  Insane,  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  with  the  following  results. 

In  Fig.  131  is  given  a  cross-section  of  the  floor-slab  as  built 
for  test.  The  test  was  made  on  15-inch  beams  which  had 


'  j} 'Plate  C'nderConcreter&,  Expanded  Metal  & 

1 

PlO.  131. — Cross-section  of  Floor-slab  Tested  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

bearings  on  foundations  20  feet  apart,  and  a  floor  was  built 
covering  the  whole  distance  from  bearing  to  bearing.  The 
test  load  was  applied  on  an  area  5'6"X5'6",  making  a  trifle 
over  30  square  feet  of  area.  Standard  practice  in  this  con- 
nection was  followed,  which  means  that  the  concrete  plate 
was  3  inches  thick,  and  the  formula  of  mixture  was  1  part 
cement,  2  parts  sand,  and  6  parts  of  bituminous-coal  cinders. 
The  illustration  in  this  connection  of  the  cross-section  clearly 
shows  the  details  of  the  case. 

The  arch  was  thirty-eight  days  old  when  it  was  first  loaded 
with  600  pounds  per  square  foot.  Under  that  weight  the  arch 
showed  a  deflection  of  %  inch.  There  was  also  a  slight  deflec- 
tion to  the  beams  themselves.  On  the  following  day  the  load 
was  increased  to  1256  pounds  per  square  foot,  and  at  that 
time  the  deflection  amounted  to  %  inch  in  the  concrete  plate, 
with  an  increased  deflection  of  the  beams.  The  succeeding 
day  the  load  was  increased  until  a  final  load  of  1800  pounds 
per  square  foot  was  carried.  This  resulted  in  very  marked 
beam  deflection  and  twisting,  and  also  some  cracks  appeared 
hi  the  concrete  plate,  but  the  load  was  carried  without  falling 
for  some  days,  when  it  was  finally  removed. 

Roebliug  System  of  Fire-proof  Construction. — In 
this  system  the  concrete  is  reinforced  with  |//X2//  flat  steel 
bars  set  on  edge,  and  by  a  quarter  turn  is  hooked  over  the 
beam  at  each  end.  These  bars  act  as  flitch-plates  when  bedded 
in  the  concrete,  and  when  put  in  place  in  a  proper  manner 
give  great  strength  to  the  concrete. 


ROEBLIiNG  SYSTEM. 


201 


The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  twist  on  the  bar  is 
made  so  it  comes  tight  against  the  beam.  The  author  has  seen 
these  bars  put  in  where  the  twist  was  4  or  5  inches  away  from 
the  beam,  and  in  this  space  the  bar  would  be  on  its  flat,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  132,  and  have  very  little  strength.  He  should 


FIG.  132. 

also  see  that  the  bars  are  hooked  tight  over  the  beam,  as  the 
strength  depends  materially  on  this. 

An  improvement  on  this  system  is  made  by  running  the 
bars  across  the  beam  and  bolting  them  together,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  133. 

This  gives  more  strength,  as  there  is  no  twist,  and  the  entire 
bar  is  on  edge.  This  system  is  sometimes  put  in  by  hanging 


FIG.  133. 

wire  lath  to  the  bars  and  depositing  the  concrete  directly  on 
the  lath,  but  concrete  deposited  in  this  way  must  be  made 
very  dry  or  the  water  will  run  out,  taking  a  large  part  of  the 
cement  with  it,  and  if  made  dry,  there  is  no  way  of  ramming 
it  to  make  it  solid;  by  using  a  wood  centre  a  much  better  and 
stronger  floor  can  be  made. 

The  following  cuts  show  various  types  of  this  floor  con- 
struction. 

The  "System  A,"  or  arch  construction,  with  flat  ceiling,  is 
illustrated  by  Fig.  134.  It  consists  of  a  wire-cloth  arch,  stiffened 


202 


FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 


by  woven-in  steel  rods,  which  is  sprung  between  the  floor-beams, 
and  abuts  into  the  seat  formed  by  the  web  and  lower  flange 


K\m3nJH^L  '•    ',-" 

st»r  Hook#«  ;'^:A> vfisi;i5i^si^^^A*»™"'"'& wj*«t«*u»f*'(*»ttiii8fe|j i*..." j*; i.':-:' 


TYPICAL  COLUMN  SECTION. 


Plmter  ^  thick 
TYPICAL  GIRDER  SECTION. 


FIG.  134.— Adapted  for  Public  Buildings,  Offices,  Theatres,  Hotels,  Schools, 
Churches,  Banks,  Libraries,  Hospitals,  Residences,  etc. 

of  the  I  beams.      On  this  wire   centring  Portland-cement  con- 
crete is  deposited  and  allowed  to  harden. 

The  ceiling  consists  of  a  system  of  supporting  rods  attached 
to  the  lower  flanges  of  the  floor-beams  by  a  patent  clamp  which 
offsets  the  rods  below  the  I  beams.  Under  these  rods,  and 
securely  laced  to  them,  is  the  Roebling  Standard  wire  lathing, 
with  the  woven-in  f-inch  solid-steel  stiffening-ribs  crossing  the 
supporting  rods  at  right  angles. 


FIG.  135. — System  B — Flat  Construction. 

The  "System  B,"  or  flat  construction,  is  illustrated  by  Figs. 
135  and  136.     It  consists  of  a  light  iron  framework  imbedded 


RENTON  SYSTEM. 


203 


in  concrete  and  spans  the  interval  between  the  iron  beams  in 
the  form  of  a  slab.  The  light  iron  framework  consists  of  flat  iron 
or  steel  bars  set  on  edge  and  spaced  16  inches,  centre  to  centre, 
with  a  quarter  turn  at  both  ends  where  the  bars  rest  upon  the 
iron  beams.  Spacers  of  half  oval  iron  are  placed  at  suitable 
intervals  to  separate  and  brace  the  bars.  The  Roebling  Standard 
wire  lathing,  with  the  £-inch  solid-steel  stiffening-rib  woven  in 
every  7£  inches,  is  applied  to  the  under  side  of  the  bars,  the 
stiffening-ribs  running  crosswise  under  the  bars  and  laced  to 
them  at  every  intersection.  On  the  wire  lathing  so  supported, 
cinder  concrete  is  deposited,  thoroughly  imbedding  the  light 
ironwork. 


1 

M 
*3  

1 

j_1>"r 
*i 

j»  A'l 

«: 

r^,t=as^.7^  QffiK 

^^S/y^  jj 

7  - 
VK 

J3* 

1  1 

lil^FlatBar^                            No.lSOak  Lacing  Wire 

Sr*-H 

:'_Tisi»i"- 

1 

*i 

FIG.  136.— System  B— Type  I. 
(Dotted  lines  indicate  temporary  wood  centring.) 

The  Reiitoii  System  of  Fire-proof  Floors.— The 
Renton  system  of  floor  construction  as  shown  by  the  following  cuts 
is  a  flat  concrete  arch  of  cinder  concrete,  reinforced  with  ordinary 
barb  wire.  The  strain  on  the  wire  being  tensile,  the  superin- 
tendent should  see  that  it  is  stretched  tight  and  made  fast 
at  each  end.  This  method  of  construction  4£  inches  thick 
has  been  tested  to  carry  a  load  of  650  pounds  per  square  foot. 


Finished  Floorv 


FIG.  137.— System  No.  1. 

SYSTEM  No.  1. — This  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  system, 
as  it  gives  a  minimum  thickness  of  floor  and  is  adapted  to 


204 


FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 


the  conditions  most  commonly  found  in  fire-proof  buildings. 
It  can  be  used  for  spans  up  to  8  feet,  although  a  span  of  6  feet 
is  the  most  desirable.. 

Weight  of  concrete,  about  34  pounds  per  square  foot. 

Weight  of  entire  floor  as  shown,  52  pounds  per  square  foot. 


FIG.  138. — System  No.  2. 

SYSTEM  No.  2. — This  system,  as  shown  by  Fig.  138,  can  be 
used  for  spans  between  floor-beams  of  from  6  to  10  feet,  and 
has  ample  strength  for  most  mercantile  buildings,  factories, 
etc.  It  can  be  used  either  with  or  without  the  suspended 
flat  ceiling  shown. 

Weight  of  entire  floor,  without  ceiling,  40  pounds  per  square 
foot. 

Weight  of  suspended  ceiling,  including  plaster,  10  pounds 
per  square  foot. 


FIG.  139.— System  No.  3. 

SYSTEM  No.  3. — This  system,  Fig.  139,  is  the  same  as  No.  2, 
except  that  the  floor-beams  are  thoroughly  protected  and  the 
flat  ceiling  is  omitted. 


RENTON  SYSTEM. 


205 


Weight  per  square  foot  for  4  inches  of  concrete,  10-inch 
steel 'beams,  6  feet  on  centres,  2X3  sleepers  and  a  single  wood 
floor,  no  plastering,  48  pounds. 

Weight  with  cement  top,  59  pounds  per  square  foot.  For 
$-inch  plastering  add  5  pounds  per  square  foot. 


/Filling 
/Finished  Floor                                      /       /Rough  Floor 

J*''-:-                                                   ;-«   3 

'jjj-7  Channel 
f-WiEeLath      .  „ 
YJ    /%xl"Bivrl6QC. 

-Heavy  Wire   V;Barb 
<^"o.l8  Lacing  Wire 

Wire  Cables         tip 
Space            H 

f^7"Beam  f 
|-Wire  Lath 
fi 

v  Plaster  ^  Steel  Rods  Woven  in 

FIG.  140.— System  No.  4. 


SYSTEM  No.  4. — This  system,  Fig.  40,  is  adapted  to  public 
buildings  and  all  buildings  in  which  considerable  strength, 
absolute  fire  protection,  and  a  flat  ceiling  are  required. 

Weight  complete  as  shown,  60  pounds  per  square  foot. 


-Finished  Floor       Cement  Pipes  &  Wires    Diagonal  Sheathing 


— Span-5-0  to-7  0" 

FIG.  141.— System  No.  5. 

SYSTEM  No.  5. — This  system,  Fig.  14-1,  is  especially  adapted 
to  apartment  houses,  private  residences,  etc. 
SYSTEM  No.  6  (ARCH  CONSTRUCTION). — This  system,  Fig.  142, 

Cement 


FIG.  142. — System  No.  6  (Arch  Construction). 

is  designed  for  warehouses,  storage  buildings,  etc.,  and  all 
buildings  in  which  great  strength  and  absolute  fire  protection 
are  required.  With  a  span  of  6  feet  this  floor  is  guaranteed 


206          FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 


to  sustain  a  distributed  load  of  1000  pounds  per  square  foot  over 
its  entire  surface  without  falling. 
"  Kulme's  Sheet-metal  Structural  Element." — 

The  following  cuts  show  a  system  of  floor  construction  in  which  a 


SYSTEM  NO.I. 


SYSTEM  NO.II. 


SYSTEM  NO.III. 


.     •     ;       1 


System  No.  VII 
FIG.  145. 


INTERNATIONAL  SYSTEM. 


207 


patent  metal  lath  which  is  cut  and  bent  so  as  to  form  a  series 
of  trusses  is  used  as  a  reinforcing  material.  This  lath  is  manu- 
factured by  the  Truss  Metal  Lath  Company,  New  York. 

Fig.  143  shows  a  view  of  the  lath,  and  Figs.  144  and  145  show 
methods  of  floor  construction. 

International  System. — This  system,  used  by  the  Inter- 
national Fence  and  Fireproofing  Company,  Columbus,  Ohio,  is 
shown  by  the  following  cuts,  146  and  147.  In  this  system  the 
concrete  is  reinforced  with  wire  rods  and  wire  cables. 


The  strain  on  the  wire  and  cables  being  a  tensile  one  the 
uperintendent  must  see  that  they  are  well  fastened  at  each 
nd. 

When  rods  are  used  as  shown  in  Fig.  147  and  hooked  over 


FIG.  147. 

he  beam,  the  rod  should  be  bent  while  hot,  so  that  when  the 
look  is  made  over  the  beam  the  rod  will  be  drawn  tight  and 
lave  no  play. 

Fig.  146  illustrates  A  flat  arch,  using  the  cabling  system.  I 
>eams  fully  incased  and  reinforced  with  concrete,  the  cables  run- 
ling  across  the  I  beams  and  anchored  thereto.  The  sheeting  is 
listributed  over  the  cables  and  both  are  imbedded  well  toward 
he  bottom  of  the  concrete  stone.  Anchors  should  be  built  in 
/he  wall  to  fasten  the  cables  and  sheeting  when  the  walls  are 


208 


FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 


built,  and  always  have  the  brick  laid  in  cement  where  ancho 
are  placed. 

Fig.  147  represents  flat  arch  with  distributing  rods,  met* 
lie  sheeting,  encased  I  beams,  and  section  of  concrete  floe 
Anchors  should  be  built  in  the  wall  at  a  level  with  the  top 


Plaster  Centers 
TYPE  "AIJ 


Plaster  Centers 

Suspended  Ceiling  of  Metal  Lath.' 
TYPE "B" 


(|  Yi  Flange  protection  of 

TYPE  "E  Metal  Lath  and  Cement 


g=5y^g.-y'o^  :'ft?>'' 


Plaster  Centers 


Suspended  Celling  of  Metal  Lath  (Flange  protection  of 

Metal  Lath.and  Cement) 
TYPE  "F'> 


TYPES   OF   VULCANITE.   FIRE-PROOF 
FLOOR   ARCHES 

FIG.  148. 


the  I  beams,  upon  which  the  ends  and  outside  sheets  are  fastene 
Inside  laps  are  attached  by  means  of  loops  on  the  edge  whi 
are  interwrapped  with  a  twist. 


THE  VULCANITE  SYSTEM— FERROINCLAVE.    209 

The  Vulcanite  Fire-proof  Floor.  —  The  Vulcanite 
fire-proof  floor  system,  constructed  by  The  Vulcanite  Paving 
Company,  Philadelphia,  is  a  cinder  concrete  arch  put  in  on  a 
plaster-of-Paris  centre,  as  shown  by  Fig.  148.  The  plaster-of- 
Paris  centre  is  cast  in  sections  and  put  in  place  on  the  lower 
flange  of  the  beam  and  the  concrete  spread  over  it.  This  is 
a  very  strong  system  of  floor  construction,  as  the  strain  on 
the  concrete  is  a  compressive  one, 

Ferroiiiclave. — Ferroinclave  is  the  name  of  a  steel  and 
cement  fire-proof  construction  consisting  of  a  sheet  of  steel 
corrugated  into  dovetail  shape,  and  which  is  laid  and  fastened 
to  the  beams  and  the  mortar  or  concrete  spread  on  top. 


FIG.  149. 


FIG.   150. — Sheet  bent  to  shape. 


FIG.  151. 


FIG.  152. 

Figs.  149  and  150  show  a  sheet  of  the  metal,  and  Figs.  151 
and  152  show  floor  sections. 


210 


FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 


Buckeye  Floor  Construction. — Fig.  153  shows  a 
method  of  floor  construction  patented  and  used  by  The  Youngs- 
town  Iron  and  Steel  Roofing  Co.,  Youngstown,  Ohio. 


Fia.  153. 

A  series  of  corrugated  metal  troughs  are  furnished  the  exact 
length  to  lay  on  the  beams,  and  these  troughs  are  filled  with 
the  concrete  to  the  desired  depth. 

Jvalin  System  of  Reinforcement. — Figs.  154  and  155 
show  a,  bar  and  method  of  using  the  same  which  has  been 
patented  and  is  used  by  The  Trussed  Concrete  Steel  Company, 
of  Detroit,  Mich. 


Perspective  View  of  Sheared  Bar 


Diagram  showing  Truss  Action 


Bars  as  used  in  Beam  and  Floor  Construction 


FlG.   154. 


Metropolitan  System. — This  system,  as  shown  by  Figs. 
156,  157.  and  153,  is  a  slab  or  arch  made  of  plaster  of  Paris 
and  wood  chips,  reinforced  with  wire  cables  in  the  form  of 


METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM. 


211 


hog-chains  and  bedded  in  the  concrete.     The  cables  must  be 
made  secure  at  the  ends  and  have  just  sag  enough  so  that  at 


FIG.  155. 


the  low  point  they  will  be  about  one-half  inch  from  the  bottom 
of  the  concrete. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  ABOVE  TYPE  OF  FLOOR. 

By  means  of  forms  or  centres  placed  about  the  bottom  flanges 
of  the  floor  beams  and  girders,  a  1|"  covering  of  composition, 
composed  principally  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  wood  chips,  shall 


FIG.  156. 

be   cast  in  place,   protecting  the  bottom  flanges  of  the  floor 
beams  and  girders. 

Cables,  each  composed  of  two  No.  12  galvanized  wires,  twisted, 
shall  be  carried  over  the  tops  of  the  floor-beams  and  shall  be 
secured  to  walls  by  anchors  and  bars;  or  where  they  end  on 
a  beam,  shall  be  secured  to  it  by  strong  hooks.  These  cables 
shall  be  laid  parallel  and  pass  under  round  iron  bars  midway 


212  FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 

between  the  beams,  so  as  to  cause  the  cables  to  deflect  uniformly. 
The  cables  shall  be  laid  at  distances  apart  from  each  other, 
varying  from  1"  to  3",  according  to  the  spans. 

Forms  or  centres  shall  be  put  in  place  between  the  floor- 
beams  1"  below  the  round  iron  bars  mentioned  above.  The 
composition  mentioned  above  shall  be  poured  in  place  and 
brought  to  a  level  \"  above  the  tops  of  the  flanges  of  the  floor- 
beams  and  form  a  floor  plate  about  4"  thick,  ready  for  the 
laying  of  wood  sleepers  or  concrete  on  top  and  the  plastering 
underneath. 


SPECIFICATION  FOR  THE  METROPOLITAN  FIRE- 
PROOFING  COMPANY'S  SYSTEM  OF  FIRE-PROOF 
FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 


FORM  A. 


FIG.  157. 

Metal  clips  shall  be  fastened  to  the  bottom  flanges  of  the 
floor-beams,  which  shall  support  1"X%"  flat  iron  bars  spaced 
about  16"  on  centres  running  transversely  with  the  floor- 
beams,  the  tops  of  such  flats  to  be  on  a  level  about  V  below 
the  bottom  flanges. 

Blocks  \\"  thick  of  our  composition,  composed  principallv 
of  plaster  of  Paris  and  wood  chips,  shall  be  fastened  securely 
to  the  bottom  flanges  and  against  the  webs  of  the  floor-beams, 
covering  the  exposed  portions. 

To  take  the  plaster  there  shall  be  fastened  to  the  1"  flats 
herring-bone  pressed-steel  lathing,  coated  with  asphaltum. 

Cables,  each  composed  of  two  No.  12  galvanized  wires, 
twisted,  shall  be  carried  over  the  tops  of  the  floor-beams  and 
shall  be  secured  to  walls  by  anchors  or  bars,  or  where  they  end 
on  a  beam  shall  be  secured  to  it  by  strong  hooks.  These  cables 
shall  be  laid  parallel  and  pass  under  round  iron  bars  midway 
between  the  beams  so  as  to  cause  the  cables  to  deflect  uniformly. 
The  cables  shall  be  laid  at  distances  apart  from  each  other 
varying  from  1"  to  3",  according  to  spans.  Forms  or  centres 
shall  be  put  in  place  between  the  floor-beams  I"  below  the 


METROPOLITAN  SYSTEM.  213 

round  iron  bars  mentioned  above.  The  composition  men- 
tioned above  shall  be  poured  in  place  and  brought  to  a  level 
about  \"  above  the  tops  of  the  flanges  of  the  floor-beams  and 
form  a  floor  plate  about  4"  thick  ready  for  the  laying  of  wood 
sleepers  or  concrete. 

The  exposed  portions  of  the  girders  shall  be  covered  with 
blocks  of  the  same  composition  1|"  in  thickness,  securely 
fastened  in  place. 


SPECIFICATION  FOR  THE  METROPOLITAN  FIRE- 
PROOFING  COMPANY'S  SYSTEM  OF  FIRE-PROOF 
FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION,  FORM  A2. 


FIG.  158. 

Metal  clips  shall  be  fastened  to  the  bottom  flanges  of  the 
floor-beams,  which  shall  support  1"X&"  flat  iron  bars  spaced 
about  12"  on  centres,  running  transversely  with  the  floor-beams, 
the  tops  of  such  flats  to  be  on  a  level  about  1'  below  the  bottom 
flanges. 

To  take  the  plaster  there  shall  be  fastened  to  the  I"  flats 
herring-bone  pressed-steel  lathing,  coated  with  asphaltum. 

Cables,  each  composed  of  two  No.  12  galvanized  wires, 
twisted,  shall  be  carried  over  the  tops  of  the  floor-beams  and 
shall  be  secured  to  walls  by  anchors  or  bars,  or  where  they  end 
on  a  beam  shall  be  secured  to  it  by  strong  hooks.  These  cables 
shall  be  laid  parallel  and  pass  under  round  iron  bars  midway 
between  the  beams  so  as  to  cause  the  cables  to  deflect  uniformly. 
The  cables  shall  be  laid  at  distances  apart  from  each  other 
varying  from  1"  to  3",  according  to  spans.  Forms  or  centres 
shall  be  put  in  place  between  the  floor-beams  1"  below  the 
round  iron  bars  mentioned  above.  A  composition  composed 
principally  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  wood  chips  shall  be  poured 
in  place  and  brought  to  a  level  about  \"  above  the  tops  of  the 
flanges  of  the  floor-beams  covering  the  webs  of  the  beams  and 
forming  a  floor-plate  about  4"  thick,  ready  for  the  laying  of 
wood  sleepers  or  concrete. 

The  exposed  portions  of  the  girders  shall  be  covered  with 


214  FIRE-PROOF  FLOORING— RANSOME  SYSTEM. 

blocks   of   the   same    composition,    \\"   in   thickness,    securely 
fastened  in  place. 

The  Ransome  System. — The  Ransome  system  of  con- 
crete and  cold-twisted  steel  construction  was  invented  by 
Mr.  Ernest  L.  Ransome.  The  basis  of  this  system  is  the  com- 
bination of  steel  and  concrete  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  to 
the  concrete  all  the  tensional  strength  of  steel,  and  thereby 
fully  utilize  the  immense  compressive  strength  inherent  in  the 
concrete.  The  patent  for  this  system  covers  the  use  of  cold- 
twisted  rectangular  steel  bars,  by  means  of  which  the  spiral 
ribs  formed  upon  the  metal  make  a  continuous  lock  between 
it  and  the  concrete.  By  this  means  the  ductility  of  the  steel 
is  controlled,  defective  steel  detected,  and  a  large  percentage 
of  strength  added  thereto. 

The  tensional  strength  of  steel  or  iron  (about  30  tons  to  the 
square  inch)  increases  the  strength  of  the  concrete  100-fold. 
The  Ransome  bar  strengthens  the  concrete  so  that  in  the 
heaviest  floors  for  warehouse  sand  factories  bars  of  only  1^  inches 
have  been  used.  The  extensive  application  of  the  Ransome 
system  for  fire-proof  floors,  spanning  without  steel  beams,  from 
20  to  25  and  45  feet,  represents  one  of  its  important  suc- 
cesses. 

To  make  a  practical  success  of  this  principle  a  continuous 
bond  between  the  iron  and  the  concrete  had  to  be  invented, 
the  ductility  of  the  iron  had  to  be  controlled,  and  appliances 
for  moulding  had  to  be  perfected,  as  well  as  means  of  controlling 
the  shrinkage.  Furthermore,  it  was  desirable  to  give  an  artistic 
appearance  to  the  structure.  These,  with  other  important 
and  practical  inventions,  constituted  the  Ransome  system. 

This  system  of  concrete-iron  construction  is  universal  in  its 
application,  covering  the  entire  field  now  occupied  by  stone, 
brick,  and  terra-cotta,  and  is  unrivalled  for  stairs,  foundations, 
walls,  floors,  columns,  partitions,  harbor  works,  dry  docks, 
piers,  bridges,  reservoirs,  filter-beds,  fortifications,  retaining- 
walls,  sidewalks,  vault  lights,  etc. 

The  Ransome  patents  are  owned  by  the  Ransome  Concrete 
Company,  26  Broadway,  New  York. 

Heiiiiebique  System  of  Cement  Concrete  Con- 
struction.— The  Hennebique  system,  Fig.  159,  is  not  only 
a  system  of  fire-proofing,  but  a  mode  of  construction  success- 
fully applied  to  many  uses,  such  as  floors,  bridges,  reservoirs, 
docks,  foundations,  etc.  Broadly  speaking,  the  system,  as 


HENNEBIQUE  SYSTEM. 


215 


patented   in    1898,    is   for   concrete    reinforced   with   ordinary 
round  bars  of  iron  or  steel  and  stirrups  of  hoop  iron. 


r:;- 


LJ 


j  /Axis  of  Compression            /Filling 

IT 

HJ|"~  Stirrup 

FIG.  159. — Section  of  Hennebique  Floor. 

The  principle  of  the  Hennebique  system  is  to  make  the  cement 
concrete  subject  only  to  compression  stresses,  resistance  to 
which  is  its  chief  characteristic;  and  the  iron  subject  to  ten- 
sile stresses,  which  it  is  essentially  adapted  to  meet.  For 
floor  construction  plain,  round  iron  bars,  set  in  the  lower  part 
of  a  beam  of  rectangular  or  trapezoidal  section,  are  the  parts 
in  tension;  in  that  position  the  metal  exerts  its  best  quality, 
resistance  in  tension.  A  series  of  straps  distributed  along 
the  beam  connect  the  bar  with  the  upper  part  of  the  concrete 
and  make  a  series  of  fastenings  which  steady  and  support 


FIG.  160.—  TVo-inch  Ribbed  Bar  Imbedded  in  3£  Inches  of  Concrete. 

the  bar.  They  carry  to  the  upper  part  of  the  concrete  the 
stresses  which  in  them  are  tensile,  but  which  are  then  distributed 
as  compression  stresses  through  the  body  of  concrete. 


216  FIRE-PROOF  FLOORING— COLUMBIAN  SYSTEM. 

The  Hennebique  system  has  been  applied  to  many  important 
uses  in  bridge  engineering  and  general  building  operations. 


Columbian  System  of  Floor  Construction. — In 

the  Columbian  system,  as  shown  by  Figs    160,  161,  and  162, 


MULTIPLEX  STEEL-PLATE  SYSTEM. 


217 


the  concrete  is  reinforced  with  specially  designed  bars  of  steel 
hung  on  stirrups  over  the  beams.  This  construction  is  guaran- 
teed by  the  company  to  carry  200  pounds  per  square  foot 
with  a  3-inch  arch,  6-foot  span,  600  pounds  per  square  foot 
with  a  4-inch  arch,  6-foot  span,  and  150  pounds  per  square  foot 
on  a  2J-inch  arch,  5-foot  span,  with  a  factor  of  safety  of  four. 


FIG.  162. — No.  3,  Double  Construction 


View  of  Stirrups  for  Bars,  Floors  Nos.  2  and  3. 

Multiplex  Steel-plate  Floor  Construction. — This 
construction,  which  is  used  by  The  Berger  Manufacturing 
Company,  of  Canton,  Ohio,  is  shown  by  Figs.  163-166.  The 


The  Multiplex  Steel  Plate  used  in  its  simplest  form 
FIG.  163, 


The  Multiplex  Steel  Plate  Floor  willi  a  Paneled  Ceiling 
FiGo  164. 

steel    plate    is    corrugated    and    bent    as    shown,    laid    on   top 
of  the   floor-beams    and   then   filled  with  the  cinder  concrete 


218    FIRE-PROOF  FLOORING— THACHER  SYSTEM. 

to  a  height  of  about  2  inches  above  the  plate.     The  different 
methods  of  construction  are  shown  in  the  cuts. 


The  Multiplex  Steel  Plate  Floor  with  a  Flat  Ceiling 
FIG.  165. 


'Dimensions  of  the  Multiplex  Steel  Plate  as  ordinarily  used  for  Floor_Ar,ehes , 
FIG.  166. 

The  Thacher  System  of  Coiierete-steel  Con- 
struction.— The  concrete-steel  arch,  patented  Jan.  10,  1899, 
and  known  as  the  Thacher  system,  may  be  described  as  follows: 
Steel  bars  (Fig.  167)  in  pairs,  spaced  at  proper  distances  apart, 


FIG.  167.—  Bar  used  in  the  Thacher  System. 


and  spliced  at  convenient  intervals,  are  imbedded  in  the  con- 
crete near  the  outer  and  inner  surfaces  of  the  arch,  and  extend 
well  into  the  abutments  and  piers.  The  bars  of  each  pair  have 
no  connection  with  each  other,  except  through  the  concrete, 
although  each  bar  is  provided  with  projections,  preferably  rivet- 
heads  of  extra  height;  but  which  may  be  lugs,  dowels,  or  bolts, 
spaced  at  short  intervals,  thereby  providing  a  mechanical 
reinforcement  of  the  adhesion  between  the  steel  and  the  con- 
crete, so  that  a  complete  crushing  or  shearing  of  the  concrete 
must  take  place  before  a  separation  can  be  effected.  The  bars 
act  as  the  flanges  of  a  beam  to  assist  the  concrete  in  resisting 
the  thrusts  and  bending  moments  to  which  the  arch  is  sub- 


CUMMINGS  SYSTEM. 


219 


jected.  The  shearing  stresses  are  small,  and  are  taken  mostly 
by  the  concrete.  The  principal  advantages  claimed  for  this 
system  are  as  follows:  That  it  gives  a  larger  moment  of  inertia, 
and  consequently  greater  strength,  for  the  same  amount  of 
steel;  that  a  more  reliable  connection  is  secured  between  the 
steel  and  the  concrete  than  in  a  system  that  depends  on  adhe- 
sion alone;  and  that  the  bars  can  be  shipped  straight  in  any 
convenient  length  and  bent  cold  to  any  desired  curve,  resulting 
in  less  cost  for  manufacture  and  greater  convenience  in  hand- 
ling and  shipping. 

Cummiiigs  System  of  Reinforced  Concrete  Con- 
struction.— Fig.  168  shows  a  system  of  reinforced  concrete 


Top  plan  of  Beam 


Fio.  168. 

construction  designed  by  Robert  A.  Cummings,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

The  rod  reinforcement  as  shown  is  bedded  in  the  concrete  beam. 

Fig.  169  shows  a  corrugated  steel  bar  used  for  concrete  con- 


%  in  a  Bar.     Net  section,  0.55  a  in.    Weight,  2.05  Ibs.  pes  ft. 
FIG.  169. 

struction  by  the  St.  Louis  Expanded  Metal  Fireproofing  Com- 
pany. 

These  bars  are  made  of  various  sizes  and  strengths. 

Where  there  will  be  a  tensile  strain  on  concrete  in  floor  con- 
struction, it  should  be  made  of  fine  crushed  stone  so  as  to  make 
the  highest  quality  of  tension  concrete.  Cinders  should  be  used 
in  construction  only  where  the  greatest  strain  is  in  compression. 


220        TERRA-COTTA  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 

TOP  FILLING. — Before  any  concrete  filling  is  put  in  on  top  of 
any  floors,  the  concrete  floors  or  arches  should  be  swept  clean 
and  then  thoroughly  wet,  so  the  filling  will  take  hold  to  the 
concrete  arch  already  in  place. 

-This  filling  is  generally  not  made  as  strong  with  cement  as 
the  concrete  in  the  arches,  the  usual  proportions  being  about 
1  cement,  3  sand,  and  6  cinder  or  other  aggregate. 

Terra-cotta  Floor  Construction.— Figs.  170  and  171 
show  the  ordinary  terra-cotta  arch,  Fig.  171  is  what  is  known 
as  side  construction,  and  Fig.  170  end  construction. 

2*x  4*Beveled  Floor  Strips  .lo'center  to  Center 
^  BteelCleaU .,,,_N..,,_  ..  j^.^6^.'^0'"  L1°e_     /Concrete FnIlnS 

•* * llLrJf 1 .-!• j) 

Section  of  Ten  Inch  Arch  End  Construction  34  Lbs.  per  Sq.  Ft. 

FIG.  170. 

Marble  or  Tile  Floor 

^Concrete  Filling 


FIG.  171. 

The  main  points  to  be  observed  in  either  of  these  arches 
are  to  see  that  the  blocks  are  of  the  right  size  and  that  they 
are  bedded  in  mortar  the  full  width  of  the  joint.  The  keys 
should  be  of  a  size  so  that  they  will  shove  into  place  and  have 
a  good  bed  of  mortar. 

The  National  Fire-proofing1  Co.'s  Johnson 
System. — This  system  is  a  terra-cotta  arch  reinforced  with 
wire,  as  shown  by  Fig.  172.  The  basis  of  this  flooring  is  formed 
of  large  steel  wires  transversely  interwoven  with  still  larger 
wires  placed  4  inches  apart.  These  last  run  straight  from 
bearing  to  bearing. 

Over  and  through  these  wires  is  spread  a  bed  of  cement 
mortar  and  on  this  bed  the  tiles  are  set.  On  top  of  the  tiles 
is  spread  3  inches  of  cinder  concrete.  This  makes  a  very  strong 
floor. 

"New  York"  Reinforced  Terra-cotta  Arch 
(Kevier  Patent). — A  system  of  reinforced  terra-cotta  arch 
construction  now  used  by  the  The  National  Fireproofing  Com- 
pany is  shown  by  Figs.  173-175. 


TERRA-COTTA  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 


221 


In  this  construction  a  wire  reinforcement  in  the  form  of 
a  wire  truss,  the  upper  and  lower  chords  being  composed  of 


-:' ;••'-;.-'•.  •.\!y.->^~:.'^$--f^-^ 

— 3T — ~ —> ,    ~  .    ~ .yi  .~ : : = •' '  —^ -  ,_ 


Johnson  system  of  construction— 
side  view 


o  a 


Jehnson  system  of  construction- 
end  view 


Johnson  system— 
25  feet  between  girders 

FIG.  172. 


6  0  Span- 


8ECTION  SHOWING 

RAISED  ARCH  IN 

DEEP  BEAM 


FIG.  173. — Above  Arch  Accepted  by  New  York  Building  Department  for 
Live  Load  of  One  Hundred  and  Fifty  Pounds  per  Square  Foot. 

two  No.  13  galvanized  twisted  wires  and  the  diagonal  members 
being  single  No.  14  wires,  is  bedded  in  the  cross  joints  of  the 
terra-cotta,  thus  adding  strength  to  it. 

The  truss  is  placed  on  edge  and  runs  from  beam  to  beam  in 
the  vertical  joint  between  adjoining  blocks,  the  joint  being 
about  |  inch  wide  and  the  mortar  well  grouted  around  the 


222 


TERRA-COTTA  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 


(< Herculean"  Flat  Arcli.  —  The  floor  construction 
shown  by  Fig.  176  is  known  as  the  " Herculean"  arch,  and  is 
used  by  Henry  Maurer  &  Son  of  New  York, 


3 


SECTIONS  WHERE  GREATER  LOAD  OR  WIDER  SPAN  IS  REQUIRED. 


FIG.  174. — Half  Section  through  Wide  Span  Arch,  showing  use  of  more  than 
one  piece  of  wire  truss  to  give  greater  strength  in  centre  and  prevent 
shearing  of  blocks  at  ends  of  arch.  Depth  of  blocks,  number  of  trusses, 
and  size  of  wires  are  proportioned  to  load  and  span. 


FIG.  175. — "New  York"  Reinforced  Terra-cotta  Arch  (Bevier  Patent). 


FIG.  176.— "  Herculean  "  Flat  Arch  (Patented   May  3,  1898,  and 
February  6,  1900). 

In  this  arch  the  terra-cotta  is  reinforced  with  steel  tee  irons 
as  shown,  and  makes  a  very  strong  floor.  In  constructing 
this  arch  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  sufficient  mortar  is 
used  so  that  when  the  tile  blocks  are  shoved  into  position  the 
mortar  will  fill  all  the  spaces  and  the  joint  around  the  tee 
irons. 


FIRE-PROOF  PARTITIONS. 


223 


Fig,  177  shows  a  new  style  of  terra-cotta  arch  of  the  end- 
construction  system.  As  will  be  seen  the  number  of  webs  in 
the  blocks  makes  them  very  strong. 


FIG.  177. 

Fire-proof  Partitions. — Each  fireproofing  company 
usually  has  its  own  system  for  putting  up  partitions,  as  well 
as  floor  construction,  and  the  superintendent  should  keep  him- 
self familiar  with  all  the  different  methods. 

Fig.  178  shows  the  partition  used  by  The  Roebling  Company. 
Small  steel  angles  or  channels  are  set  up  and  fastened  top  and 
bottom  to  form  the  studs  of  the  partition,  and  then  covered  on 
both  sides  with  their  wire-cloth  lath.  The  space  between  the 
two  sheets  of  lath  is  usually  filled  with  cinder  concrete,  after 
which  the  two  sides  of  the  partition  are  plastered. 

Expaiided-inetal  Partition. — This  partition  is  made 
by  setting  up  small  channel  bars  to  form  the  studs  and  then 
covering  them  with  expanded-metal  lath,  after  which  it  is 
plastered  on  both  sides,  making  a  solid  partition  1£  or  2  inches 
thick. 

Several  other  companies  put  up  a  partition  similar  to  the 
one  described  above;  the  only  difference  is  using  a  different 
make  of  metal  lath. 

Rabbit  Partition. — Fig.  179  shows  a  partition  patented 
by  Samuel  E.  Rabbit  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  which  is  termed 
a  fire-proof  partition.  As  shown,  strips  of  wood  f"X2"  are 
set  up  and  lathed  with  wood  lath,  and  then  plastered  on  both 
sides  solid  to  a  thickness  of  2  inches.  This  partition  has  been 
used  in  a  number  of  buildings  in  Washington. 

Metropolitan  Fireproofing  Company's  Parti- 
tion.— A  partition  now  being  used  by  The  Metropolitan 


224 


FIRE-PROOF  PARTITIONS. 


sM Steel  Rod     /2x  1  *  V8  Channel 


SECTION  ON 
B-B 


'fe  iffl^ 


No.  18  Gal.   -         ENLARGED  SECTION  ON  A-A    2  x.2  x,y8  L. 
Wire  Lacing 


TYPICAL  SECTION  OF  WOOD  TRIM 
FIG.  178.— Roebling  Partition. 


FIRE-PROOF  PARTITIONS. 


225 


Fireproofing  Company  is  shown  by  Fig.  180  and  is  described  as 
follows: 


FIG.  179. 

A  newly  patented  fire-proof  partition  which  is  formed  with 
2-inch  solid  blocks  of  their  fire-proof  material,  which  has  been 
fully  demonstrated  to  be  effec- 
tively fire-resisting,  as  well  as 
fire-proof. 

The  partition  is  quickly  put 
in  place,  can  be  finished  and  plas- 
tered at  once,  requires  no  up- 
right studs  to  support  it,  holds 
nail  well,  and  is  when  finished 
not  over  3  inches  thick. 

Phoenix  Wall  Construc- 
tion.— Fig.  181  shows  a  terra- 
cotta partition  called  the 
"Phoenix"  which  is  put  up  by 

Henry  Maurer  &  Son,  New  York.  The  terra-cotta  blocks  have 
dovetail  recesses  on  the  sides  to  receive  the  plaster,  and  the 
partition  is  reinforced  in  each  horizontal  joint  with  a  strip  of 
band  iron  set  in  the  terra-cotta  as  shown. 

The  Berger  Fire-proof  Partition. — This  partition, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  182,  is  made  of  expanded-metal  lath  fastened 
to  a  metal  stud,  which  is  made  as  shown,  having  prongs  cut 
and  bent  out  and  which  are  used  to  fasten  the  lath  to  the  stud. 
This  partition  is  plastered  on  both  sides  solid. 

Furring-,  Beams,  etc. — Figs.  183  and  184  show  one  of  the 
usual  methods  used  to  fur  out  beams,  build  false  beams,  etc. 
A  piece  of  channel  iron  is  bent  the  desired  shape  and  fastened 


FIG.  180. 


226 


ARCHITECTURAL  TERRA-COTTA. 


to  the  beam  or  floor  above.  These  ribs  are  usually  spaced  about 
12  inches  apart,  then  at  each  angle  a  |-inch  rod  is  run  along 
and  wired  to  the  ribs,  and  over  this  frame  the  metal  lath  is 
bent  and  wired.  The  superintendent  must  see  that  this  frame- 
work is  put  up  secure  and  braced  as  well  as  possible.  A  good 


FIG.  181. — Method  of  Construction  of  the  "Phoenix"  Wall,  4  inches  thick, 
with  band  iron  between  the  courses.     Size  of  blocks,  4X8X12  inches. 


FIG.  182. — A  shows  Stud  with  Prongs;  B  and  C,  Top  and  Bottom  Sockets' 
D,  Stud  in  Position  ready  for  Lath;  E,  Lath  Attached  to  Stud  by 
clinching  down  Prongs. 


way  to  fasten  the  ribs  is  to  run  them  up  through  the  floor  con- 
struction and  turn  them  over  into  the  concrete. 

Architectural  Terra-cotta.—  Terra-cotta  is  used  for 
the  ornamentation  and  trimmings  of  buildings,  taking  the 
place  of  brick  and  stone  to  a  great  extent.  It  is  made  in 
various  shades  and  colors,  from  white  to  deep  red  or  brown, 
and  is  usually  colored  by  means  of  chemicals,  so  that  any  color 
desired  can  be  obtained. 

The  duty  of  the  superintendent,  where  terra-cotta  is  used, 
will  be  to  see  that  the  blocks  of  terra-cotta,  design,  etc.,  con- 


ARCHITECTURAL  TERRA-COTTA. 


227 


form  to  the  details,  that  it  is  the  desired  color,  and  that  each 
piece  is  in  perfect  condition.  In  setting,  he  should  take  the 
same  precautions  as  with  stone,  and  in  addition  to  this  see 


FIG.  183. 

that    every  piece  is  anchored  properly  and  tied  to  the  struc- 
tural iron  provided  for  that  purpose. 

Where  any  weight  will  rest  on  any  hollow  block,  it  should 
be  filled  with  brick  and  mortar.     Care  must  also  be  taken  to 


FIG.  184. 

have  all  the  joints  filled  with  mortar  so  there  will  be  no  chance 
for  the  water  to  get  into  them. 

Terra-cotta  should  always  be  set  in  strong  cement  mortar 
and  each  block  thoroughly  wet  before  being  set. 

Any  blocks  twisted  or  warped  in  burning,  and  which  cannot 
be  set  straight  or  in  line,  should  be  rejected. 


228 


ARCHITECTURAL  TERRA-COTTA. 


As  soon  as  any  terra-cotta  is  set  it  should  be  boxed  in  so  as 
to  prevent  any  damage  being  done  to  it  by  anything  falling 
on  it. 


FIG.  185. — Section  through  a  Main  Cornice. 

Lookouts  A  held  down  by  continuous  |_,  B,  and  rods  C.  D  is  a  wall 
plate.  Modillions  are  suspended  from  lookouts  A  by  means  of  clips  and 
hangers. 


FIG.  186. — Section  through  a  Main  Cornice. 

Figs.    185-188   show   some   typical   methods    of   terra-cotta 
construction. 


FIRE  PROTECTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


229 


Fire-proof  Construction  and  Fire  Protection  of 
Building's. — It  may  not  be  amiss  in  introducing  the  follow- 


ELEVATION 


SECTION 


FIG.  187.— Details  of  Construction  for  a  Central  Pavilion. 

A 


SECTION 
LONGITUDINAL  SECTION.  THROUGH  A-A.  V4 


PLAN  THROUGH  BALUSTERS.  PLAN  OF  SOFFIT, 


FIG.  188. — Suggestion  for  a  Terra-cotta  Balcony. 

ing  suggestions  with  regard  to  the  installation  of  fire-proof 
construction  to  say  a  word  regarding  the  general  importance 
of  the  subject  so  far  as  building  methods  in  the  United  States 
are  concerned. 


230  FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION  AND 

The  annual  fire  _oss,  that  is  to  say  that  portion  of  it  paid  by 
insurance  companies  in  this  country,  is  not  far  from  $150,000,000, 
a  large  percentage  of  which  might  be  readily  avoided.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  corresponding  losses  are  avoided  in  practically 
all  of  the  European  countries,  the  fire  loss  abroad  being  but  a 
comparatively  small  percentage  of  the  fire  loss  here,  taking 
into  account  equal  amounts  of  property  insured. 

It  is  a  customary  error  to  speak  of  loss  by  fire  being  "covered 
by  insurance."  The  falsity  of  this  statement  lies  in  the  assump- 
tion that  anything  actually  burned  up  can  be  restored,  whereas 
it  can  only  be  replaced.  As  a  matter  of  fact  insurance  indem- 
nity represents  merely  an  amount  collected  from  the  public 
at  large  for  the  reimbursement  of  the  few  who  suffer  from 
fire  loss.  This  does  not  in  the  least  alter  the  fact  that  every 
dollar's  worth  of  property  consumed  by  fire  is  just  so  much 
annihilated  from  the  wealth  of  the  country. 

Due  consideration  of  the  foregoing  should  bring  to  the  mind 
of  every  superintendent  of  building  construction  a  realization 
of  the  personal  responsibility  devolving  upon  him  as  a  valuable 
member  of  the  community  to  administer  his  office  in  such  man- 
ner as  to  eliminate  in  the  largest  measure  such  probability  of 
fire  loss  as  may  come  within  his  province. 

Too  strong  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  necessity  for 
the  superintendent  to  administer  his  office  in  such  manner 
that  the  work  performed  shall  be  consistent  with  the  most  rigid 
of  specifications  looking  to  the  highest  immunity  from  loss  by 
fire. 

While  failure  to  live  up  to  specifications  is  always  reprehen- 
sible, it  is  to  be  questioned  whether  if  in  any  other  branch  of 
building  construction  the  results  of  comparatively  insignificant 
omissions  or  remissions  may  so  thoroughly  nullify  the  whole 
effort  as  in  matters  pertaining  to  fire  protection. 

Materials  depend  for  their  efficiency  first  upon  wise  design 
and  honest  manufacture,  and  second  upon  intelligent  installa- 
tion, and  it  is  to  the  latter  branch  that  the  following  suggestions 
relate.  In  these  suggestions  no  attempt  is  made  at  logical 
sequence,  but  rather  an  endeavor  to  place  at  the  disposal  of 
the  superintendent  certain  data  which  may  prove  of  immediate 
and  practical  value. 

Fire  Protection  of  Buildings. — In  taking  up  this 
subject  it  is  the  aim  of  the  author  to  point  out  and  show  some 
of  the  points  in  building  construction  of  the  present  day  that 


FIRE  PROTECTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


231 


are  defects,  inasmuch  as  they  are  liable  to  cause  a  fire  or  to 
assist  it  when  once  started. 

The  superintendent  should  be  always  on  the  lookout  during 
the  construction  of  a  building  for  any  of  these  defects  and 
should  see  that  every  part  of  the  work  is  so  done  that  it  will 
render  the  building  fire-proof,  or  as  near  fire-proof  as  the 
character  of  the  building  will  allow. 

In  the  ordinary  dwellings  and  the  smaller  buildings  there 
is  often  very  little  care  taken  on  this  point,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  many  a  house  or  building  has  been  destroyed  by  fire  which 
gained  its  start  through  the  neglect  of  some  superintendent, 
architect,  builder,  or  workman. 

FRAME-HOUSE  PROTECTION,  FLUES,  ETC. — We  will  take,  for 
instance,  the  ordinary  frame  house  with  brick  chimneys,  which 
are  usually  built,  as  shown  by  Fig.  189,  with  4  inches  of  brick- 


FIG.  189. 

work  around  the  flues  and  back  of  the  fireplade.  The  studs 
are  set  tight  against  the  brickwork  as  shown,  and  the  floor 
trimmers  are  usually  framed  tight  against  the  sides  of  the 
chimney.  Now  all  this  wood  is  but  4  inches  or  the  width  of  a 
brick  from  the  flue  or  fire,  and  how  easy  it  is  for  a  mason  to 
overlook  a  "dry"  joint  or  leave  a  little  hole  through  this  4-inch 
wall,  thus  giving  the  fire  a  chance  to  get  through.  A  chimney 
may  be  built  this  way  and  have  such  defects  and  be  in  use  for 
a  number  of  years  and  no  harm  result;  then  the  flue  may 
become  lined  With  soot,  which  may  at  any  time  "burn  out," 
when,  if  there  should  happen  to  be  a  hole  or  dry  joint,  the  flame 
or  sparks  may  be  drawn  through  and  set  fire  to  the  building. 
Then  often  when  there  is  but  a  4-inch  back  wall  to  a  chimney  and 
fireplace  and  the  grate  tile  are  set  tight  against  the  back  wall 
the  heat  from  'the  grate  will  be  carried  through  and  may  be  the 
means  of  setting  fire  to  the  studding  behind  the  chimney. 

All  chimneys  should  either  have  8  inches  of  brickwork  around 
all  outside  walls  of  the  flues,  as  shown  by  Fig.  190,  or  else  have 
terra-cotta  flue  lining,  and  when  flue  lining  is  used  the  back 


232 


FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION  AND 


wall  of  the  fireplace  should  be  made  8  inches,  or  at  least  6  inches, 
by  setting  a  course  of  brick  on  edge  and  thus  breaking  joints 
with  the  back  4-inch  wall.  The  flue  lining  should  be  carried 
up  through  the  roof,  or  better  still,  to  the  top  of  the  chimney. 


FIG.  190. 

Another  weak  point  so  far  as  fire  protection  is  concerned 
in  the  ordinary  house  is  where  the  flues  are  drawn  together 
at  the  ceiling  joist.  Fig.  191  shows  how  this  is  usually  done. 


FIG.  191. 

The  main  part  of  the  chimney  is  cut  off  so  that  the  ceiling 
joist  will  run  across  the  top  and  frame  around  the  flues,  which 
are  drawn  together  as  shown. 

This  again  leaves  but  4  inches  of  brickwork  between  the 
flue  and  the  wood  joist,  and  as  many  a  house  has  been  destroyed 
by  a  fire  starting  in  the  attic,  no  doubt  but  some  of  the  fires 
started  at  this  point  The  brickwork  around  tht  flues  should 


FIRE  PROTECTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


233 


be  carried  up  8  inches  until  the  chimney  passes  through  the 
roof  as  shown  by  Fig.  192;   then  if  desired  it  can  be  drawn  in 


FIG.  192. 

as  shown,  making  a  much  better  looking  top  than  if  there  was 
no  base  to  it. 

HEARTH  BOTTOMS. — Another  point  not  to  be  overlooked  is 
the  common  method  of  putting  in  wooden  hearth  bottoms,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  120,  page  87.  This  should  not  be  allowed  unless 
the  wall  is  corbelled  out  as  described  by  Fig.  121,  page  87. 


Hue 


FIG.  193. 

A  brick  arch  or  corrugated  metal  bent  to  a  radius,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  193,  is  much  to  be  preferred. 


234 


FIRE  PROTECTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


STUDDED  FIREPLACES.— A  cheap  form  of  chimney  which  has 
been  used   throughout  California  and  the  South  is  shown  by 


FIG.   194. 


Fig.  194,  the  fireplace  being  built  up  of  brick  and  drawn  in  at  the 
top  as  shown;  then  a  terra-cotta,  or  in  some  cases  a  sheet-iron 
pipe  is  run  up  for  a  flue.  The  fireplace  and  chimney  is  then 
studded  around  and  plastered,  as  shown  by  Fig.  195,  so  as  to  give 


FIG.  195. 


it  the  appearance  of  a  large  chimney-breast.  This  arrangement 
is  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  fire-trap  and  should  never  be  used. 

Regarding  this  method  of  construction  around  fireplaces  and 
chimneys,  the  San  Francisco  Building  Code  says: 

"Sec.  21.  When  a  chimney-breast  is  furred  out,  the  space 
between  the  chimney  and  the  breast  shall  be  so  built  that  the 
passage  of  fire  and  smoke  shall  be  intercepted." 

This  section  of  the  Building  Code  states  that  the  space 
shall  be  built  so  as  to  intercept  the  fire,  but  the  only  reliable 
way  is  to  build  a  brick  chimney  and  have  no  blank  spaces. 


CHIMNEYS  AND  FLUES  IN  FRAME  BUILDINGS.  235 


CLOSETS  AS  FIRE-TRAPS. — In  brick  and  frame  houses  the  space 
along  the  side  of  the  room  formed  by  the  projection  or  jamb 
of  the  chimney  is  usually  utilized  for  a  closet,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
196,  and  the  closet  is  usually  furred  down  and  ceiled  a  few 


FIG.  196. 

inches  above  the  door  height.  The  sides  of  the  flues  are 
usually  but  4  inches  thick  as  shown,  and  the  woodwork  of  the 
closet  is  put  tight  against  the  chimney ,  and  the  space  thus 
formed  above  the  closet  is  shut  off  from  all  access.  This  wood- 
work in  time  becomes  so  dry  that  a  spark  would  set  it  on  fire 
or  possibly  it  would  catch  fire  from  the  heat  from  the  flue. 

This  is  considered  by  the  author  a  very  weak  point  in  the 
ordinary  house  construction,  so  far  as  fire  protection  is  concerned. 

As  mentioned  before,  the  flues  should  either  be  lined  with  flue 
lining  or  the  outside  walls  made  8  inches  thick. 

Chimneys  and  Flues  in  Frame  Buildings.— 
The  following  instructions  regarding  the  construction  of  chim- 
neys are  given  in  the  Building  Code  prepared  by  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters: 

MATERIAL. — All  chimneys  in  frame  buildings  shall  be  built 
of  brick  or  stone  or  other  fire-proof  material. 

THICKNESS  OP  BRICKWORK. — If  of  brick  the  flues  shall  have 
walls  at  least  eight  inches  thick,  except  where  flues  are  lined 
with  burnt-clay  pipe,  in  which  case  the  walls  around  flues 
may  be  four  inches  thick. 

HEIGHT  FOR  FLUE  LININGS. — All  flue  linings  shall  extend  at 
least  one  foot  above  the  roof-boards. 

WHEN  CHIMNEYS  ARE  OF  STONE. — Where  chimneys  are  built 
of  stone  the  walls  of  the  flues  shall  be  not  less  than  eight  inches 
on  all  sides,  and  shall  be  lined  with  burnt-clay  pipe. 

HEIGHT  FOR  CHIMNEYS. — All  chimneys  shall  be  topped  out 
at  least  four  feet  above  the  highest  point  of  contact  with  the 
roof,  and  be  properly  capped. 


236 


FIRE  PROTECTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


PARTY-WALL  CHIMNEYS. — Chimneys  in  party  walls  or  serving 
two  rooms  on  the  same  floor  may  be  built  in  the  walls  or  parti- 
tions. 

INDEPENDENT  CHIMNEYS.  —  Elsewhere,  they  shall  be  built 
inside  of  the  frame,  except  in  the  case  of  ornamental  or  exposed 
chimneys 

Fire-stops  in  Furred  Walls. — When  brick  walls  are 
furred,  as  shown  by  Fig.  197,  at  least  two  courses  of  brick 


J_L 


11 


J L 


11 


FIG.  197. 

should  be  set  out  the  full  thickness  of  the  furring,  to  form  a 
fire-stop,  both  above  and  below  the  joist  as  shown  at  A  A.  If 
wood  furring  is  used  the  plate  can  be  set  on  this  projection  and 
the  cap  under,  and  wire  lath  should  be  used  over  the  brick 
to  prevent  the  plaster  from  cracking. 

Wooden  Nailing-plugs. — Another  bad  piece  of  work  is 
the  ordinary  method  carpenters  have  of  driving  wooden  plugs 
in  the  joints  of  the  brickwork  of  a  chimney  to  nail  the  base  to 
or  to  fasten  the  mantel.  The  author  once  saw  a  mantel  take 
fire  from  this  cause;  the  wooden  plug  caught  fire  and  burned  out, 
setting  fire  to  the  mantel.  The  base  can  always  be  fastened 
by  nailing  into  the  joints  of  the  brickwork,  or  if  the  mortar  will 
not  hold  the  nail,  metal  wall  plugs  can  be  put  in  and  the  base 
nailed  to  the  plugs.  Mantels  can  be  hung  by  driving  hooks 
into  the  joints  of  the  brickwork  and  the  mantel  hung  to  these 
hooks  by  eyes  or  staples  screwed  on  the  back  of  the  mantel. 

Bridging  as  Fire-stops  in  Partitions.  —  Where 
wooden  partitions  are  used,  whether  inside  or  outside,  and  which 


BRIDGING  AS  FIRE-STOPS  IN  PARTITIONS.     237 


rest  on  the  sill,  they  should  have  a  row  of  solid  bridging  cut 
around  at  the  floor  level,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  198,  and  if  the 
studs  run  through  two  stories  they  should  be  bridged  at  the 
ceiling  and  floor  levels,  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  198;  this  prevents 
any  draught  or  suction  up  the  partitions  in  case  of  fire.  The 
joist  should  also  be  bridged  solid  along  every  partition,  so  in 
case  of  fire  to  keep  it  from  spreading  under  the  floor  between 
the  joist. 

A  method  of  framing  used  in  some  parts  of  the  country, 
especially  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  is  one  in  which  each  story  of  a 
building  is  framed  separate,  as  shown  by  Fig,  199.  For  fire 


X 


X 


X 


FIG.  198. 


FIG.  199. 


protection  this  is  a  very  good  method,  as  the  plates  and  caps 
of  the  walls  and  partitions  cut  each  story  off  separate  from  the 
others  and  there  is  no  chance  for  fire  to  follow  up  the  inside  of 
the  walls.  Also  see  Brick-nogging,  page  87. 

Regarding  this  method  of  construction  the  San  Francisco 
Building  Code  says: 

*'  Sec.  19.  When  stories  are  framed  separately,  each  tier  of 
studding  must  have  top  and  bottom  plates,  and  the  top  plates 
must  be  doubled;  when  stories  are  not  framed  separately, 
proper  bridging  must  be  placed  behind  the  ribbon  at  the 


238  FIRE  PROTECTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 

ceiling  line  and  on  top  of  the  joist  at  the  floor  line.  Bridging 
must  be  two  inches  thick  and  of  the  full  width  of  the  studding 
in  every  case. 

"  Sec.  20.  BRIDGING. — All  stud-walls,  or  partitions  hereafter 
built,  altered,  or  repaired,  shall  have  one  row  of  bridging  for  every 
seven  feet  in  height  over  the  first  seven  feet.  Said  bridging 
shall  in  all  cases  extend  to  the  lathing  or  sheathing,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  passage  of  fire  and  smoke,  and  shall  be  the  same 
thickness  as  the  studding.  All  outside  walls  and  cross  parti- 
tions shall  be  thoroughly  and  angle  braced;  all  joists  shall 
have  solid  end  blocking.  All  buildings  over  twenty-five  (25) 
feet  in  width  shall  have  a  row  of  solid  blocking  over  girder 
or  partition  of  stairways.  A  row  of  cross  bridging  at  least 
two  (2)  inches  thick  must  be  placed  between  the  floor-joists 
at  least  every  twelve  (12)  feet." 

Underwriters'  Rules  for  Fire-stops.  —  A  better 
method  is  to  build  a  fire-stop  of  brick  or  other  incombustible 
material  as  recommended  by  the  rules  of  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters,  which  reads  as  follows:  , 

FIRE-STOPS  AT  ENDS  OF  BEAMS,  IN  STUD-WALLS,  AND  IN 
PARTITIONS  RESTING  OVER  EACH  OTHER. — In  all  frame  build- 
ings which  are  to  be  lathed  and  plastered  or  otherwise  sheathed 
on  the  inside,  the  spaces  between  such  parts  of  the  floor  joist 
or  beams  that  rest  upon  the  stud-walls  or  upon  partition  heads 
shall  be  filled  in  solid  for  the  depth  of  the  joist  or  beams  and 
between  the  studs  or  uprights  to  the  depth  of  the  latter  to  a 
height  of  six  inches  above  the  top  of  the  floor  joist  or  beams 
with  suitable  incombustible  materials. 

HORIZONTAL  BODY  OF  MATERIAL.- — The  fire-stop  shall  extend 
around  all  the  stud-walls  of  the  building,  supporting  the  filling 
material  where  necessary  on  strips  of  wood  nailed  between 
studs,  and  in  all  stud-partitions  that  rest  directly  over  each  other, 
and  thus  form  a  horizontal  line  of  incombustible  material  to 
effectually  cut  off  draft  openings  from  story  to  story  through 
floors,  stud-walls,  and  partitions. 

The  Building  Code  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers gives  the  following  rules  regarding  chimneys,  flues,  heat- 
ing-pipes, etc.,  and  which  will  be  a  good  guide  for  the  superin- 
tendent : 


CHIMNEYS,  FLUES,  ETC.  239 


CHIMNEYS,  FLUES,  FIREPLACES,  AND  HEATING-PIPES. 

Sec.  64.  TRIMMER-ARCHES. — To  Support  Hearths. — All  fire- 
places and  chimney-breasts  where  mantels  are  placed,  whether 
intended  for  ordinary  fireplace  uses  or  not,  shall  have  trimmer 
arches  to  support  hearths. 

Width  of  Trimmer-arches. — And  the  said  arches  shall  be  at 
least  twenty  inches  in  width,  measured  from  the  face  of  the 
chimney-breast,  and  they  shall  be  constructed  of  brick,  stone, 
or  burnt  clay. 

Length  of  Trimmer-arches. — The  length  of  a  trimmer-arch 
shall  be  not  less  than  the  width  of  the  chimney-breast. 

Wood  Centres  under  Trimmer-arches. — Wood  centres  under 
trimmer-arches  shall  be  removed  before  plastering  the  ceiling 
underneath. 

Hearth  under  Hmter. — If  a  heater  is  placed  in  a  fireplace, 
then  the  hearth  shall  be  the  full  width  of  the  heater. 

Mantels. — All  fireplaces  in  which  heaters  are  placed  shall 
have  incombustible  mantels. 

Woodwork  Back  of  a  Summer-piece. — No  wood  mantel  or  other 
woodwork  shall  be  exposed  back  of  a  summer-piece ;  the  iron- 
work of  the  summer-piece  shall  be  placed  against  the  brick 
or  stone  work  of  the  fireplace. 

Fire-boards. -—No  fireplace  shall  be  closed  with  a  wooden 
fire-board. 

Sec.  65.  CHIMNEYS,  FLUES,  AND  FIREPLACES. — Joints  Struck 
Smooth. — All  fireplaces  and  chimneys  in  stone  or  brick  walls  in 
any  building  hereafter  erected,  except  as  herein  otherwise 
provided,  and  any  chimney  or  flues  hereafter  altered  or  repaired, 
without  reference  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  may  be  used, 
shall  have  the  joints  struck  smooth  on  the  inside,  except  when 
lined  on  the  inside  with  pipe. 

Parging  of  Flues  Prohibited. — No  parging  mortar  shall  be 
used  on  the  inside  of  any  fireplace,  chimney,  or  flue. 

Fireplace  Backs,  Thickness  of. — The  fire-backs  of  all  fire- 
places hereafter  erected  shall  be  not  less  than  eight  inches  in 
thickness,  of  solid  masonry. 

Lining  Behind  Grate  in  Fireplace. — When  a  grate  is  set  in  a 
fireplace,  a  lining  of  fire-brick,  at  least  two  inches  in  thickness, 
shall  be  added  to  the  fire-back,  unless  soapstone,  tile,  or  cast 
iron  is  used,  and  filled  solidly  behind  with  fire-proof  material. 


240    FIRE  UNDERWRITERS'  RULES  REGARDING 

Thickness  for  Smoke-flues  of  Boilers,  Furnaces,  etc. — The  stone 
or  brickwork  of  the  smoke-flues  of  all  boilers,  furnaces,  bakers' 
ovens,  large  cooking  ranges,  large  laundry  stoves,  and  all  flues 
used  for  a  similar  purpose  shall  be  at  least  eight  inches  in  thick- 
ness, and  shall  be  capped  with  terra-cotta,  stone,  or  cast  iron. 

Inside  of  Flues  for  Boilers. — The  inside  four  inches  of  all  boiler- 
flues  shall  be  fire-brick,  laid  in  fire  mortar,  for  a  distance  of 
twenty-five  feet  in  any  direction  from  the  source  of  heat. 

Smoke-flues  of  Steam-boilers. — All  smoke-flues  of  smelting- 
furnaces  or  of  steam-boilers,  or  other  apparatus  which  heat  the 
flues  to  a  high  temperature,  shall  be  built  with  double  walls  of 
suitable  thickness  for  the  temperature  with  an  air  space  between 
the  walls,  the  inside  four  inches  of  the  flues  to  be  of  fire-brick. 

Height  for  Smoke-flues. — All  smoke-flues  shall  extend  at 
least  three  feet  above  a  flat  roof  and  at  least  two  feet  above 
a  peak  roof.  * 

Tops  of  Chimneys  on  Three-story  Dwellings  and  Stables. — On 
dwelling-houses  and  stables  three  stories  or  less  in  height 
not  less  than  six  of  the  top  courses  of  a  chimney  may  be  laid 
in  pure  cement  mortar  and  the  brickwork  carefully  bonded 
and  anchored  together  in  lieu  of  coping. 

CHIMNEYS,  FLUES,  AND  FIREPLACES. — Smoke-flues  to  be  Lined 
with  Cast-iron  or  Clay  Pipe. — In  all  buildings  hereafter  erected 
every  smoke-flue,  except  the  flues  hereinbefore  mentioned, 
shall  be  lined  continuously  on  the  inside  with  cast-iron  or  well- 
burnt  clay,  or  terra-cotta  pipe,  made  smooth  on  the  inside, 
from  the  bottom  of  the  flue,  or  from  the  throat  of  the  fire- 
place, if  the  flue  starts  from  the  latter,  and  carried  up  con- 
tinuously to  the  extreme  height  of  the  flue. 

Ends  of  Lining  Pipe  to  Fit  Close. — The  ends  of  all  such  lining 
pipes  shall  be  made  to  fit  close  together,  and  the  pipe  shall  be 
built  in  as  the  flue  or  flues  are  carried  up. 

Brickwork.  — Each  smoke-pipe  shall  be  inclosed  on  all  sides 
with  not  less  than  four  inches  of  brickwork  properly  bonded 
together. 

FLUES  TO  BE  LEFT  CLEAN  AT  COMPLETION  OF  BUILDING. — All 
flues  in  every  building  shall  be  properly  cleaned  and  all  rubbish 
removed,  and  the  flues  left  smooth  on  the  inside  upon  the 
completion  of  the  building. 

Sec.  66.  CHIMNEY  SUPPORTS. — Forbidding  Supports  of  Wood. 
— No  chimney  shall  be  started  or  built  upon  any  floor  or  beam 
of  wood. 


CHIMNEYS,  FLUES,  ETC.  241 

Corbelling. — In  no  case  shall  a  chimney  be  corbelled  out  more 
than  eight  inches  from  the  wall,  and  in  all  such  cases  the  cor- 
belling shall  consist  of  at  least  five  courses  of  brick. 

Corbelling  in  Eight-inch  Walls. — But  no  corbelling  more  than 
four  inches  shall  be  allowed  in  eight-inch  brick  walls. 

Piers  Supporting  Chimneys. — Where  chimneys  are  supported 
by  piers,  the  piers  shall  start  from  the  foundation  on  the  same 
line  with  the  chimney-breast,  and  shall  be  not  less  than  twelve 
inches  on  the  face,  properly  bonded  into  the  walls. 

Supports  for  Chimneys  Cut  Off  Below. — When  a  chimney  is  to 
be  cut  off  below,  in  whole  or  in  part,  it  shall  be  wholly  supported 
by  stone,  brick,  iron,  or  steel. 

Unsafe  Chimneys  — All  chimneys  which  shall  be  dangerous 
in  any  manner  whatever  shall  be  repaired  and  made  safe  or 
taken  down. 

Sec.  67.  CHIMNEYS  OF  CUPOLAS. — Foundry  Cupolas. — Iron 
cupola  chimneys  of  foundries  shall  extend  at  least  ten  feet 
above  the  highest  point  of  any  roof  within  a  radius  of  fifty  feet 
of  such  cupola  and  be  covered  on  top  with  a  heavy  wire  netting. 

Distance  for  Woodwork. — No  woodwork  shall  be  placed  within 
two  feet  of  the  cupola. 

Sec.  68.  HOT-AIR  FLUES,  PIPES,  AND  VENT-DUCTS. — Hot-air 
Flues  to  be  Lined. — All  stone  or  brick  hot-air  flues  and  shafts 
shall  be  lined  with  tin,  galvanized  iron,  or  burnt-clay  pipes. 

Woodwork  not  to  be  Placed  against  Flues. — No  wood  casing,  fur- 
ring, or  lath  shall  be  placed  against  or  cover  any  smoke-flue  or 
metal  pipe  used  to  convey  hot  air  or  steam. 

Forbidding  Smoke-pipes  through  Floors. — No  smoke-pipe  shall 
pass  through  any  wood  floor. 

Stovepipes,  Distance  from  Ceilings  and  Partitions. — No  stove- 
pipe shall  be  placed  nearer  than  nine  inches  to  any  lath-and- 
plaster  or  board  partition,  ceiling,  or  any  woodwork. 

Metal  Shields. — Smoke-pipes  of  laundry-stoves,  large  cooking- 
ranges,  and  of  furnaces  shall  be  not  less  than  fifteen  inches 
from  any  woodwork,  unless  they  are  properly  guarded  by 
metal  shields;  if  so  guarded,  stovepipes  shall  be  not  less  than 
six  inches  distant. 

Distance. — Smoke-pipes  of  laundry-stoves,  large  cooking- 
ranges,  and  of  furnaces  shall  be  not  less  than  nine  inches  distant 
from  any  woodwork. 

Smoke-pipes  through  Partitions.  —  Where  smoke-pipes  pass 
through  a  lath-and-plaster  partition  they  shall  be  guarded  by 


242     FIRE  UNDERWRITERS'  RULES  REGARDING 

galvanized-iron  ventilated  thimbles  at  least  twelve  inches 
larger  in  diameter  than  the  pipes,  or  by  galvanized-iron  thimbles 
built  in  at  least  eight  inches  of  brickwork. 

SMOKE-PIPES  THROUGH  ROOFS.  —  Permit  Necessary.  —  No 
smoke-pipe  shall  pass  through  the  roof  of  any  building  unless 
a  special  permit  be  first  obtained  from  the  Commissioner  of 
Buildings  for  the  same.  If  a  permit  is  so  granted,  then  the 
roof  through  which  the  smoke-pipe  passes  shall  be  protected 
in  the  following  manner: 

How  Protected. — A  galvanized-iron  ventilated  thimble  of  the 
following  dimensions  shall  be  placed;  in  case  of  a  stovepipe, 
the  diameter  of  the  outside  guard  shall  be  not  less  than  twelve 
inches,  and  the  diameter  of  the  inner  one  eight  inches,  and  for 
all  furnaces,  or  where  similar  large  hot  fires  are  use(},  the  diameter 
of  the  outside  guard  shall  be  not  less  than  eighteen  inches,  and 
the  diameter  of  the  inner  one  twelve  inches. 

Thimbles. — The  smoke-pipe  thimbles  shall  extend  from  the 
under  side  of  the  ceiling  or  roof  beams  to  at  least  nine  inches 
above  the  roof,  and  they  shall  have  openings  for  ventilation 
at  the  lower  end  where  the  smoke-pipes  enter,  also  at  the  top 
of  the  guards  above  the  roof. 

Smoke-pips  of  Boiler  through  Roof. — Where  a  smoke-pipe  of  a 
boiler  passes  through  a  roof,  the  same  shall  be  guarded  by  a 
ventilated  thimble,  same  as  before  specified,  thirty-six  inches 
larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  smoke-pipe  of  the  boiler. 

HOT-AIR  PIPES  IN  WALLS. — Covering  of  Brick  or  Stone. — Tin 
or  other  metal  pipes  in  brick  or  stone  walls  used  or  intended 
to  be  used  to  convey  heated  air,  shall  be  covered  with  brick  or 
stone  at  least  four  inches  in  thickness. 

HOT-AIR  PIPES  IN  STUD  PARTITIONS. — Woodwork  to  be  Guarded. 
— Woodwork  near  hot-air  pipes  shall  be  guarded  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  A  hot-air  pipe  shall  be  placed  inside  another 
pipe,  one  inch  larger  in  diameter,  or  a  metal  shield  shall  be 
placed  not  less  than  one-half  inch  from  the  hot-air  pipe;  the 
outside  pipe  or  the  metal  shield  shall  remain  one  and  a  half 
inches  away  from  the  woodwork,  and  the  latter  must  be  tin- 
lined,  or  in  lieu  of  the  above  protection,  four  inches  of  brick- 
work may  be  placed  between  the  hot-air  pipe  and  the  wood- 
work. This  shall  not  prevent  the  placing  of  metal  lath  and 
plaster  directly  on  the  face  of  hot-air  pipes  or  the  placing  of 
woodwork  on  such  metal  lath  or  plaster,  provided  the  distance 
is  not  less  than  seven-eighths  of  an  inch. 


HEATING  PIPES,  ETC.  243 

Distance  from  Furnace. — No  vertical  hot-air  pipe  shall  be 
placed  in  a  stud  partition,  or  in  a  wood  inclosure,  unless  it  be 
at  least  eight  feet  distant  in  a  horizontal  direction  from  the 
furnace. 

HOT-AIR  PIPES  IN  CLOSETS. — Hot-air  pipes  in  closets  shall  be 
double,  with  a  space  of  one  inch  between  them. 

HORIZONTAL  HOT-AIR  PIPES. — Distance  from  Combustible 
Ceiling. — Horizontal  hot-air  pipes  shall  be  placed  six  inches 
below  the  floor-beams  or  ceiling;  if  the  floor-beams  or  ceiling 
are  plastered  and  protected  by  a  metal  shield,  then  the  distance 
shall  be  not  less  than  three  inches. 

DUCTS  FOR  VENTILATION. — Construction. — Vent  flues  or  ducts 
for  the  removal  of  foul  or  vitiated  air,  in  which  the  temperature 
of  the  air  cannot  exceed  that  of  the  rooms,  may  be  constructed 
of  iron  or  other  incombustible  material,  and  shall  not  be  placed 
nearer  than  one  inch  to  any  woodwork,  and  no  such  pipe  shall 
be  used  for  any  other  purpose. 

Material  and  Thickness  of  Same  in  Fire-proof  Buildings. — In 
buildings  of  fire-proof  construction  ventilating  shafts  passing 
through  floors  shall  be  constructed  of  fire-proof  material  not 
less  than  four  inches  in  thickness.  Any  opening  in  such  ducts 
or  shafts  shall  be  protected  by  automatic  closing  doors  or  by 
metal  louvres  riveted  into  metal  frames,  and  such  ducts  shall 
open  to  the  outside  of  the  building.  ' 

VENT-DUCTS  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. — How  Constructed. — In  the 
support  or  construction  of  such  ducts,  if  placed  in  a  public 
school-room,  no  wood  furring  or  other  inflammable  material 
shall  be  nearer  than  two  inches  to  said  flues  or  ducts,  and  shall 
be  covered  on  all  sides,  other  than  those  resting  against  brick, 
terra-cotta,  or  other  incombustible  material,  with  metal  lath 
plastered  with  at  least  two  heavy  coats  of  mortar,  and  having 
at  least  one-half  inch  air  space  between  the  flues  or  ducts  and 
the  lath  and  plaster. 

Sec.  69.  STEAM  AND  HOT-WATER  HEATING  PIPES. — Distance 
from  Woodwork. — Steam  or  hot-water  heating  pipes  shall  not  be 
placed  within  two  inches  of  any  timber  or  woodwork,  unless  the 
timber  or  woodwork  is  protected  by  a  metal  shield;  then  the 
distance  shall  be  not  less  than  one  inch. 

Through  Floors,  how  Protected. — All  steam  or  hot-water 
heating  pipes  passing  through  floors  and  ceilings  or  lath  and 
plastered  partitions  shall  be  protected  by  a  metal  tube  one 
inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  pipe,  having  a  metal  cap  at  the 


244     INSTALLATION  OF  HEATING  PLANTS,  ETC. 

floor,  and  where  they  are  run  in  a  horizontal  direction  between  a 
floor  and  ceiling  a  metal  shield  shall  be  placed  on  the  under 
side  of  the  floor  over  them,  and  on  the  sides  of  wood  beams  run- 
ning parallel  with  said  pipes. 

Wood-inclosing  Boxes  to  be  Lined  with  Metal. — All  wood  boxes 
or  casings  inclosing  steam  or  hot-water  heating  pipes  and  all 
wood  covers  to  recesses  in  walls  in  which  steam  or  hot-water 
heating  pipes  are  placed  shall  be  lined  with  metal. 

Incombustible  Pipes. — All  pipes  or  ducts  used  to  convey  air 
warmed  by  steam  or  hot  water  shall  be  of  metal  or  other  fire- 
proof material. 

Pipe  Coverings. — All  steam  and  hot-water  pipe  coverings 
shall  consist  of  fire-proof  materials  only. 

PLUMBING  PIPES  PASSING  THROUGH  FLOORS. — Cold-water  or 
other  exposed  plumbing  pipes  shall  have  the  surrounding  air 
space  closed  off  at  the  ceiling  and  floor  line  of  any  floor  through 
which  any  such  pipe  or  pipes  shall  be  carried. 

Hot-air  Pipes. — As  the  hot-air  pipes,  etc.,  are  put  in  position 
the  superintendent  should  pay  close  attention  and  see  that  the 
work  is  done  properly,  as  mechanics  often  slight  this  part  of  the 
work,  thinking  it  will  soon  be  covered  up. 

Installation  of  Heating-  Plants,  etc. — The  Building 
Code  of  the  city  of  Cleveland  gives  the  following  rules  for  in- 
stalling heating-plants,  steam  and  hot-air  pipes,  flues,  etc.,  and 
will  be  a  good  guide  for  the  superintendent. 

HEATING. 

The  subjects  under  this  title  include  all  hearths,  pipes,  and 
heating  apparatus  and  their  inclosures  within  a  building. 

Sec.  1.  FLUE  CONNECTIONS. — All  boilers,  furnaces,  fireplaces, 
ovens,  and  all  other  heating  apparatus  mentioned  under  this 
title  shall  be  properly  connected  with  a  flue  chimney  or  stack 
as  direct  and  within  the  shortest  distance  possible. 

This  shall  include  all  permanent  or  temporary  heat  generators 
which  are  used  in  the  erection  of  a  building,  and  no  such  heat  gen- 
erator shall  hereafter  be  placed  upon  the  floor  or  in  close  prox- 
imity to  any  building  which  allows  the  products  of  combustion 
to  escape  directly  into  the  air  within  twenty  (20)  feet  of  any  ceil- 
ing without  being  connected  with  some  flue  as  herein  prescribed. 

Sec.  2.  HEARTHS. — All  hearths  of  fireplaces,  irrespective  of 
the  fuel  used,  shall  be  supported  by  trimmer-arches  of  brick, 
stone,  iron,  or  concrete,  or  be  of  single  stone  at  least  six  (6) 


INSTALLATION  OF  HEATING  PLANTS,  ETC.     245 

inches  thick,  built  into  the  chimney  and  supported  by  iron 
beams,  one  end  of  which  shall  be  securely  built  into  the  masonry 
of  the  chimney  or  an  adjoining  wall,  or  which  shall  otherwise 
rest  upon  incombustible  support. 

The  brick  jambs  of  every  fireplace  or  grate  opening,  inde- 
pendent of  the  lining,  shall  be  at  least  one  (1)  brick  wide  each, 
and  the  back  of  such  openings  shall  be  at  least  one  (1)  brick 
thick.  All  hearths  and  trimmer-arches  shall  be  at  least  twelve 
(12)  inches  longer  on  each  side  than  the  width  of  such  open- 
ings, and  at  least  twenty  (20)  inches  wide  in  front  of  the  chimney- 
breast.  Brickwork  over  fireplaces  and  grate  openings  shall  be 
supported  by  iron  bars  or  brick  arches. 

The  wooden  covering  in  all  buildings  except  those  of  the 
VI.  and  VII.  classes  under  trimmer-arches  to  be  removed  before 
plastering  the  ceiling  underneath. 

Sec.  3.  BOILERS. — Brick-set. — No  brick-set  boiler  for  the 
generation  of  hot  water  or  steam  for  heating  or  power  or  any 
portable  power  boiler  or  engine  over  ten  (10)  horse-power 
shall  be  placed  on  any  wood  or  combustible  floor  or  beams. 

Sec.  4.  BOILERS. — Portable. — Wood  or  combustible  floors  and 
beams  under  and  not  less  than  three  (3)  feet  in  front  and  one  (1) 
foot  on  the  sides  of  all  portable  boilers  shall  be  protected  by  a 
suitable  brick  foundation  of  not  less  than  two  (2)  courses  of 
brick  well  laid  in  mortar  on  sheet  iron ;  the  said  sheet  iron  shall 
extend  at  least  twenty-four  (24)  inches  outside  of  the  founda- 
tion at  the  sides  and  front.  Bearing  lines  of  bricks,  laid  on 
the  flat,  with  air  spaces  between  them,  shall  be  placed  on  the 
foundation  to  support  a  cast-iron  ash-pan  of  suitable  thickness, 
on  which  the  base  of  the  boiler  shall  be  placed,  and  shall  have 
a  flange,  turned  up  in  the  front  and  on  the  sides,  four  (4)  inches 
high;  said  pan  shall  be  in  width  not  less  than  the  base  of  the 
boiler,  and  shall  extend  at  least  two  (2)  feet  in  front  of  it.  If  a 
boiler  is  supported  on  a  cast-iron  base  with  the  bottom  of  the 
required  thickness  for  an  ash-pan,  and  is  placed  on  bearing 
lines  of  brick  in  the  same  manner  as  specified  for  an  ash-pan, 
then  an  ash-pan  shall  be  placed  in  front  of  the  said  base  and 
shall  not  be  required  to  extend  under  it.  All  lath-and-plaster 
and  wood  ceilings  and  beams  over  and  up  to  a  distance  of  not 
less  than  four  (4)  feet  in  front  of  all  boilers  shall  be  shielded  with 
metal.  The  distance  from  the  top  of  the  boiler  to  said  shield 
shall  be  not  less  than  twelve  (12)  inches.  No  combustible 
partition  shall  be  within  four  (4)  feet  of  the  sides  and  back  and 


246     INSTALLATION  OF  HEATING  PLANTS,  ETC. 

six  (6)  feet  from  the  front  of  any  boiler,  unless  said  partition  shall 
be  covered  with  metal  to  the  height  of  at  least  three  (3)  feet 
above  the  floor,  and  shall  extend  from  the  end  or  back  of  the 
boiler  to  at  least  five  (5)  feet  in  front  of  it ;  then  the  distance 
shall  be  not  less  than  two  (2)  feet  from  the  sides  and  five  (5) 
feet  from  the  front  of  the  boiler. 

Sec.  5.  FURNACES. — Brick-set. — All  brick-set  hot-air  furnaces 
shall  have  two  (2)  covers  with  an  air  space  of  at  least  two  (2) 
inches  between  them;  the  inner  cover  of  the  hot-air  chamber 
shall  be  either  a  brick  arch  or  two  (2)  courses  of  brick  laid  on 
galvanized  iron  or  tin,  supported  on  iron  bars;  the  outside  cover, 
which  is  the  top  of  the  furnace,  shall  be  made  of  brick  or  metal 
supported  on  iron  bars  and  so  constructed  as  to  be  perfectly 
tight,  and  shall  be  not  less  than  four  (4)  inches  below  any  com- 
bustible ceiling  or  floor  beams. 

A  single  concave  iron  cover  may  be  used  if  rigidly  supported 
on  the  margin  and  filled  with  sand  to  a  depth  of  at  least  eight 
(8)  inches  in  the  centre  and  two  (2)  inches  at  the  edges  on  all  sides. 
The  walls  of  the  furnace  shall  be  built  hollow  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  One  (1)  inner  and  one  (1)  outer  wall,  each  four 
(4)  inches  in  thickness,  properly  bonded  together  with  an  air 
space  of  not  less  than  two  (2)  inches  between  them.  All  brick- 
set  furnaces  shah1  be  at  least  four  (4)  inches  from  all  wood-work. 
Sec.  6.  FURNACES. — Portable. — All  portable  hot-air  furnaces 
shall  have  a  double-cased  jacket  of  not  less  than  No.  26  iron 
from  the  base  to  the  top  of  casting,  with  an  air  space  of  at  least 
one  (1)  inch  between,  and  shall  be  placed  at  least  two  (2)  feet 
from  any  wood  or  combustible  partition  or  ceiling,  unless  the 
partitions  and  ceiling  are  properly  protected  by  a  metal  shield 
when  the  distance  shall  not  be  less  than  one  (1)  foot.  Wood 
floors  under  all  portable  furnaces  shall  be  protected  by  two  (2) 
courses  of  brickwork,  well  laid  in  mortar  on  sheet  iron.  Said 
brickwork  shall  extend  at  least  two  (2)  feet  beyond  the  furnace 
in  front  of  the  ash-pan. 

Sec.  7.  COLD-AIR  BOXES. — The  cold-air  boxes  of  all  hot-air 
furnaces  shall  be  made  of  metal,  brick,  or  other  incombustible 
material  for  a  distance  of  at  least  ten  (10)  feet  from  the  furnace. 
Sec.  8.  RANGES. — Where  a  kitchen  range  is  placed  from 
twelve  (12)  to  six  (6)  inches  from  a  wood  stud  partition,  the 
said  partition  shall  be  shielded  with  metal  from  the  floor  to  the 
height  of  not  less  than  three  (3)  feet  higher  than  the  range;  if 
the  range  is  less  than  six  (6)  inches  from  the  partition,  then  the 


INSTALLATION  OF  HEATING  PLANTS,  ETC.     247 

studs  shall  be  cut  away  and  framed  three  (3)  feet  higher  and 
one  (1)  foot  wider  than  the  range  and  filled  into  the  face  of  the 
said  stud  partition  with  brick  or  fire-proof  blocks  with  plaster 
thereon.  All  ranges  on  wood  or  combustible  floors  and  beams 
that  are  not  supported  on  legs  and  have  ash-pans  three  (3)  inches 
or  more  above  their  base  shall  be  set  on  suitable  brick  founda- 
tions consisting  of  not  less  than  two  (2)  courses  of  brick  well 
laid  in  mortar  on  sheet  iron,  except  small  ranges  that  have  ash- 
pans  three  (3)  inches  or  more  above  their  base,  which  shall 
be  placed  on  at  least  one  (1)  course  of  brickwork  on  sheet  iron 
or  cement.  No  range  shall  be  placed  against  a  furred  wall. 
All  lath-and-plaster  or  wood  ceilings  over  all  large  ranges,  and 
ranges  in  hotels  and  restaurants,  shall  be  guarded  by  metal 
hoods  placed  at  least  nine  (9)  inches  below  the  ceiling.  A 
ventilating  pipe  connected  with  a  hood  over  a  range  shall  be 
at  least  nine  (9)  inches  from  all  lath  and  plaster  or  woodwork 
and  shielded.  If  the  pipe  is  less  than  nine  (9)  inches  from  lath 
and  plaster  and  woodwork,  then  the  pipe  shall  be  covered 
with  one-half  ($)  inch  of  asbestos  plaster  or  other  incombustible 
covering.  No  ventilating  pipe  connected  with  a  hood  over  a 
range  shall  pass  through  any  floor  unless  protected  as  prescribed 
in  Sec.  13  for  smoke-pipes. 

Sec.  9.  LAUNDRY-,  COOKING-,  AND  HEATING-STOVES. — Laundry- 
stoves  on  wood  or  combustible  floors  shall  have  a  course  of  brick, 
laid  on  metal,  on  the  floor  under  and  extended  twenty-four  (24) 
inches  on  all  sides  of  them.  All  stoves  for  cooking  and  heating 
purposes  shall  be  properly  supported  on  iron  legs  resting  on 
the  floor,  three  (3)  feet  from  all  lath  and  plaster  or  woodwork; 
if  the  lath  and  plaster  or  woodwork  is  properly  protected  by  a 
metal  shield,  then  the  distance  shall  be  not  less  than  eighteen 
(18)  inches.  A  metal  shield  shall  be  placed  under  and  twelve 
(12)  inches  in  front  of  the  ash-pan  of  all  stoves  that  are  placed 
on  wood  floors. 

Sec.  10.  GAS-STOVES  AND  RANGES. — All  low  gas-stoves  shall 
be  placed  on  iron  stands,  or  the  burners  shall  be  at  least  six  (6) 
inches  above  the  base  of  the  stoves,  and  metal  guard  plates 
placed  four  (4)  inches  below  the  burners,  and  all  woodwork 
under  them  shall  be  covered  with  metal.  Open  gas-stoves 
shall  be  isolated  in  the  same  manner  as  provided  for  stoves 
in  Sec.  9.  Gas-ranges,  if  properly  air  insulated  within  them- 
selves, shall  be  placed  one  (1)  foot  distant  from  all  unprotected 
woodwork  or  plastered  stud  partitions. 


248    INSTALLATION  OF  HEATING  PLANTS,  ETC. 

The  use  of  gas-burners  or  heaters,  located  in  a  floor  system 
under  an  open  register,  or  on  the  outside  of  the  fire-pot  of  any 
hot-air  furnace,  in  which  the  products  of  combustion  are  allowed 
to  escape  into  a  room,  is  hereby  prohibited,  and  all  such  burners 
or  heaters  so  located  shall  be  removed  within  thirty  (30)  days 
after  the  passage  of  this  Code. 

For  gas-fitting  and  fixtures  see  Title  XXXIX. 

Sec.  11.  BAKE-OVENS. — Bake-ovens  are  to  rest  on  solid 
foundations  or  metal  beams  and  columns;  the  sides  and  ends 
shall  be  at  least  two  (2)  feet  from  any  woodwork  and  the  crown 
of  arch  at  least  four  (4)  feet  from  ceilings  that  have  wood  joists. 
The  hearth  in  front  of  bake-oven  shall  extend  at  least  three 
and  one-half  (3£)  feet  beyond  the  face  of  said  oven,  otherwise 
all  woodwork  shall  be  protected  as  prescribed  for  boilers  in  Sec.  4. 

Sec.  12.  CORE- AND  ANNEALING-OVENS. — All  core- and  anneal- 
ing-ovens, or  any  portable  smelting-furnace,  shall  be  set  on  in- 
combustible hearths  with  an  air-space  of  at  least  five  (5)  inches 
between  hearths  and  the  bottoms  of  such  ovens  or  furnaces. 
The  construction  of  hearths  and  protection  of  surrounding 
woodwork  shall  be  the  same  as  prescribed  in  Sec.  4  for  portable 
boilers. 

Sec.  13.  SMOKE-PIPES. — Where  smoke-pipes  pass  through  a 
wood  or  plastered  stud  partition,  or  furred  wall,  or  floor,  they 
shall  be  surrounded  either  by  a  body  of  hard,  incombustible 
material,  measuring  at  least  four  (4)  inches  all  around  such 
smoke-pipe,  or  they  shall  be  surrounded  by  a  double  safety 
thimble  of  sheet  metal  made  of  two  (2)  concentric  rings  of 
sheet  metal  at  least  one  (1)  inch  apart,  and  the  entire  thimble 
so  constructed  that  there  will  be  a  circulation  of  air  between 
the  two  (2)  rings  forming  the  same.  No  smoke-pipe  shall 
project  through  an  external  wall  unless  connected  with  a  chimney 
or  metal  stack  carried  above  the  roof. 

No  stove-  or  smoke-pipe  or  any  pipe  conducting  the  products 
of  combustion  from  any  range,  oven,  or  heater  shall  be  concealed 
in  any  wood  partition  or  be  placed  nearer  than  nine  (9)  inches 
to  any  unprotected  lath-and-plaster  or  board  partition,  ceiling,  or 
any  woodwork. 

Smoke-pipes  of  less  diameter  than  twelve  (12)  inches  shall 
be  kept  at  least  twelve  (12)  inches  distant  from  any  woodwork, 
unless  the  same  is  properly  protected  by  a  metal  shield,  in  which 
case  the  distance  shall  not  be  less  than  three  (3)  inches. 

Smoke-pipes   of  greater   diameter  than   twelve    (12)    inches 


INSTALLATION  OF  HEATING  PLANTS,  ETC.     249 

and  less  area  than  six  (6)  square  feet,  must  be  kept  at  least 
twenty  (20)  inches  from  any  woodwork,  unless  the  same  is  prop- 
erly protected  by  a  shield,  in  which  case  the  distance  shall  not 
be  less  than  eight  (8)  inches. 

Smoke-pipes  of  larger  area  than  six  (6)  square  feet  shall  be 
kept  at  least  three  (3)  feet  distant  from  any  woodwork,  unless 
the  same  is  properly  protected  by  a  shield,  in  which  case  the  dis- 
tance shall  not  be  less  than  sixteen  (16)  inches. 

Sec.  14.  SMOKE-PIPE  SHIELDS. — The  metal  shields  prescribed 
in  the  previous  section  shall  be  at  least  one  and  one-half  (1£) 
the  diameter  of  the  pipe  in  width  and  shall  have  a  ventilated 
air-space  of  at  least  one  (1)  inch  between  shield  and  woodwork. 
Incombustible  covering,  as  prescribed  in  Sec.  19,  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  metal  shields,  or  the  smoke-pipe  may  be  covered 
as  prescribed  for  steam-pipe  in  Sec.  17. 

Sec.  15.  HOT-AIR  PIPES. — Hot-air  pipes  conveying  hot  air 
from  hot-air  furnaces  built  in  between  timbers  or  joists,  or 
through  the  same,  or  through  wood  floors,  or  in  wood  partitions 
or  other  combustible  materials,  within  ten  (10)  inches  of  the 
same,  shall  be  made  double. 

The  space  between  the  two  metal  pipes  on  all  sides  shall  be 
at  least  three-eighths  (f )  of  an  inch  in  the  clear,  and  the  two 
pipes  shall  be  kept  apart  from  each  other  by  the  insertion  of  a 
sufficient  number  of  metallic  separators  between,  one  for  every 
two  (2)  feet  of  length  of  the  pipe.  Such  pipes  are  to  be  made 
with  air-tight  joints,  without  soldering  them,  and  shall  be 
securely  fastened  to  the  partitions  at  every  two  (2)  foot  interval 
and  at  least  one-half  Q)  an  inch  from  any  unprotected  wood- 
work. 

No  vertical  hot-air  pipe  shall  be  placed  in  a  stud  partition, 
or  in  a  wood  inclosure,  unless  it  be  at  least  one-half  (£)  of  a 
diameter  of  the  least  dimension  of  the  furnace  distant  in  a  hori- 
zontal direction  from  the  furnace.  Hot-air  pipes  in  closets 
shall  be  double,  with  an  air-space  as  prescribed  above,  and  shall 
be  placed  at  least  one  (1)  inch  from  any  unprotected  wood- 
work. Horizontal  single  hot-air  pipes  shall  be  placed  six  (6) 
inches  below  the  floor-beams  or  ceiling;  if  the  floor-beams  or 
ceiling  are  plastered  on  metal  lath  or  are  protected  by  a  metal 
shield  one  (1)  inch  therefrom,  then  the  distance  shall  not  be 
less  than  two  (2)  inches  from  such  ceiling  or  shield. 

When  the  air  conveyed  through  pipes  is  heated  in  an  ordinary 
hot-air  furnace,  or  in  any  other  apparatus  by  direct  contact 


250     INSTALLATION  OF  HEATING  PLANTS,  ETC. 

of  the  air  with  the  fire-box,  the  material  used  for  these  double 
ducts,  pipes,  and  register-boxes  shall  be  bright  tin.  Where  the 
air  is  heated  with  hot-water  or  steam  pipes,  any  other  sheet 
metal,  but  of  not  less  gauge  than  prescribed  for  tin,  may  be  used 
for  the  pipes,  and  the  use  of  double  pipes  is  not  obligatory. 

Sec.  16.  VENT-PIPES. — Vent  flues  or  ducts  for  the  removal 
of  foul  or  vitiated  air  in  which  the  temperature  of  the  air  cannot 
exceed  that  of  the  rooms  may  be  constructed  of  iron  or  other 
incombustible  material,  and  shall  not  be  placed  nearer  than 
one  (1)  inch  to  any  woodwork,  and  no  such  pipe  shall  be  used 
for  any  other  purpose. 

In  the  support  or  construction  of  such  ducts,  if  placed  in  a 
public  school-room,  no  wood  furring  or  other  inflammable 
material  shall  be  nearer  than  two  (2)  inches  to  said  flues  or  ducts, 
and  shall  be  covered  on  all  sides  other  than  those  resting  against 
brick,  terra-cotta,  or  other  incombustible  material  with  metal 
lath,  plastered  with  at  least  two  (2)  heavy  coats  of  mortar  and 
having  at  least  one-half  (|)  inch  air-space  between  the  flues 
or  ducts  and  the  lath  and  plaster. 

Sec.  17.  STEAM  AND  HOT-WATER  HEATING  PIPES. — Steam 
and  hot-water  heating  pipes  shall  not  be  placed  within  two  (2) 
inches  of  any  timber  or  woodwork,  unless  the  timber  or  wood- 
work is  protected  by  a  metal  shield;  then  the  distance  shall 
not  be  less  than  one-half  (£)  inch.  All  steam  or  hot-water 
heating  pipes  passing  through  floors  and  ceilings  or  lath  and 
plastered  partitions  shall  be  protected  by  a  metal  tube  one  (1) 
inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  pipe,  having  a  metal  cap  at 
the  floor  and  ceiling,  and  where  they  run  in  a  horizontal  direc- 
tion between  the  floor  and  the  ceiling  they  shall  be  supported 
on  iron  and  a  metal  shield  shall  be  placed  on  the  under  side 
of  the  floor  over  them,  and  on  the  sides  of  wood  beams  run- 
ning parallel  with  said  pipes;  or  said  horizontal  pipes  shall  be 
covered  with  incombustible  pipe-covering  at  least  three-quarters 
(f)  of  an  inch  thick.  In  no  case  shall  lateral  branches  from 
rising  lines  to  radiators  or  coils  be  allowed  between  any  floor 
and  ceiling  line  when  such  laterals  cut  into  or  through  joists  or 
beams  in  conflict  with  Sec.  5,  Title  XIII;  and  when  such  pipes 
are  inaccessibly  concealed,  they  shall  be  covered  with  incom- 
bustible material,  as  provided  in  Sections  18  and  19. 

Sec.  18.  WOOD  CASINGS. — All  wood  boxes  or  casings  inclos- 
ing steam  or  hot-water  heating  pipes,  and  all  wood  coverings 
to  recess es  in  walls,  in  which  steam  or  hot-water  heating  pipes 


are  placed,  shall  be  lined  with  metal,  or  said  pipes  shall  be  covered 
with  incombustible  sectional  pipe-covering  at  least  three-quarters 
(f )  of  an  inch  thick. 

Sec.  19.  INCOMBUSTIBLE  PIPE-COVERING. — No  concealed  pipe 
shall  be  covered  with  a  covering  whose  non-conductivity  depends 
upon  cork,  felt,  or  any  other  organic  matter. 

All  coverings  of  heated  surfaces,  or  surfaces  requiring  to 
be  protected  from  heat,  and  all  concealed  or  inaccessible  steam 
or  hot-water  pipes,  and  all  cold  and  ice  water  pipes,  or  other 
pipes,  as  prescribed  in  Sec.  12,  Title  XII,  in  buildings  having  iron 
frames,  shall  be  made  of  standard  fire-resisting  covering,  either 
of  magnesium  carbonate,  calcium  carbonate  with  binders  of 
asbestos  fibre,  or  asbestos  fibre  and  sheet  coverings. 

Sec.  20.  DUCTS  FOR  PIPES. — All  ducts  for  hot-air,  steam,  or 
hot-water  pipes  shall  be  inclosed  on  all  sides  with  fire-proof 
material,  and  the  opening  through  each  floor  shall  be  properly 
fire-stopped. 

Sec.  21.  REGISTERS. — Registers  located  over  a  brick  furnace 
shall  be  supported  by  a  brick  shaft  built  up  from  the  cover  of  the 
hot-air  chamber;  said  shaft  shall  be  lined  with  a  metal  pipe, 
and  all  wood  beams  shall  be  trimmed  away  not  less  than  four 
(4)  inches  from  it.  Where  a  register  is  placed  on  any  woodwork 
in  connection  with  a  metal  pipe  or  duct,  the  end  of  the  said  pipe 
or  duct  shall  be  flanged  over  on  the  woodwork  under  it.  All 
registers  for  hot-air  furnaces  placed  in  any  woodwork  or  com- 
bustible floors  shall  have  stone  or  iron  borders. 

All  register-boxes  shall  be  made  of  tinplate  or  galvanized 
iron  with  a  flange  on  the  top  to  fit  the  groove  in  the  frame, 
the  register  to  rest  upon  the  same;  there  shall  be  an  open  space 
of  two  (2)  inches  on  all  sides  of  the  register-box,  extending 
from  the  under  side  of  the  border  to  and  through  the  ceiling 
below.  The  said  opening  shall  be  fitted  with  a  tight  tin  or 
galvanized-iron  casing,  the  upper  end  of  which  shall  be  turned 
under  the  frame.  When  a  register-box  is  placed  in  the  floor 
over  a  portable  furnace,  the  open  space  on  all  sides  of  the  reg- 
ister-box shall  be  not  less  than  three  (3)  inches.  When  only 
one  register  is  connected  with  a  furnace  said  register  shall  have 
no  valve. 

Register-boxes,  heads,  or  collars  in  floors  or  walls  shall  be 
made  double  and  set  flush  with  floor  or  plaster  line. 

Sec.  22.  NOTICE  AS  TO  HEATING  APPARATUS. — In  cases  where 
hot-water,  steam,  hot-air,  or  other  heating  appliances  or  furnaces 


252    INSTALLATION  OF  HEATING  PLANTS,  ETC. 

are  hereafter  placed  in  any  building,  or  flues  or  fireplaces  are 
changed  or  enlarged,  due  notice  shall  first  be  given  to  the 
Department  of  Buildings  by  the  person  or  persons  placing  the 
said  furnace  or  furnaces  in  said  building,  or  by  the  contractor 
or  superintendent  of  said  work. 

Sec.  23.  BOILER-ROOMS. — No  boiler  for  the  generation  of 
power  shall  be  placed  in  any  building  of  the  VII.  class  if  of 
greater  capacity  than  ten  (10)  H.P.  Boilers  of  more  than  ten 
(10)  and  less  than  seventy-five  (75)  horse-power  shall  not  be 
located  within  eight  (8)  feet  of  any  building  of  the  VII.  class; 
if  of  more  than  seventy-five  (75)  and  less  than  two  hundred 
and  fifty  (250)  horse-power  they  shall  be  at  least  twenty  (20) 
feet  distant  from  any  building  of  this  class,  and  if  of  greater 
capacity  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  (250)  horse-power,  they 
shall  not  be  less  than  thirty  (30)  feet  distant. 

Boiler-  and  fuel-rooms  and  smoke-houses  which  may  here- 
after be  constructed  shall  be  located  not  less  than  eight  (8)  feet 
distant  from  any  other  building  and  shall  be  built  throughout  of 
incombustible  material.  All  the  openings  to  such  boiler-  and  fuel- 
rooms  and  smoke-houses,  if  same  are  located  within  thirty  (30) 
feet  of  any  other  building,  shall  have  shutters  and  doors  of 
metal,  or  wood  covered  with  metal  on  both  sides  and 
edges. 

Boiler-  and  fuel-rooms,  when  constructed  in  buildings  shall 
be  separately  inclosed  in  brick  walls  so  arranged  that  all  open- 
ings between  them  and  other  parts  of  the  building  will  be  securely 
closed  with  fire-doors  at  the  end  of  each  day's  work. 

Sec.  24.  DRYING-ROOMS. — All  walls,  ceilings,  and  partitions 
inclosing  drying-rooms,  when  not  made  of  fire-proof  material 
shall  be  wire-lathed  and  plastered,  or  covered  with  metal,  tile, 
or  other  hard  incombustible  material. 

Sec.  25.  HEATING  APPARATUS  IN  BASEMENTS. — All  rooms  in 
cellars  or  basements  containing  heating-boilers,  furnaces,  or 
stoves  of  any  kind,  if  not  constructed  of  fire-proof  material 
shall  have  all  ceilings  lathed  and  plastered  with  two  (2)  coats 
of  brown  mortar. 

When  heating-boilers  are  used,  that  portion  of  the  ceiling 
over  the  boiler  and  within  a  radius  of  four  (4)  feet  therefrom 
shall  be  plastered  on  metal  lath  or  be  protected  by  incombustible 
shields. 

Sec.  26.  PROTECTION  AGAINST  MOLTEN  METAL,  HOT  LIQUIDS, 
GASES,  AND  DUST. — In  every  factory  or  workshop,  all  machinery 


FIRE-PROOF  AND  SLOW-BURNING  STRUCTURES.  253 

and  appliances  connected  therewith,  also  every  vat,  pan,  or 
other  structure  with  molten  or  hot  liquids,  shall  be  placed  upon 
an  incombustible  foundation  or  hearth,  and  shall  be  constructed 
in  such. a  manner  and  so  guarded  and  further  protected  by  such 
ventilating  ducts  or  pipes  as  to  protect  those  employed  in  their 
operation  and  use,  or  about  them. 

Sec.  27.  ASH  BOXES  AND  PITS. — All  receptacles  for  ashes  shall 
be  of  galvanized  iron,  brick,  or  other  incombustible  material. 
When  the  ash-pit  is  located  in  a  basement  or  cellar  it  shall 
have  brick  walls  at  least  one  (1)  brick  in  thickness,  and  if  floor 
over  same  is  of  wood,  such  pit  shall  be  covered  over  with  either 
brick  arching,  stone,  or  concrete  not  less  than  four  (4)  inches 
thick  with  four  (4)  inches  of  air-space  between  the  covering  of 
pit  and  the  ceiling,  except  for  pits  built  directly  under  the 
trimmer-arches  of  hearths. 

The  ash-flues  connected  with  the  upper  floors  of  any  building 
shall  be  constructed  and  extend  clear  up  to  and  above  the  roof, 
the  same  as  chimneys. 

A  self-closing  scuppered  cast-iron  ash-door  shall  be  placed 
in  each  story  at  least  two  (2)  feet  above  the  floor.  The  metal 
collar  attached  to  frame  shall  be  at  least  one-half  (|)  inch  dis- 
tant from  all  woodwork  and  connection  with  flue  made  air- 
tight. Such  flues  or  pits  may  also  be  used  for  sweepings,  but  for 
no  purpose  which  would  be  in  violation  of  the  ordinances  of  the 
city  or  the  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Health,  and  when  such 
flues  or  pits  are  built  in  any  building  more  than  two  (2)  stories 
high  and  occupied  for  any  other  purpose  than  a  dwelling  such 
ash-pits  must  have  the  cleaning-out  door  accessible  from  the 
outside  of  the  building  only. 

Classification  of  Fire-proof  and  Slow-burning 
Structures. — Highly  fire-retardant  as  well  as  so-called  fire- 
proof building  construction,  in  structures  of  any  considerable 
size,  may  be  roughly  divided  into  three  classes. 

First,  mill  construction,  consisting  of  brick  walls,  very  heavy 
solid  wooden  beams,  posts,  girders,  and  flooring,  having  no  con- 
cealed spaces  or  ornamentation;  vertical  subdivisions  such  as 
elevator-shafts,  stairways,  etc.,  cut  off  by  brick  walls  and  the 
whole  protected  by  automatic  sprinklers.  This  type  is  found 
principally  in  the  textile  mills  of  New  England  and  the  Southern 
States. 

Second,  so-called  fire-proof  buildings  having  self-sustaining 
outside  walls  of  brick  or  stone  and  interior  supporting  members 


254    FIRE-PROOF  AND  SLOW-BURNING  STRUCTURES. 

of  steel  or  iron  covered  with  some  form  of  heat  insulator,  the 
horizontal  sections  of  which  are  utilized  as  flooring. 

Third,  the  so-called  steel-cage  type  of  building,  consisting 
of  a  steel  framework  of  sufficient  strength  to  support  the  com- 
paratively thin  outside  walls  with  which  it  is  veneered,  as  well 
as  such  interior  construction  as  may  be  essential  to  floors,  par- 
titions, etc. 

The  first  of  these  types,  the  mill-constructed  building,  ex- 
pressed the  outcome  of  some  fifty  years  of  exceedingly  expensive 
experience.  This  experience  has  shown  that  where  such  build- 
ings are  isolated  and  where  specifications  such  as  are  furnished 
by  the  New  England  mutual  insurance  companies  are  followed 
the  fire  loss  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Complete  description 
and  typical  plans,  however,  can  be  had  gratis  upon  applica- 
tion to  Edward  Atkinson,  31  Milk  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  second  type  of  building,  namely  the  outside  supporting 
ivalls  with  iron  or  steel  interior  framework,  came  into  existence 
practically  with  the  invention  of  the  rolled  I  beam  in  about  1855. 

There  is  little  to  say  from  the  fire-protection  point  of  view 
to  the  superintendent  regarding  the  construction  of  outside 
self-sustaining  walls.  Their  limit  of  thickness  and  general  de- 
tails of  construction  are  usually  fixed  within  sufficiently  safe 
limits  by  local  building  ordinances,  which  if  followed  out  con- 
sistently should  insure  satisfactory  results. 

Coming  to  the  matter  of  floors,  partitions,  and  other  highly 
fire-resistant  interior  subdivisons  of  the  second  type  of  build- 
ing, it  may  be  stated  generally  that  they  are  very  similar  in 
form  to  corresponding  portions  of  buildings  of  the  third  type, 
while  the  outside  walls,  partitions,  etc.,  in  the  so-called  cage- 
constructed  building  might,  without  much  stretch  of  imagina- 
tion, be  considered  merely  as  a  vertical  flooring  inasmuch  as 
each  section  is  sustained  upon  the  general  steel  framework. 
In  view  of  the  foregoing  it  is  perhaps  fair  to  treat  outside  walls 
of  the  cage  type  of  building  as  well  as  interior  floor  and  parti- 
tion construction  in  both  second  and  third  class  of  buildings 
under  one  heading  and  make  general  suggestions  for  all  at 
once. 

As  experiments  have  demonstrated  clearly,  the  steel  or  iron 
structural  members  of  a  building,  while  composed  of  what  is 
commonly  regarded  as  thoroughly  fire-proof  material,  are  inca- 
pable of  withstanding  any  considerable  degree  of  heat  without 
reducing  their  mechanical  strength  to  such  an  extent  as  to 


FIRE-PROOF  AND  SLOW-BURNING  STRUCTURES.  255 

render  them  no  longer  self-supporting,  let  alone   capable  of 
supporting  any  outside  load. 


As  is  well  known,  steel  has  a  comparatively  low  specific  heat 
and  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat      These,  together  with  the 


256     SLOW-BURNING  OR  MILL  CONSTRUCTION. 

fact  that  it  loses  its  mechanical  strength  at  a  tremendously 
rapid  rate  when  heated  above  1200°  to  1400°  F.,  make  exposed- 
steel  construction  exceedingly  dangerous  in  the  presence  of 
even  an  insignificant  amount  of  heat,  such  an  amount,  for 
example,  as  might  be  generated  by  the  burning  of  the  fur- 
nishings of  an  ordinary  room. 

Each  system  has  its  advantages,  its  disadvantages,  and  its 
partisan  advocates,  but  any  great  superiority  of  either  over 
the  other  depends  on  care  of  installation  rather  than  on  any- 
thing inherent. 

To  protect  iron  and  steel  structural  building  members  from  the 
effect  of  possible  heat,  many  systems  of  so-called  fire-proof  con- 
struction have  been  put  forward. 

These  may  be  roughly  divided  into  two  classes,  and  in  nearly 
every  instance  the  matter  of  heat-insulation  is  combined  with 


/Hoof  Timber 


•""Iron  Plate-  - 
Oftoof  Anchor-  = 


Post 


FIG.  201.  FIG.  202. 

Roof-timber  resting  on  cast-iron  Roof-timber  resting  on  column- 
wall-plate,  showing  overhanging,  cap,  cast  to  fit  slope  of  roof.  Timbers 
open,  wood  cornice  and  wrought-iron  held  together  by  1-inch  wrought-iron 
anchor.  dogs. 


a  more  or  less  feasible  system  for  the  installation  of  floors, 
partitions,  etc.,  and  in  some  instances  outside  walls  as  well. 

The  two  systems  mentioned  are,  first,  some  form  of  baked 
clay,  or  moulded  plaster  or  concrete  finished  in  definite  forms 
or  blocks  and  intended  for  installation  in  some  modification 
of  the  arch  form.  Second,  various  combinations  of  steel-support- 
ing members  incorporated  into  and  forming  a  support  for  a  body 
of  Portland-cement  concrete,  which  extends  in  an  unbroken 
mass  from  one  main  structural  element  to  another. 

Slow-burning-  or  Mill  Construction. — This  method 
of  construction,  shown  by  Fig.  200,  has  been  brought  into  use 


SLOW-BURNING  OR  MILL  CONSTRUCTION.     257 

through   the    efforts   of   the    Associated    Factory   Mutual    Fire 
Insurance  Companies  of  Boston. 

While  not  being  in  any  sense  of  the  word  a  fire-proof  con- 
struction, still  it  affords  protection  from  fire,  inasmuch  as  what- 
ever combustible  material  is  used  is  so  exposed  and  so  put 
together  that  it  is  difficult  to  cause  it  to  take  fire,  and  when 
once  started  it  burns  slowly  and  the  fire  is  in  plain  sight,  as  there 
are  no  hollow  walls  or  spaces  to  conceal  it. 


Post 
Floor  Boards 


FIG.  203. 

Floor-timber  resting  on  cast-iron 
wall-plates,  with  lugs  for  anchoring 
timber  to  the  wall. 


Pintle 


Dogs 


FIG.  204. 

Cast-iron  cap  and  pintle  for  col- 
umns and  dogs  for  holding  floor-tim- 
bers together. 


JSTot  less  than  1  ._ 
inch  for  top  floor 


Pintle 


Faced 


The  walls  of  this  class  of  buildings  are  usually  of  brick,  with 
or  without  piers  or  pilasters.  The 
floor-  and  roof-timbers  are  made 
heavy  enough  so  that  they  can  be 
spaced  about  8  feet  apart,  and 
are  carried  on  wooden  posts  through 
the  interior  of  the  building.  These 
posts  are  framed  together  with  a 
cast-iron  pintle,  as  shown  by  Figs. 
204  and  205. 

Where      the      floor-timbers 
girders  rest  on   the   wall  they 
framed,  as  shown  by  Fig.  203,  on 
a   cast-iron   plate   or  wall   anchor- 
box. 

The  floor-timbers  are  covered  with  a  3-inch  or  4-inch  plank 
floor  put  together  with  hard-wood  splines,  and  on  top  of  this 
is  usually  laid  a  matched  floor  of  some  hard  wood,  and  in  some 


or 
are 


FIG.  205. 

Cap  and  pintle  cast  to  fit 
columns  on  each  story.  Heavy 
diagonal  webs  on  under  side  of 
cap. 


258      SLOW-BURNING  OR  MILL  CONSTRUCTION. 

cases  a  double  floor  is  laid  on  top  of  the  plank  floor,  the  first 
thickness  of  flooring  being  laid  diagonally  and  the  top  floor  laid 
so  as  to  cross  the  plank  floor. 

In  this  system  of  construction  the  main  object  is  to  have 
no  concealed  spaces  for  fire  to  get  into,  or  cause  a  draught,  and 


all  timbers  connecting  with  or  resting  on  the  walls  should  be  so 
framed  and  fastened  that  if  broken  or  burned  off  they  will 
readily  drop  out  without  injury  to  the  wall.  In  this  construe- 


SLOW-BURNING  OR  MILL  CONSTRUCTION.     259 

tion  each  floor  is  isolated  from  the  others  so  far  as  possible, 
the  stairways,  belt  tower,  vent  shaft,  etc.,  being  cut  off  with 
brick  walls  extending  to  the  roof,  as  shown  by  Figs.  206  and 
207. 

The  special  features  of  this  method  of  construction  as  recom- 
mended by  the  associated  factory  mutual  fire  insurance 
companies  are  as  follows: 

1.  WALLS. — Brick  walls  at  least   1   foot  thick  in  top  story 
and  increased,  in  thickness  at  lower  floors  to  support  additional 
load.     The  pilastered  wall  has  many  favorable  features  and  is 
often  preferred  to  the  plain  wall.     Window-  and  door-arches 
should  be   of  brick,   window-sills  of  sandstone,   and  door-sills 
and  underpinning  of  granite. 

2.  ROOFS. — Roofs  of  3-inch  white  pine  plank,  spiked  directly 
to  the  heavy  roof  timbers  and  covered  with  5-ply  tar  and  gravel 
roofing.     Roofs  should  pitch  £  inch  per  foot.     An  incombustible 
cornice  is  recommended  when  there  is  exposure  from  neighbor- 
ing  buildings. 

3.  FLOORS. — Floors    of    spruce    plank    4   inches   or   more    in 
thickness  according  to  the  floor  loads,  spiked  directly  to  the 
floor-timbers.     In  floors  and  roof,  the  bays  should  be  8  to  10|  feet 
wide  and  all  planks  two  bays  in  length,  laid  to  break  joints  every 
3  feet  and  grooved  for  hardwood  splines.     Usually  a  top  floor 
of  birch  or  maple  is  laid  at  right  angles  to  the  planking,  but 
the  best  mills  have  a  double  top  floor,  the  lower  one  of  soft  wood 
laid  diagonally  upon  the  plank  and  the  upper  one  laid  length- 
wise.    This  latter  method  allows  boards  in  alleys  to  be  easily 
replaced  when  worn,  and  the  diagonal  boards  brace  the  floors, 
prevent  vibration,  and  distribute  the  floor  load  even  better  than 
the  former  method. 

Between  the  planking  and  the  top  floor  should  be  two  or 
three  layers  of  heavy  tarred  paper,  laid  to  break  joints,  and 
each  mopped  with  hot  tar  or  similar  material  to  produce  a 
reasonably  water-tight  as  well  as  dust-tight  floor. 

Rapid  decay  of  basement  or  lower  floors  of  mills  makes  it 
desirable,  whenever  wood  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  to  pro- 
vide cement  floors  for  these  places.  If  wooden  floors  are  re- 
quired, crushed  stone  or  cinders  should  be  spread  evenly  over  the 
surface  and  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  hot  tar  concrete,  into 
which  an  under  floor  of  2-inch  seasoned  plank  should  be  pressed 
and  the  hardwood  top  floor-boards  nailed  across  the  plank. 
Cement  concretes  are  apt  to  promote  decay  of  wood  in  contact 


260    SLOW-BURNING  OR  MILL  CONSTRUCTION. 

with  them.     If  extra  support  is  required  for  heavy  machinery, 
independent  foundations  of  masonry  should  be  provided. 

4.  TIMBERS  AND  COLUMNS. — All  woodwork  in  standard  con- 
struction, in  order  to  be  slow-burning,  must  be  in  large  masses 
that  present  the  least  surface  possible  to  a  fire.     No  sticks  less 
than  6  inches  in  width  should  be  used,  even  for  the  lightest 
roofs,   and  for  substantial   roofs  and  floors  much  wider  ones 
are  needed.     Timbers  should  be  of  sound  Georgia  pine,  and 
for  sizes  up  to   14X16  inches  single  sticks  are  preferred,  but 
timbers  7  or  8  inches  by  16  are  often   used  in  pairs,  bolted 
together  with  a  slight  air-space  between  (J  to  £  inch).     They 
should  not  be  painted,  varnished,  or  filled  for  three  years  because 
of  danger  of  dry  rot,  and  an  air-space  should  be  left  in  the 
masonry  around  the  ends  for  the  same  reason.     Timbers  should 
rest  on  cast-iron  plates  in  the  walls  and  on  cast-iron  caps  on 
the  columns. 

Columns  of  Southern  pine  should  be  bored  through  the 
centre  by  a  1^-inch  hole,  with  ^-inch  vent-holes  top  and  bottom, 
and  ends  should  be  carefully  squared.  They  also  should  not 
be  painted  until  thoroughly  seasoned,  to  prevent  dry  rot. 
Columns  should  be  set  on  pintles,  which  may  be  cast  in  one 
piece  with  a  cap,  or  separately,  as  preferred.  Columns  of  cast 
iron  are  preferred  by  some  engineers,  and  when  the  building 
is  equipped  with  automatic  sprinklers  have  proved  satisfactory. 

5.  STAIRS,  ELEVATORS,  AND  BELTS. — One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant features  of  slow-burning  construction  is  to  make  the  floors 
continuous  from  wall  to  wall  without  holes  for  belts,  stairways, 
or  elevators,  so  that  a  fire  may  be  confined  to  the  floor  where 
it  starts.     Elevators  and  stairs,  as  well  as  main  belts,  must  be 
inclosed  in  brick  towers,  and  all  openings  provided  with  self- 
closing    fire-doors.     These    self-closing    doors,    as     illustrated, 
should  be  hung  on  heavy,  inclined,  solid-steel  rails  and  balanced 
by  a  weight  held  by  a  fusible  link. 

6.  WINDOWS. — Windows  to  be  placed  as  high  and  made  as 
wide  as  possible  to  obtain  the  best  light,  and  the  use  of  ribbed 
glass    is    recommended    in    upper    sashes.     In    the    illustration 
windows  with  the  ordinary  rising  sash  are  shown  on  the  end 
wall  in  the  upper  story,  and  on  the  third  story  the  English 
type,  in  which  the  lower  sashes  may  be  either  fixed  or  rising, 
with  a  transom  for  ventilation.     On  the  second  floor  is  illus- 
trated a  window  for  wide  panels,  with  a  mullion  in  the  centre. 

ANCHORS  ON  JOISTS,  ETC. — In  mill  or  factory,  and  also  in. 


SLOW-BURNING  OR  MILL  CONSTRUCTION.      261 

house  construction,  the  specifications  will  generally  specify 
that  the  ends  of  the  joists  are  to  be  bevelled  on  the  ends  3  inches 
or  4  inches  in  the  width  of  the  joists.  The  idea  for  this  is  so 
in  case  the  joists  are  broken  or  burned  off  they  will  readily 
drop  out  of  the  wall  without  doing  any  damage.  Then  often 
the  same  specifications  will  go  on  and  call  for  wrought-iron 
anchors  to  be  built  in  the  wall  and  securely  fastened  to  every 
third  or  fourth  joist.  These  anchors  are  usually  fastened  to 
the  sides  of  the  joist  and  are  often  put  up  near  the  top  edge 
of  the  joist,  which  should  not  be  permitted,  for  if  the  anchors 
are  fastened  at  or  near  the  top  of  the  joist  and  the  joist  should 
drop  the  anchor  will  either  pull  in  a  part  of  the  wall  or  the 
lower  corner  of  the  end  of  the  joist  will  force  out  a  portion  of 
the  wall.  Thus  we  find  the  intent  of  the  specifications  con- 
flicting, one  paragraph  tending  to  release  the  joists  and  another 
fastening  them  more  solid. 

When  anchors  of  this  kind  are  used  they  should  be  put  at 
the  bottom  of  the  joist,  and  if  made  of  flat  iron,  as  is  usual, 
they  should  be  given  a  quarter  turn  at  the  wall,  so  the  flat  of 
the  iron  will  be  in  a  position  to  bend  easily  if  the  joist  should 
fall. 

A  more  desirable  anchor  is  a  cast-iron  box  in  which  each  joist 
is  set  and  engaged  with  lugs,  the  box  being  built  solid  in  the 
wall. 

Regarding  slow-burning  and  mill  construction  the  Chicago 
Building  Code  says: 

Sec.  68.  SLOW-BURNING  CONSTRUCTION  DEFINED. — The  term 
"slow-burning  construction"  shall  apply  to  all  buildings  in  which 
the  structural  members  which  carry  the  loads  and  strains  which 
come  upon  the  floors  and  roof  thereof  are  made  wholly  or  in 
part  of  combustible  material,  but  throughout  which  the  com- 
bustible as  well  as  the  incombustible  materials  shall  be  pro- 
tected against  injury  from  fire,  by  coverings  of  incombustible, 
non-heat-conducting  material  similar  to  those  described  under 
the  head  of  "skeleton  construction,"  except  that  a  single  cover- 
ing of  plastering  on  metal  lath  and  metal  furring  shall  be  con- 
sidered sufficient  protection  for  the  under  side  of  joists,  and 
that  a  deafening  of  mortar  or  its  equivalent,  applied  at  least 
one  and  one-half  inches  thick,  shall  be  used  to  cover  all  floors 
and  roof-surfaces  above  the  joists  of  the  same. 

FIRE-PROOF  COVERING  OF  POSTS  AND  ELEVATOR  INCLOSURES 
— Where  oak  posts  of  greater  sectional  area  than  one  hundred 


262  FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION. 

square  inches  are  used,  they  need  not  have  special  fire-proof 
covering.  All  partitions  and  all  elevator  inclosures  in  build- 
ings of  this  type  shall  be  made  entirely  of  incombustible  material. 
The  use  of  wood  furring  or  of  stud  partitions  shall  not  be  allowed 
in  buildings  of  this  class. 

Sec.  69.  MILL  CONSTRUCTION  DEFINED. — The  term  "Mill 
Construction"  shall  apply  to  all  buildings  in  which  all  the 
girders  and  joists  supporting  floors  and  roof  have  a  sectional 
area  of  not  less  than  seventy-two  square  inches,  and  above 
the  joists  of  which  there  is  laid  a  solid  timber  floor  of  thickness 
not  less  than  three  and  three-fourths  inches  thick.  Wooden 
posts  used  in  buildings  of  this  class  shall  not  be  of  smaller 
sectional  area  than  one  hundred  square  inches.  Partitions  and 
elevator  inclosures  in  buildings  of  this  class  shall  be  made 
entirely  of  incombustible  material. 

FIREPROOFING. — If  iron  pillars,  girders,  or  beams  are  used  in 
buildings  of  this  class,  they  shall  be  protected  as  provided  for 
fire-proof  buildings;  but  the  wooden  posts,  girders,  and  joists 
need  not  be  protected  by  fire-proof  covering.  The  use  of  wood 
furring,  wood  laths,  or  stud  partitions  shall  not  be  permitted 
in  buildings  of  this  class. 

The  following  regarding  bond  iron  is  taken  from  the  San 
Francisco  Building  Code,  and  the  author  regards  it  as  an  excellent 
method  of  construction,  as  the  flat  iron  gives  a  bearing  for  the 
joist  and  it  also  ties  the  wall  together. 

Sec.  130.  BOND  IRON. — Bond  iron  at  least  three  by  one- 
quarter  (3Xi)  inches  shall  be  placed  under  each  tier  of  floor 
and  ceiling  joists  of  all  brick  and  stone  buildings  other  than 
Class  "A"  and  run  around  the  entire  walls  of  the  building, 
and  must  be  lock-jointed  and  anchored  at  each  angle 

Fire  Protection  of  Fire-proof  Structures. — It  is 
not  the  intention  of  the  author,  in  taking  up  this  subject  of 
fire  protection,  to  advocate  any  one  or  more  of  the  many  systems 
of  fire-proof  construction,  or  to  recommend  or  condemn  either 
tile  or  concrete  construction,  for  it  is  his  opinion  that  either 
tile  or  cinder-concrete  fireproofing  will  stand  any  test  of  fire  that 
it  is  liable  to  be  subjected  to,  providing  that  the  materials  and 
workmanship  used  are  of  the  best,  and  the  work  is  done  in 
the  best  possible  manner. 

We  have  only  to  notice  the  tests  made  by  various  authorities 
on  the  different  systems  of  fireproofing  to  see  that  nearly  all 
stand  the  most  severe  tests;  and  why?  Because  when  an  arch 


FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION.          263 

is  built  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  test,  it  is  always  constructed 
of  the  best  materials  to  be  obtained,  and  in  the  best  possible 
manner. 

It  is  very  amusing  to  read  the  reports  and  opinions  of  the 
different  engineers  and  architects  who  visited  the  scene  of 
some  great  conflagration,  as  at  Baltimore.  One  engineer  will 
visit  the  various  buildings  that  have  been  damaged  by  the 
fire,  and  according  to  his  report  he  could  see  nothing  that  with- 
stood the  fire  element  but  burnt-tile  construction;  while  another 
engineer  will  go  over  the  same  ground  and  find  that  all  fire- 
proofing  failed  except  cinder-concrete  construction.  Then  the 
trade  journals  will  come  out,  some  advocating  tile  fireproof- 
ing,  and  will  publish  long  articles  with  photographs  showing 
how  tile  had  stood  and  concrete  failed;  while  other  journals 
will  show  that  concrete  construction  had  stood  and  tile  had 
failed;  and  so  to  a  person  not  interested  in  any  one  method 
of  construction  these  reports  and  visits  to  the  scene  of  the 
fire  show  that  in  places  both  tile  and  concrete  withstood  the 
hottest  fire,  and  in  other  places  they  both  failed. 

Now,  with  these  facts  having  but  recently  been  brought  before 
us,  it  will  be  the  intention  of  the  author  to  try  and  show  where 
the  work  of  fireproofing  is  usually  slighted,  and  where  it  will 
be  the  duty  of  the  superintendent  to  see  that  it  is  done  as  well 
as  the  best  materials  and  workmanship  can  do  it. 

Floor  Construction  of  Fire-proof  Buildings. — 
This  is  one  of  the  most  vital  points  in  the  construction  of  a 
building,  and  one  on  which  the  preservation  of  the  building 
depends  to  a  great  extent  in  case  of  fire.  Each  floor  in  a  build- 
ing acts  as  a  barrier  in  case  of  fire  between  the  different  stories, 
and  if  the  floor  construction  is  weak  or  fails,  then  the  fire  has 
egress  from  floor  to  floor  and  the  fire  cannot  be  confined. 

Nearly  all  the  various  systems  of  floor  construction  now 
used  have  been  tested  and  have  given  excellent  results  in  with- 
standing heat,  except  in  cases  where  it  has  been  shown  that 
poor  materials  and  bad  workmanship  have  been  used.  The 
Baltimore  fire  proved  that  where  good  materials  and  workman- 
ship had  been  used  the  various  systems  stood  the  heat  remark- 
ably well,  but  where  bad  materials  and  careless  workmanship 
had  been  employed  they  failed. 

As  the  work  is  so  rushed  in  many  instances,  and  so  little 
care  taken  in  superintending  the  work,  it  is  little  wonder  that 
some  buildings  fail  when  put  to  a  fire  test. 


264  FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 

In  all  the  different  methods  of  floor  construction  only  the 
very  best  of  materials  and  labor  should  be  employed,  and  the 
work  should  be  done  under  the  direct  supervision  of  a  com- 
petent superintendent;  no  matter  how  good  or  competent 
workmen  may  be  they  will  at  times  grow  careless  unless  they 
know  some  one  is  watching  them. 

HOLLOW-TILE  CONSTRUCTION. — Hollow  tile  is  one  of  the  oldest 
systems  of  fire-proof  construction,  and  has  given  good  results 
in  past  fires,  where  the  arches  were  properly  built;  but  where 
poor  workmanship  has  been  used  it  failed  to  stand  as  it 
should. 

Mortar. — The  mortar  for  setting  tile  should  be  made  with  the 
best  Portland  cement,  and  as  Portland-cement  mortar  is  too 
short  or  brittle  to  stick  to  the  tile  a  little  lime  putty  should  be 
added. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  just  enough  of  the  putty 
is  used  to  make  the  mortar  plastic  enough  so  that  it  will  stick  to 
the  tile  as  it  is  shoved  into  place.  Hot  lime  mortar  should 
never  be  used. 

Setting  Tile. — In  setting  the  tile  the  sides  of  the  beam  should 
first  be  given  a  heavy  coat  of  mortar,  then  the  skew-back  tile 
should  be  coated  011  the  end  which  sets  against  the  beam,  and 
the  tile  shoved  into  place.  The  succeeding  tile  should  then 
be  coated  with  mortar  on  one  end  and  side  and  shoved  into 
place  so  as  to  obtain  a  solid  joint  of  about  f  inch,  as  this 
size  joint  is  heavy  enough  for  all  tile- work.  The  tile  used 
should  be  of  such  a  size  that  the  key  will  just  fill  the  space  with 
the  above-sized  joints;  it  should  not  be  so  tight  that  it  will 
have  to  be  forced  or  driven  home.  If  the  joints  are  a  little 
large  they  should  be  wedged  with  a  flat  piece  of  tile  or 
slate,  but  if  the  proper-sized  tile  is  used  this  will  not  be  neces- 
sary. 

When  setting  tile  arches  the  superintendent  should  have  the 
workman  complete  the  arch  as  he  goes  along.  That  is,  finish 
each  course  of  tile  across  the  arch  and  insert  the  key  before 
starting  another  course  of  tile.  In  side  construction,  when  the 
tiles  overlap  and  break  joints  the  courses  can  be  stepped  back 
and  the  key  put  in  place.  This  method  gives  the  workman  a 
better  chance  to  get  the  joints  slushed  full  of  mortar  and  also 
prevents  the  wooden  centre  from  sagging  with  the  weight  of  the 
tile,  which  is  the  case  when  the  tiles  are  all  put  in  and  the  keys 
left  out  until  the  last. 


FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  CONSTRUCTION. 


265 


FIG.  208. 


In  floor  arches  of  end  construction,  if  the  workmen  are  not 
watched  they  are  liable  to  get  the  courses 
of  tile  out  of  line,  or  one  tile  higher  than 
another,  so  that  the  webs  of  the  two 
adjoining  tiles  will  not  butt  against  each 
other,  as  shown  by  Fig.  208,  the  shaded 
section  representing  the  end  of  one  tile 
and  the  dotted  lines  that  t)f  the  abutting 
tile. 

An  arch  built  in  this  manner  has  very 
little  strength.     The  webs  of  each  succeed- 
ing tile  should  butt  solid  against  the  one  already  set  and  all 
joints  should  be  filled  solid  with  mortar. 

After  the  Baltimore  fire  it  was  noticed  in  some  of  the  buildings 
that  the  tile  floors  of  side  construction  stood  better  than  those 
of  end  construction,  and  no  doubt  the  cause  of  this  was  that  in 
the  side  construction  it  is  easier  for  the  mason  to  fill  his  joints 
than  in  the  end  construction,  and  the  end  construction  men- 
tioned had  been  slighted.  This  is  one  point  that  the  superin- 
tendent should  bear  in  mind  when  superintending  any  tile-work. 
After  the  arch  is  in  place  it  is  well  to  coat  it  over  with  about 
£  inch  of  mortar  trowelled  smooth,  as  this  insures  the  filling  of 
all  holes  and  protects  the  tile. 

The  webs  of  tile,  to  resist  fire  effectively,  should  not  be  less 
than  1  inch  in  thickness,  and  all  shoe-tiles  for  the  protection  of 
beams,  etc. ,  should  be  heavy  enough  so  that  the  beam  will  be 
protected  with  at  least  2  inches  of  tile  and  mortar,  exclusive 
of  the  plastering.  These  shoes  should  be  put  on  so  that 
they  are  held  in  place  and  supported  by  the  beam  and  its 
flange,  and  no  wires  should  be  used  to  hold  them  in 
place. 

The  lower  lips  on  arch  skew-backs  are  usually  2  inches  or 
less  in  thickness  and  form  the  section  of  the  block  most  easily 
chipped  off  in  handling.  Even  2  inches  of  insulation  is  quite 
thin  enough  on  the  lower  flanges  of  beams  and  girders,  and  all 
chipped  skew-backs  should  be  rejected,  as  patching  cannot  be 
done  successfully. 

Wetting  the  Tile. — In  warm  weather  all  hollow  tiles,  whether 
dense  or  porous,  should  be  well  wet  or  water-soaked  before 
laying.  In  freezing  weather  they  must  be  kept  dry. 

It  is  good  policy  to  suspend  operations  and  not  set  any  tiles 
when  the  weather  is  so  cold  as  to  prevent  wetting  the  tiles. 


266       CONCRETE  FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION. 

Dry  tiles  draw  the  moisture  from  the  cement  mortar  and 
causes  it  to  loose  strength. 

Concrete  Fire-proofConstruction. — In  fire-proof  con- 
struction of  this  kind  the  main  point  to  be  observed  is  to  get 
good  materials.  Portland-cement  mortar  has  proven  to  be 
one  of  the  best  materials  to  withstand  fire,  and  if  the  aggregate 
used  to  form  the  concrete  is  of  like  material,  then  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  failure  from  a  floor  built  of  this  material. 

THE  AGGREGATE. — Broken  brick  or  tile  makes  the  best  aggre- 
gate, but  on  account  of  the  cost  is  not  much  used.  Broken  stone 
is  to  be  avoided,  as  stone  will  not  stand  the  heat.  Crushed  slag 
or  clinkers  make  a  good  aggregate  and  are  entirely  fire-proof. 
Cinders  have  been,  and  will  be,  the  principal  aggregate  used  for 
fire-proof  concrete  construction,  because  of  its  cheapness,  and 
because  cinders  can  be  obtained  in  almost  any  locality. 

In  many  cases  the  cinders  that  have  been  used  to  make  the 
concrete  have  been  fireproof  in  name  only,  and  it  is  these  cases 
that  fail  in  case  of  fire.  The  ordinary  cinders  usually  contain 
from  50  to  70  per  cent  of  dirt,  ash,  and  unburned  coal,  and  this 
must  all  be  taken  out  before  it  is  a  fire-proof  material.  The 
cinder  aggregate  should  be  composed  of  small  or  crushed 
clinkers,  and  if  there  is  more  than  10  per  cent  of  dirt,  ash,  or 
unburned  coal  it  should  not  be  used.  The  superintendent 
should  see  that  the  cinders  are  so  screened,  and  if  necessary, 
washed,  so  as  to  obtain  an  aggregate  of  90  per  cent  clinkers. 
A  concrete  made  of  this  aggregate  and  Portland  cement  will 
withstand  any  fire  it  is  liable  to  come  in  contact-  with. 

PREPARING  AND  PLACING. — The  concrete  should  be  prepared 
and  put  in  place  as  described  on  pages  167  and  174. 

When  beams,  girders,  columns,  etc.,  are  protected  by  concrete 
the  concrete  should  not  be  less  than  3|  inches  thick  on  the  outer 
corners  of  the  beam  or  column. 

USE  OF  PLASTER  OF  PARIS. — Any  floor  construction  in  which 
plaster  of  Paris  is  used  to  any  large  extent  should  be  avoided, 
or  any  wall  plaster  which  has  plaster  of  Paris  as  its  base  should 
not  be  used,  as  plaster  of  Paris  will  not  stand  excessive  heat. 

The  Building  Code  of  the  city  of  Cleveland  prohibits  the 
use  of  plaster  of  Paris  in  the  following: 

Sec.  1.  MATERIALS  PROHIBITED. — No  plaster  of  Paris,  or 
sulphate  of  lime,  and  no  coal,  sawdust,  coke,  coke  breese,  or 
unconsumed  or  partly  consumed  material,  inclusive  of  cinders, 
containing  any  of  the  compounds  of  carbon  and  subject  to  com- 


TILE  PARTITIONS,  FURRING,  ETC. 


267 


bustion,  disintegration,  or  distillation  at  1590°  F.,  shall  enter 
into  any  material  used  for  the  construction  of  the  floors,  par- 
titions, covering  for  structural  members,  or  in  any  part  of  fire- 
proof buildings  of  the  I.  and  II.  classes,  except  in  the  form  of 
wall  plastering  or  as  a  gauge  for  mortar.  No  quicklime  shall 
be  used  in  the  composition  of  the  material  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  walls  or  floors  except  in  combination  with  Portland 
cement  when  used  for  mortar  in  setting  fire-proof  material  with 
a  trowel. 

Tile  Partitions,  Furring1,  etc. — All  tile  partitions 
should  start  directly  on  top  of  the  floor  arch  or  beam,  and  should 
never  be  built  on  top  of  any  wood  floor  or  floor  strips.  The 
tile  should  be  well  anchored  to  the  adjoining  walls  and  joints 
broken  so  as  to  get  as  rigid  a  wall  as  possible. 

ARCHES  OVER  OPENINGS. — Over  all  openings  the  tile  should 
be  cut  so  as  to  form  a  flat  arch,  and  no  dependence  should  be 
placed  on  the  frame  to  carry  the  tile. 

NAILING-BLOCKS. — It  has  been  the  custom,  in  the  past  to 
build  in  wood  blocks  as  shown  by  Fig.  209,  for  nailing  base 
or  grounds  to. 


FIG.  209. 

Blocks  of  this  kind  should  not  be  used,  but  a  wood  block 
can  be  put  inside  the  tile  for  nailing  purposes  as  shown  and 
described  on  page  303. 

Casing  of  Columns,  Furring,  etc. — When  iron  or 
steel  columns  are  furred  or  cased  with  tile,  the  tile  should  never 


263  WOOD  IN  FIRE-PROOF  STRUCTURES 

be  less  than  4  inches  thick,  and  all  space  between  the  tile  and 
iron  should  be  filled  solid  with  mortar  and  small  pieces  of  tile, 
as  this  in  itself  is  a  good  protection  from  fire.  The  tile 
should  always  be  put  up  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  sustain 
itself,  and  never  be  dependent  on  wires  or  metal  clips  of  any 
kind. 

Wood  in  Fire-proof  Structures. — During  the  past  few 
years  fire-proof  materials  have  been  gradually  taking  the  place 
of  wood  in  the  construction  of  fire-proof  buildings  until  at  the 
present  time  all  the  wood  used  is  in  the  floors,  windows,  doors, 
and  trim;  and  it  will  be  but  a  short  while  until  all  wood  will 
be  practically  eliminated  from  any  fire-proof  structure.  Window 
frames  and  sash  are  now  made  in  metal,  floors  are  made  of 
various  fire-proof  compositions,  doors  are  made  of  metal  or  of 
wood  covered  with  metal,  mouldings  for  trim  and  base  can  be 
made  in  metal  or  run  in  cement,  so  at  the  present  time  it  is 
possible  to  erect  a  building  that  will  have  no  combustible 
material  whatever  in  its  construction.  But  as  construction  of 
this  kind  means  extra  cost  capitalists  and  builders  will  be 
averse  to  it  unless  forced  to  it  by  the  building  laws  of  the  various 
cities. 

By  making  some  changes  in  the  methods  used  at  the  present 
time  buildings  can  be  made  fireproof  and  with  a  small  percentage 
of  additional  cost.  Wood  floors  when  laid  on  sleepers  bedded 
in  concrete  afford  very  poor  fuel  for  a  fire,  and  it  would  be  hard 
to  ignite  unless  a  large  amount  of  other  inflammable  material  was 
in  the  room  to  make  a  great  heat.  The  wood  base  can  be  replaced 
with  a  neat  cement  base  at  very  little  extra  cost. 

The  windows  should  be  entirely  of  metal  to  afford  protection 
from  the  outside,  as  will  be  explained  more  fully. 

The  doors  and  jambs  can  be  made  of  wood  and  the  plaster 
finished  to  the  jamb  with  a  bead  or  with  a  stucco  or  cement 
moulding.  This  will  give  a  building  with  no  wood  but  floors 
and  doors,  and  the  cost  will  not  be  much  in  excess  of  what  it 
would  be  with  the  present  methotis  of  construction. 

In  some  buildings  erected  during  the  past  few  years  the  floors 
have  been  laid  on  strips  which  were  simply  laid  on  the  floor- 
arch,  and  the  space  between  not  filled  with  concrete  but  left 
open. 

This  should  never  be  permitted,  as  this  space  only  makes  a 
draught  or  sort  of  flue  in  case  of  fire.  The  space  should  be 
filled  solid  to  the  top  of  the  floor  strips  with  concrete. 


PIPES,  WIRES,  ETC.,  IN  FIRE-PROOF  BUILDINGS. 

Then  heavy  wood  frames  have  been  set  in  all  openings  of 
partitions,  etc.,  and  the  tile  built  around  them  and  across  the 
top,  the  wood  frames  being  depended  upon  to  carry  the  tile 
over  the  opening.  This  should  never  be  allowed.  Wood  blocks 
can  be  put  inside  the  tile  and  the  door-jambs  can  be  nailed 
and  fastened  through  the  tile  into  these  blocks,  or  the  jamb 
can  be  bolted  fast  with  toggle-bolts. 

If  it  is  desired  to  use  a  rough  frame  a  2-inch  one  is  heavy 
enough  and  should  be  bolted  fast  to  the  tile,  and  the  tile  should 
be  arched  over  the  top  so  as  to  carry  its  own  weight. 

There  are  several  processes  by  which  wood  can  be  rendered 
fireproof,  and  all  wood  used  in  a  fire-proof  building  should  be  fire- 
proofed  by  an  approved  process. 

Pipes,  Wires,  etc.,  in  Fire-proof  Buildings. — In  all 
fire-proof  buildings  there  should  be  provisions  made  for  taking 
care  of  all  pipes,  conduits,  wires,  etc.,  without  having  them 
built  in  the  partitions  or  in  the  casing  of  the  columns,  as  is 
commonly  done.  A  shaft  should  be  built  with  brick  walls 
extending  from  the  cellar  to  the  roof  with  outlets  at  each  floor 
covered  with  fire-proof  doors.  The  pipes  can  be  carried  up 
in  such  a  shaft  and  branches  taken  off  to  supply  each  floor;  a 
ladder  should  be  provided  the  full  length  of  the  shaft  with 
platforms  at  each  floor,  then  the  valves  or  stop-cocks  con- 
trolling the  various  branches  would  be  easily  accessible.  It 
was  claimed  by  some  parties  after  the  Baltimore  fire  that  the 
pipes  encased  in  the  column  fireproofing  of  some  of  the  build- 
ings got  so  hot  they  buckled  and  forced  off  the  fire-proof  casing ; 
but  if  they  did  it  was  because  the  fireproofing  gave  way  or  was 
not  heavy  enough  to  protect  the  pipes  or  they  would  not  have 
got  hot.  Still  all  pipes  should  be  run  up  in  a  shaft  where  they 
can  be  got  at  any  time.  When  a  pipe  runs  up  in  a  partition  or 
column  the  mason  has  to  cut  his  tile  around  it  and  this  weakens 
the  fireproofing. 

Stairways  in  Fire-proof  Buildings. — The  stairway 
or  shaft  in  a  fire-proof,  or  in  fact  in  any  brick  or  other  than  a  frame 
structure,  should  be  inclosed  on  all  sides  with  brick  walls,  and 
all  openings  should  be  provided  with  fire-proof  doors  so  that 
the  stairway  can  be  shut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  building.  These 
doors  should  be  -arranged  so  as  to  work  automatically  in  case 
of  fire.  The  stairs  should  be  built  of  iron  or  other  incombustible 
material,  and  if  slate  or  marble  treads  or  platforms  are  used 
the  slate  or  marble  should  be  supported  under  its  entire  surface 


270  UNDERWRITERS'  RULES  FOR 

\vith  metal  or  concrete.  Marble  and  slate  will  not  stand  exces- 
sive heat,  and  the  treads  or  platforms  are  liable  to  get  hot  and 
break  in  case  of  fire;  this  endangers  the  lives  of  firemen  who 
may  be  using  the  stairs. 

The  spread  of  fire  in  a  vertical  direction  is  undoubtedly  most 
effectively  guarded  against  by  making  the  floors  continuous 
and  unbroken;  that  is,  eliminating  all  openings  in  the  floors  and 
placing  the  necessary  means  of  communication,  such  as  stair- 
ways, elevators,  pipes,  shafts,  belts,  etc.,  in  shafts  entirely 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  building  by  brick  walls.  Elevator 
shafts,  stairways,  and  corridors,  in  buildings  where  sightliness 
is  an  essential,  can  be  thoroughly  cut  off  from  the  remainder 
of  the  building  by  wire-glass  partitions  mounted  in  iron  frame- 
work. This  application  is  favored  in  office  buildings,  hotels, 
department  stores,  etc. 

The  Building  Code  recommended  by  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  gives  the  following 

RULES  FOR  FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION. 

Sec.  105.  FIRE-PROOF  BUILDINGS. — Buildings  Named. — Every 
building  hereafter  erected  or  altered  to  be  used  as  a  theatre, 
lodging-house,  school,  jail,  public  station,  hospital,  asylum, 
institution  for  the  use,  care,  or  treatment  of  persons,  the  height 
of  which  exceeds  three  stories  and  not  more  than  forty  feet  in 
height,  and  every  building  hereafter  erected  or  altered  to  be 
used  as  a  hotel  or  an  apartment  hotel  which  exceeds  four  stories 
and  not  more  than  fifty  feet  in  height,  excepting  all  buildings 
for  which  specifications  and  plans  have  been  heretofore  approved 
by  the  proper  authorities,  and  every  other  building  the  height 
of  which  exceeds  fifty-five  feet  or  more  than  four  stories  in 
height,  shall  be  built  fireproof;  that  is  to  say — 

Fire-proof  Construction  Stated. — They  shall  be  constructed 
with  walls  of  brick,  stone,  Portland-cement  concrete,  iron,  or 
steel  in  which  wood  beams  or  lintels  shall  not  be  placed,  and 
in  which  the  floors  and  roofs  shall  be  constructed  with  rolled 
wrought-iron  or  steel  floor-beams,  spaced  not  more  than  five 
feet  on  centres  and  otherwise  so  arranged  as  to  spacing  and 
length  of  beams  that  the  load  to  be  supported  by  them,  together 
with  the  weights  of  the  materials  used  in  the  construction  of 
the  said  floors,  shall  not  cause  a  greater  deflection  of  the  said 
beams  than  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  per  foot  of  span  under  the 


FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION.  271 

total  load;  and  they  shall  be  tied  together  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  eight  times  the  depth  of  the  beams  with  suitable 
tie-rods. 

Floor  Filling  between  Beams. — Between  the  floor-beams  shall 
be  placed  brick  arches  springing  from  the  lower  flanges  of  the 
steel  beams,  or  the  spaces  between  the  beams  may  be  filled  with 
hollow-tile  arches  of  hard-burnt  clay  or  porous  terra-cotta,  or 
arches  of  Portland  cement  reinforced  with  metal,  or  such  other 
fire-proof  composition  may  be  used,  provided  that  in  each  and 
all  cases  the  strength  and  method  of  construction  shall  be  accept- 
able to  the  commissioner  of  buildings. 

Stairs. — The  stairs  and  staircase  landings  shall  be  entirely 
of  brick,  stone,  Portland-cement  concrete,  iron,  or  steel. 

Allowed  Woodwork  Mentioned. — No  woodwork  or  other  in- 
flammable material  shall  be  used  in  any  of  the  partitions, 
furrings,  or  ceilings  in  any  such  fire-proof  buildings,  excepting, 
however,  that  when  the  height  of  the  building  does  not  exceed 
eight  stories  nor  more  than  one  hundred  feet  the  doors  and 
windows  and  their  frames  and  trims,  the  casings,  the  interior 
finish  when  filled  solidly  at  the  back  with  fire-proof  material, 
and  the  floor-boards  and  sleepers  directly  thereunder,  may  be 
of  wood,  but  the  space  between  the  sleepers  shall  be  solidly 
filled  with  fire-proof  materials  and  extend  up  to  the  under  side 
of  the  floor-boards. 

When  More  than  Eight  Stories  or  More  than  100  Feet  High. — 
When  the  height  of  a  fire-proof  building  exceeds  eight  stories, 
or  more  than  one  hundred  feet,  the  floor  surfaces  shall  be  of 
stone,  cement,  rock  asphalt,  tiling,  or  similar  incombustible 
material,  or  the  sleepers  and  floor-boards  may  be  of  wood  treated 
by  some  process  approved  by  the  commissioner  of  buildings 
to  render  the  same  fire-retarding.  v 

Metal  Window  Frames  and  Sash. — All  outside  window  frames 
and  sash  shall  be  of  metal. 

Inside  Woodwork,  how  Treated. — The  inside  window  frames 
and  sash,  doors,  trim,  and  other  interior  finish  may  be  of  wood 
covered  with  metal,  or  of  wood  treated  by  some  process  ap- 
proved by  the  commissioner  of  buildings,  to  render  the  same 
fire-retarding. 

Hall  and  Permanent  Partitions  of  Fire -proof  Material. — 
All  hall  partitions  or  permanent  partitions  between  rooms  in 
fire-proof  buildings  shall  be  built  of  fire-proof  material  and 
shall  not  be  started  on  wood  sills  nor  on  wood  floor-boards,  but 


272  UNDERWRITERS'   RULES  FOR 

be  built  upon  the  fire-proof  construction  of  the  floor  and  extend 
to  the  fire-proof  beam  filling  above. 

Solid  Space  above  Doors  and  Windows  in  Partitions. — The  tops 
of  all  door  and  window  openings  in  such  partitions  shall  be  at 
least  twelve  inches  below  the  ceiling  line. 

Inclosing  of  Stair  Halls. — In  all  fire-proof  buildings  other  than 
stores,  warehouses,  and  factories,  if  exceeding  three  stories  and 
forty  feet  in  height,  the  stair  halls  shall  be  inclosed  on  each 
story  with  fire-proof  material,  same  as  required  for  elevators, 
to  so  form  an  inclosure  the  floor  area  of  which  shall  not  be  more 
than  three  times  the  united  area  of  the  floor  openings  for  the 
elevators  and  stairs. 

Sec.  106.  FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR  FILLINGS  BETWEEN  BEAMS. — 
Common  Brick  Arches. — Between  the  wrought-iron  or  steel 
floor-beams  shall  be  placed  brick  arches  springing  from  the 
lower  flange  of  the  steel  beams. 

Rise  per  Foot  of  Span. — Said  brick  arches  shall  be  designed 
with  a  rise  to  safely  carry  the  imposed  load,  but  never  less  than 
one  and  one-quarter  inches  for  each  foot  of  span  between  the 
beams,  and  they  shall  have  a  thickness  of  not  less  than  four 
inches  for  spans  of  five  feet  or  less  and  eight  inches  for  spans 
over  five  feet,  or  such  thickness  as  may  be  required  by  the 
commissioner  of  buildings. 

How  Laid. — Said  brick  arches  shall  be  composed  of  good, 
hard  brick  or  hollow  brick  of  ordinary  dimensions  laid  to  a 
line  on  the  centres,  properly  and  solidly  bonded,  each  longi- 
tudinal line  of  brick  breaking  joints  with  the  adjoining  lines 
in  the  same  ring  and  with  the  ring  under  it  when  more  than 
a  four-inch  arch  is  used.  The  brick  shall  be  well  wet  and 
the  joints  filled  in  solid  with  cement  mortar.  The  arches  shall 
be  well  grouted  and  properly  keyed. 

Hollow-tile  Arches  of  Burnt  Clay  or  Terra-cotta. — Or  the  space 
between  the  beams  may  be  filled  in  with  hollow-tile  arches  of 
hard-burnt  clay  or  porous  terra-cotta  of  uniform  density  and 
hardness  of  burn. 

Skew-backs. — The  skew-backs  shall  be  of  such  form  and 
section  as  to  properly  receive  the  thrust  of  said  arch;  and  the 
said  arches  shall  be  of  a  depth  and  sectional  area  to  carry  the 
load  to  be  imposed  thereon  without  straining  the  material 
beyond  its  safe  working  load,  but  said  depth  shall  not  be  less 
than  one  and  three-quarters  inches  for  each  foot  of  span,  not 
including  any  portion  of  the  depth  of  the  tile  projecting  below 


FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION.  273 

the  under  side  of  the  beams,  a  variable  distance  being  allowed 
of  not  over  six  inches  in  the  span  between  the  beams  if  the 
soffits  of  the  tile  are  straight;  but  if  said  arches  are  segmental, 
having  a  rise  of  not  less  than  one  and  one-quarter  inches  for 
each  foot  of  span,  the  depth  of  the  tile  shall  be  not  less  than 
six  inches. 

Joints  Filled  with  Cement  Mortar. — The  joints  shall  be  solidly 
filled  with  cement  mortar  as  required  for  common  brick  arches 
and  the  arch  so  constructed  that  the  key  parts  shall  always 
fall  in  the  central  portion. 

End  Construction. — The  shells  and  web  of  all  end-construction 
blocks  shall  abut,  one  against  another. 

Arches  of  Portland-cement  Concrete  Reinforced  with  Metal, 
'Segmental  in  Form. — Or  the  space  between  the  beams  may  be 
filled  with  arches  of  Portland-cement  concrete,  segmental 
in  form,  and  which  shall  have  a  •  rise  of  not  less  than  one 
and  one-quarter  inches  for  each  foot  of  span  between  the 
beams. 

Thickness  at  Crown  of  Arch. — The  concrete  shall  be  not  less 
than  four  inches  in  thickness  at  the  crown  of  the  arch  and 
shall  be  mixed  in  the  proportions  required  by  Section  18  of  this 
Code. 

Reinforced  with  Metal. — These  arches  shall  in  all  cases  be 
reinforced  and  protected  on  the  under  side  with  corrugated  or 
sheet  steel,  steel  ribs,  or  metal  in  other  forms  weighing  not 
less  than  one  pound  per  square  foot  and  having  no  openings 
larger  than  three  inches  square. 

Various  Fillings  between  Floor-beams  —  Tests  as  a  Precedent 
Condition  of  Use. — Or  between  the  said  beams  may  be  placed 
solid-  or  hollow-burnt  clay,  stone,  brick,  or  concrete  slabs  in 
flat  or  curved  shapes,  concrete  or  other  fire-proof  composition, 
and  any  of  said  materials  may  be  used  in  combination  with 
wire  cloth,  expanded  metal,  wire  strands,  or  wrought-iron  or  steel 
bars;  but  in  any  such  construction  and  as  a  precedent  condi- 
tion to  the  same  being  used,  tests  shall  be  made  as  herein  pro- 
vided by  the  manufacturer  thereof  under  the  direction  and 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings,  and 
evidence  of  the  same  shall  be  kept  on  file  in  the  Department 
of  Buildings,  showing  the  nature  of  the  test  and  the  result 
of  the  test. 

How  Tests  shall  be  Made. — Such  tests  shall  be  made  by  con- 
structing within  inclosure  walls  a  platform  consisting  of  four 


274  UNDERWRITERS'  RULES  FOR 

rolled  steel  beams,  ten  inches  deep,  weighing  each  twenty-five 
pounds  per  lineal  foot,  and  placed  four  feet  between  the  centres, 
and  connected  by  transverse  tie-rods,  and  with  a  clear  span 
of  fourteen  feet  for  the  two  interior  beams  and  with  the  two 
outer  beams  supported  on  the  side  walls  throughout  their  length, 
and  with  both  a  filling  between  the  said  beams,  and  a  fire-proof 
protection  of  the  exposed  parts  of  the  beams  of  the  system  to 
be  tested,  constructed  as  in  actual  practice,  with  the  quality 
of  material  ordinarily  used  in  that  system  and  the  ceiling 
plastered  below,  as  in  a  finished  job;  such  filling  between  the 
two  interior  beams  being  loaded  with  a  distributed  load  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  per  square  foot  of  its  area  and  all 
carried  by  such  filling;  and  subjecting  the  platform  so  con- 
structed to  the  continuous  heat  of  a  wood  fire  below,  averaging 
not  less  than  seventeen  hundred  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  not 
less  than  four  hours,  during  which  time  the  platform  shall 
have  remained  in  such  condition  that  no  flame  will  have  passed 
through  the  platform  or  any  part  of  the  same,  arid  that  no  part 
of  the  load  shall  have  fallen  through,  and  that  the  beams  shall 
have  been  protected  from  the  heat  to  the  extent  that  after 
applying  to  the  under  side  of  the  platform  at  the  end  of  the  heat 
test  a  stream  of  water  directed  against  the  bottom  of  the  plat- 
form and  discharged  through  a  one  and  one-eighth  inch  nozzle 
under  sixty  pounds  pressure  for  five  minutes,  and  after  flooding 
the  top  of  the  platform  with  water  under  low  pressure,  and 
then  again  applying  the  stream  of  water  through  the  nozzle  under 
the  sixty-pounds  pressure  to  the  bottom  of  the  platform  for 
five  minutes,  and  after  a  total  load  of  six  hundred  pounds  per 
square  foot  uniformly  distributed  over  the  middle  bay  shall 
have  been  applied  and  removed,  after  the  platform  shall  have 
cooled,  the  maximum  deflection  of  the  interior  beams  shall 
not  exceed  two  and  one-half  inches. 

Different  Tests  may  be  Prescribed. — The  Commissioner  of 
Buildings  may  from  time  to  time  prescribe  additional  or  dif- 
ferent tests  than  the  foregoing  for  systems  of  filling  between 
iron  or  steel  floor-beams,  and  the  protection  of  the  exposed 
parts  of  the  beams. 

Systems  Failing  under  Test,  Use  Prohibited. — Any  system 
failing  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  test  of  heat,  water, 
and  weight  as  herein  prescribed  shall  be  prohibited  from  use 
in  any  building  hereafter  erected. 

Authenticated    Tests   may   be   Accepted. — Duly   authenticated 


FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION.  275 

records  of  the  test  heretofore  made  of  any  system  of  fire-proof 
floor  filling  and  protection  of  the  exposed  parts  of  the  beams 
may  be  presented  to  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings,  and  if 
the  same  be  satisfactory  to  said  Commissioner  it  shall  be  accepted 
as  conclusive. 

Protection  against  Injury  by  Freezing. — Temporarily  Covered 
over  when  Necessary. — No  filling  of  any  kind  which  may  be  injured 
by  frost  shall  be  placed  between  said  floor-beams  during  freezing 
weather,  and  if  the  same  is  so  placed  during  any  winter  month, 
it  shall  be  temporarily  covered  with  suitable  material  for  pro- 
tection from  being  frozen. 

Cinder-concrete  Filling  on  Top,  to  be  Filled  up  to  Under 
Side  of  Wood  Floor-boards. — On  top  of  any  arch,  lintel,  or  other 
device  which  does  not  extend  to  and  form  a  horizontal  line 
with  the  top  of  the  said  floor-beams,  cinder  concrete,  or  other 
suitable  fire-proof  material  shall  be  placed  to  solidly  fill  up  the 
space  to  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  said  floor-beams,  and  shall 
be  carried  to  the  under  side  of  the  wood  floor-boards  in  case 
such  be  used. 

Temporary  Centring,  when  to  be  Removed. — Temporary  cen- 
tring, when  used  in  placing  fire-proof  systems  between  floor- 
beams,  shall  not  be  removed  within  twenty-four  hours,  or 
until  such  time  as  the  mortar  or  material  has  set. 

Strength  for  Fire-proof  Floor  Fittings — Material  to  be  within 
Safe  Bearing  Load. — All  fire-proof  floor  systems  shall  be  of 
sufficient  strength  to  safely  carry  the  load  to  be  imposed  thereon 
without  straining  the  material  in  any  case  beyond  its  safe  work- 
ing load. 

Incasing  Exposed  Sides  and  Bottom  Flanges  of  Beams  and 
Girders.— Floor-  and  Roof -beams. — The  bottom  flanges  of  all 
wrought-iron  or  rolled-steel  floor-  and  flat  roof-beams,  and  all 
exposed  portions  of  such  beams  below  the  abutments  of  the 
floor  arches  or  filling  between  the  floor-beams,  shall  be  entirely 
incased  with  hard-burnt  clay,  porous  terra-cotta,  or  other  fire- 
proof material  corresponding  to  the  filling  between  the  beams, 
such  incasing  material  to  be  properly  secured  to  the  beams. 

Girders. — The  exposed  sides  and  bottom  plates  or  flanges 
of  wrought-iron  or  rolled-steel  girders  supporting  iron  or  steel 
floor-beams,  or  supporting  floor  arches  or  floors,  shall  be  entirely 
incased  in  the  same  manner. 

Pipe  Openings  through  Fire-proof  Floors  to.  be  Shown  on 
Plans. — Openings  through  fire-proof  floors  for  pipes,  conduits, 


276  PROTECTION  FROM  FIRE  FROM  THE  OUTSIDE. 

and  similar  purposes  shall  be  shown  on  the  plans  filed  in  the 
Department  of  Buildings. 

Limited  Size  for  Holes  after  Floors  are  in. — After  the  floors 
are  constructed  no  opening  greater  than  eight  inches  square 
shall  be  cut  through  said  floors  unless  properly  boxed  or  framed 
around  with  iron; 

Openings  to  be  Filled. — And  such  openings  shall  be  filled  in 
with  fire-proof  material  after  the  pipes  or  conduits  are  in  place. 

Sec.  107.  INCASING  INTERIOR  COLUMNS. — Material  and  Thick- 
ness.— All  cast-iron,  wrought-iron,  or  rolled-steel  columns, 
including  the  lugs  and  brackets  on  same,  used  in  the  interior 
of  any  fire-proof  building,  or  used  to  support  any  fire-proof 
floor,  shall  be  entirely  protected  with  not  less  than  four  inches 
of  hard-burnt  brickwork,  terra-cotta,  concrete,  or  other  fire- 
proof material,  securely  applied,  but  no  plaster  of  Paris  nor 
lime  mortar  shall  be  used  for  this  purpose.  . 

Lugs  and  Brackets,  Incasing  of. — The  extreme  outer  edge  of 
lugs,  brackets,  and  similar  supporting  metal  may  project  to 
within  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  of  the  surface  of  the  fireproofing. 

Prohibiting  Pipes,  Wires,  Conduits,  being  Placed  within  Cover- 
ings of  Columns,  Girders,  etc. — No  pipes,  wires,  or  conduits  of 
any  kind  shall  be  incased  in  the  fireproofing  surrounding  any 
column,  girder,  or  beam  of  steel  or  iron,  but  shall  be  placed 
outside  of  such  fireproofing. 

Protection  of  Buildings  from  Fire  from  the  Out- 
side.—  Until  within  recent  years  the  aim  of  architects  and 
engineers  in  designing  fire-proof  structures  has  been  to  design 
a  building  or  structure  which  would  be  fire-proof  against  any 
fire  originating  within  itself,  giving  very  little  thought  to 
the  protection  of  the  structure  from  an  outside  fire. 

One  of  the  first  instances  of  a  large  fire  which  demonstrated 
the  fact  that  outside  protection  was  necessary  was  when  the 
Home  Building  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  was  burned  in  1897.  This 
building,  filled  with  dry-goods,  took  fire  from  the  heat  of  a  fire 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street,  the  contents  burned,  and 
the  building  was  gutted  and  damaged  to  a  great  extent.  Then 
in  more  recent  conflagrations  the  fact  has-  become  more 
evident  that  a  building  to  be  entirely  fire-proof  must  be  pro- 
tected just  as  much,  if  not  more,  from  an  outside  fire  as  from 
one  within  its  own  walls.  The  building  itself  may  be  con- 
structed entirely  of  fire-proof  materials,  yet  the  contents  of  the 
building  may  be  very  inflammable,  and  if  not  protected  from 


PROTECTION  FROM  FIRE  FROM  THE  OUTSIDE.  277 

fire  from  the  outside  would  become  ignited,  and  in  burning 
do  much  damage  to  the  building. 

SELECTION  OF  MATERIALS. — The  first  consideration  in  the 
construction  of  a  fire-proof  building  should  be  in  the  selection 
of  the  materials  to  be  used,  and  if  the  building  is  to  be  erected 
to  withstand  fire  from  the  outside,  then  only  those  materials 
should  be  used  that  are  known  to  be  able  to  withstand  fire.  ' 

The  fire-resisting  qualities  of  brick,  stone,  etc.,  are  about  as 
follows,  with  brick  ranking  first:  Brick,  plain  terra-cotta, 
concrete,  sandstone  containing  iron,  granite,  limestone,  marble. 

The  prevailing  material  of  all  outside  walls  should  be  brick; 
and  stone  or  granite  should  not  be  used  above  the  first  or  second 
stories.  Granite  or  stone  will  not  stand  excessive  heat,  and 
in  case  of  fire  the  heat  above  the  first  story  is  so  intense  that 
stone  or  granite  will  not  stand.  It  is  possible  that  in  the  first 
story  of  a  building  it  would  pass  through  a  fire  unharmed,  pro- 
viding the  stone  or  granite  had  no  sharp  corners  or  projections 
to  spall  off. 

In  the  brick  it  is  advisable  to  have  all  exposed  corners  round 
or  chamfered  so  as  to  prevent  spalling. 

No  brick  wall  should  be  less  than  18  inches  thick,  as  a  wall  of 
less  thickness  is  liable  to  crack  when  exposed  to  strong  heat. 

SILLS  AND  LINTELS. — The  sills  and  lintels  of  the  windows 
should  be  of  terra-cotta  or  brick. 

Terra-cotta  is  one  of  the  best  of  fire-resisting  materials,  but 
should  be  made  plain  and  have  few  projections  and  sharp 
corners.  When  any  terra-cotta  is  built  in  the  wall  it  should 
be  backed  up  and  filled  solid  with  brick  and  mortar. 

METAL  WALL  TIES  AND  SECRETE  HEADERS. — Under  no  con- 
sideration should  metal  wall  ties  or  secrete  headers  or  bond  be 
used  in  the  walls  of  any  structure  that  may  have  to  withstand 
a  fire,  for  the  face  course  of  brick,  or  veneering  as  it  really  is, 
will  invariably  crack  and  fall  off  in  case  of  fire. 

POINTING. — The  pointing  of  the  joints  in  the  brick-  or  stone- 
work should  be  made  concave,  for  a  convex  joint  will  break  off 
in  case  of  fire. 

CORNICES. — The  cornices  of  a  fire-proof  building  should  be 
made  of  terra-cotta  or  sheet  metal,  and  if  sheet  metal  is  used 
it  should  be  fastened  to  iron  brackets  or  supports,  and  in  no 
case  should  wood  be  used  for  this  purpose.  When  terra-cotta 
is  used  for  cornices  or  any  projections  it  should  be  firmly 
anchored  to  iron  brackets  provided  for  this  purpose. 


278    PROTECTION  OF  OPENINGS  IN  BUILDINGS. 

CEMENT  MORTAR. — Cement  mortar  should  be  used  through- 
out in  all  walls  of  a  fire-proof  building. 

Protection  of  External  Openings  in  Fire-proof 
Building's. — The  exterior  door  and  window  openings  of  a 
building  are  its  weakest  points  in  resisting  an  outside  fire,  and 
^  until  recent  years  these  points  have  received  but  little  attention 
from  architects  and  engineers  when  designing  a  building  to  be 
fire-proof. 

Frames  and  sash  are  now  made  of  metal,  and  with  wire-glasw 
and  iron  shutters  a  window  or  door  opening  can  be  so  protected 
that  it  will  withstand  a  most  severe  fire. 

The  metal  frames  should  be  made  heavy  enough  and  so 
anchored  to  the  masonry  that  they  will  not  warp  or  twist  out 
of  shape  and  let  the  sash  drop  out.  The  sash  should  be  hung 
with  a  chain  or  ribbon  that  will  not  melt  if  it  becomes  hot,  and 
the  chain  should  be  so  fastened  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of 
the  weight  becoming  loose  in  case  of  fire  and  permitting  the 
sash  to  drop. 

Lead  weights  should  not  be  used  unless  the  box  in  the  frame 
is  so  protected  that  the  frame  will  not  get  hot  enough  to  melt 
the  weights,  and  thus  let  the  sash  drop  down. 

The  glass  also  should  be  fastened  in  such  a  manner  that  there 
will  be  no  danger  of  it  dropping  out. 

The  sash  should  be  glazed  with  wire-glass  not  less  than  \  inch 
in  thickness,  as  this  offers  a  very  effective  resistance  to  fire;  but 
the  author  is  of  the  opinion  that  wire-glass  in  itself  is  not  a 
sufficient  ,  protection  to  window  openings.  In  addition  to 
the  wire-glass  the  openings  should  be  provided  with  iron  shutters. 
The  old  iron-clad  shutter  recommended  by  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  has  given  a  good  account  of  itself  in 
recent  fires,  but  it  cannot  be  expected  to  withstand  extreme 
heat,  for  the  wood  will  become  charred  and  the  metal  covering 
warp  out  of  shape,  permitting  an  egress  for  flame 

Steel  shutters  should  be  used  on  all  openings  possible,  the 
shutters  being  made  of  a  single  piece  of  plate  not  less  than 
\  inch  in  thickness,  and  if  any  stiff ening-bar  or  frame  is  used 
it  should  be  fastened  to  the  plate  so  as  to  allow  for  any  unequal 
expansion  between  the  frame  and  the  plate.  The  shutters 
should  be  arranged  so  as  to  allow  for  expansion,  and  the  fasten- 
ings made  so  that  the  shutters  can  readily  be  opened  from 
the  outside  in  case  of  fire  within. 

Where  it  is  not  possible  to  use  a  plate-shutter,  a  rolling  one 


CHICAGO  UNDERWRITERS'  REQUIREMENTS.    279 

can  be  used.  These  shutters  are  made  of  corrugated  bars  of 
sheet  metal  riveted  and  locked  together,  and  when  used  for  fire 
protection  should  be  made  of  heavy  sheet  steel. 

The  main  points  to  be  considered  when  using  metal  shutters 
and  doors  of  any  kind  are  to  see  that  they  are  fastened  securely 
to  the  masonry  and  also  that  provisions  have  been  made  for 
expansion.  The  fastenings  should  be  such  that  they  will  hold 
the  door  or  shutter  firmly  in  place  and  not  allow  it  to  warp  open. 

The  following  specifications  have  been  accepted  by  The 
Chicago  Underwriters'  Association  for  metal  frames  and  sash: 


THE  CHICAGO  UNDERWRITERS'  ASSOCIATION. 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  ACCEPTANCE  OF  WINDOWS  OF  APPROVED 

WIRE-GLASS  IN  METALLIC  FRAMES  AND  SASH  IN  LIEU  OF 

FIRE-SHUTTERS. 

FRAMES. — All  parts  of  frame  and  sash  must  be  made  of  No.  24 
galvanized  iron  or  heavier,  and  of  a  quality  soft  enough  to  bend 
without  breaking,  or  18-oz.  copper.  Sides  so  made  as  to  form 
an  air-space  at  least  2  in.  X  4  in.,  made  of  three  parts,  two  of 
which  are  locked  entire  length,  making  a  half-inch  seam  of 
three  thicknesses.  The  third  to  be  locked  to  first  two  parts  by 
inseparable  cleats  every  18  inches.  The  two  parts  already 
mentioned  to  provide  in  themselves  weather  qualities  and 
inseparable  cleats  for  holding  glass,  thereby  insuring  stability  by 
reducing  to  a  minimum  the  parts  and  connections. 

TOP-RAIL. — To  be  made  in  one  piece,  so  formed  as  to  afford 
ample  weather  qualities. 

THE  SILL. — To  be  made  of  one  piece,  formed  so  as  to  afford 
ample  weather  qualities  and  condensation  sheds  with  outlets. 

THE  MIDDLE  RAIL. — To  be  made  of  two  pieces,  forming  an 
air-chamber  with  inseparable  cleats,  lock-jointed,  and  of  length 
sufficient  to  extend  in  and  through  sides  of  frame,  where  the 
same  is  lapped  four  ways  onto  sides  and  riveted.  The  top  of 
this  rail  receiving  sash  is  made  with  a  wash. 

Connections  of  various  parts  of  frame  must,  in  all  cases,  be 
made  by  lapping  prior  to  riveting. 

SASH. — The  plain  frame,  having  top,  bottom,  and  two  sides, 
of  air-chamber  construction  and  made  so  that  depth  of  sash  is 
2  inches,  and  width  of  same  back  or  front  or  rabbet  is  2  inches. 


280    CHICAGO  UNDERWRITERS'  REQUIREMENTS. 

The  same  shall  be  lock-jointed  throughout,  shall  have  inseparable 
cleats,  and  all  necessary  weather  qualities.  The  corners  of  this 
frame  shall  be  double-locked.  Each  corner  of  frame  shall  be 
double-locked  on  front,  back,  and  at  sharp  corners,  so  as  to 
completely  dispense  with  the  need  of  solder  and  rivets.  The 
sash  shall  be  so  made  as  to  correspond  with  frame  at  points 
6f  meeting,  and  the  hanging  of  same  must  be  on  horizontal 
pivots  above  the  centre,  to  allow  quick  closing,  as  hereinafter 
arranged  for,  automatically. 

Reinforce  frame  where  pivots  enter  by  riveting  a  strip  of  f-in. 
iron  so  bored  as  to  allow  a  bearing  for  pivot. 

The  upright  sash-rail  must  be  made  of  one  piece  of  galvanized 
iron  or  copper,  with  inseparable  cleats  and  lock-jointed  about  an 
iron  bar  J  in.Xl|  in.,  in  a  manner  to  afford  an  air-chamber  of 
1  inch  square,  and  rabbets  for  holding  glass,  and  the  same 
lapped  and  riveted  to  frame  and  sash. 

MULLION  WINDOWS. — Where  an  architect  prepares  clear  open- 
ing for  a  mullion  window,  the  metal  frame  must  be  reinforced 
at  every  point  of  division  by  structural  iron,  channels  pre- 
ferred. These  divisions,  that  of  necessity  must  be  chambers  of 
air-spaces,  will  afford  ample  room  for  channels.  The  channels 
must  be  built  into  window  as  made. 

IN  GENERAL. — Flat  surfaces  that  retain  water  must  be 
avoided.  The  lock  shall  be  a  double-spiral  spring  brass  lock, 
and  shall  be  bolted  to  middle  rail  and  sash. 

The  window  shall  be  made  with  stationary  lower  sash,  and 
upper  sash  swung  on  bearings  in  upper  half  of  sash,  and  shall 
be  so  equipped  with  fusible  link,  rings,  and  rod,  that  the  same 
will  close  and  lock  automatically  under  fire. 

The  rabbets  against  which  the  glass  is  set  shall  be  for  glass 
of  a  small  to  medium  dimension,  J  in.  wide,  and  for  a  glass  of 
more  than  medium  dimensions,  f  in.  wide. 

The  inseparable  cleat  must  be  at  least  1J  in.  in  length,  and 
must  repeat  at  least  every  12  inches. 

Windows  of  more  than  ordinary  width  shall  be  reinforced 
by  structural  iron  in  cross-rail. 

Caution  must  be  had  against  using  glass  of  unreasonable 
dimensions.  For  a  window  4  ft.  X8  ft.,  arrange  sashes  for 
three  lights  each,  or  glass  15X46.  For  a  window  4  ft.  X6  ft., 
arrange  sash  for  two  lights  each,  or  glass  22  X34.  For  a  window 
5  ft.  X8  ft.,  arrange  sash  for  three  lights  each,  or  glass  about 
19X46.  My  recommendations  would  be  not  to  exceed  in 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  FIRE  UNDERWRITERS.       281 

width  18  inches,  where  height  is  48  inches  or  more,  and  in  no 
case  to  exceed  24  inches  in  width. 

The  following  regarding  shutters,  etc.,  for  protection  against 
fire  is  taken  from  an  address  by  John  R.  Freeman,  Consulting 
Engineer,  Providence,  R.  I.,  at  the  annual  banquet  of  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  Delmonico's,  New  York,  May  12, 
1904,  in  response  to  the  toast 


"AN    ENGINEER'S    SUGGESTIONS    TO    FIRE    UNDER- 
WRITERS." 

CONCERNING  FIRE-SHUTTERS. — A  point  which  interested  me 
exceedingly,  in  studying  the  Baltimore  ruins,  was  to  see  whether 
thin  wrought-iron  or  steel  plate,  such  as  is  used  for  covering 
fire-shutters,  had  at  any  point  been  heated  to  a  point  where 
its  power  of  resistance  was  seriously  impaired.  The  ordinary 
underwriters'  fire-shutter  depends  for  its  strength  and  its 
resistance  upon  its  thin  covering  of  very  soft  mild  steel  coated 
with  tin.  I  examined  thin  sheet-steel  lamp-shades,  thin  bands 
for  pipe-coverings,  tin  boxes,  filing-cases,  and  dozens  of  shut- 
ters themselves.  In  no  place  did  I  find  any  indication  that 
metal  of  that  quality  had  been  so  softened  or  had  reached 
such  a  heat  that  it  would  be  seriously  impaired  for  the  pur- 
pose of  fire-shutters,  and  one  of  the  great  lessons  that  I  brought 
away  from  the  Baltimore  fire  was  that  our  standard  tin  covering 
for  the  underwriters'  shutter  is  all  right,  and  that  this  cover- 
ing material  has  sufficient  power  of  resistance  to  withstand 
the  fiercest  heat  of  a  great  conflagration,  but  that  we  do  need 
to  find  some  better  material  than  pine  wood  to  fill  it  with.  I 
also  made  careful  examinations  of  copper  in  flashings,  cor- 
nices, etc.,  to  see  if  it  had  melted.  In  a  few  small  spots  in 
rare  instances  fusion  had  begun,  but  in  general  I  found  it  had 
ample  resistance  to  fusion,  so  that  it  can  prudently  be  used 
for  covering  fire-shutters  where  something  more  ornamental 
or  weatherproof  than  tinned  plate  is  desired  and  expense  is 
no  bar. 

The  standard  underwriter  shutter  of  wood  covered  with 
tin  did  not  give  a  very  good  account  of  itself  in  the  Balti- 
more fire,  and  I  think  it  can  be  said,  without  fear  of  serious 
contradiction,  that  the  endurance  of  the  ordinary  underwriters' 
shutter  of  tin-clad  wood  is  limited  to  not  more  than  about  half 


282       SUGGESTIONS  TO  FIRE  UNDERWRITERS. 

an  hour's  endurance  of  a  temperature  of  1500  degrees,  and  that 
this  limit  is  often  passed  in  the  heat  of  an  ordinary  conflagration, 
and  that  in  many  of  the  cases  where  single  doors  or  shutters 
have  shown  up  so  well  there  has  happened  to  be  an  incoming 
air-current  that  has  helped  to  cool  the  shutter. 

The  limitations  of  the  tin-clad  wooden  shutter  were  shown 
at  one  corner  of  the  burned  district  in  Baltimore.  A  large 
shirt  factory  whose  windows  were  protected  by  wooden  fire- 
shutters  had  a  very  close  call.  By  heroic  efforts  with  private 
pump  and  hose  streams  the  employes  saved  the  factory.  I 
took  particular  interest  in  examining  those  shutters,  and  al- 
though this  was  not  at  the  hottest  part  of  the  fire,  I  found,  in 
parts  of  the  shutter  at  the  hottest  exposure,  that  the  pine  wood 
was  charred  entirely  through  and  all  gone. 

This  matter  of  better  shutters  is  one  on  which  we  should 
set  some  of  our  best  talent  at  work  in  the  experimental  way. 
In  your  excellent  laboratory  in  Chicago  there  is  excellent  ap- 
paratus for  the  needed  tests.  Although  the  present  shutter 
and  the  present  approved  form  of  fire-door  is  all  right  nine- 
tenths  of  the  time,  and  perhaps  nineteen-twentieths  of  the 
time,  it  is  not  all  that  we  need  in  a  great  conflagration. 

I  have  said  that  buildings  can  be  made  fireproof  against 
bad  exposures.  The  possibility  of  making  them  so  is  found 
largely  in  the  development  of  a  superior,  thin  form  of  fire- 
shutter,  and  in  educating  the  architects  and  owners  of  buildings 
toward  building  a  shape  of  window  that  is  easily  protected  by 
the  fire-shutter,  and  a  neat  window-jamb  formed  to  receive  this 
shutter  when  folded  back  inside  the  window. 

Windows  of  suitable  size  for  all  ordinary  office  purpose 
can  easily  be  so  designed  that  they  can  be  protected  by  fire- 
shutters,  and  that  the  shutters  when  open  and  folded  back  on 
the  inside  will  not  be  obtrusive  or  unsightly.  When  a  bad 
exposure  fire  comes  the  ruin  of  the  sash  and  glazing  can  be 
paid  for  cheerfully  if  the  contents  of  the  building  are  saved. 

I  was  very  much  interested  in  the  efficiency  of  the  plain 
steel-plate  shutters  on  the  inside  of  the  windows  in  the  Safe 
Deposit  and  Trust  Company  Building.  These  kept  the  fire 
out  very  successfully,  notwithstanding  that  the  large  non- 
fire-proof  building  of  the  Baltimore  Sun,  which  was  entirely 
wrecked,  and  was  one  of  the  hottest  parts  of  the  entire  confla- 
gration, was  only  ten  feet  away.  The  damage  was  so  immi- 
nent that  the  police  ordered  the  men  to  leave  the  Safe  Deposit 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  FIRE  UNDERWRITERS.       283 

Building,  and  the  heat  melted  the  lead  sash-weights  within,  the 
cast-iron  window-casings,  destroyed  the  sash  and  glass,  and 
chipped  the  brick  walls,  but  the  damage  on  the  interior  of  the 
building  was  almost  nothing.  These  steel-plate  shutters  were 
so  set  that  they  were  free  to  expand,  and  they  were  free  from 
ribs  and  of  a  form  not  likely  to  warp  much,  and  they  did  in 
fact  warp  but  little,  and  the  casing  and  jamb  were  of  such 
form  that  this  warping  of  the  shutter  off  its  seat  did  not  open 
a  wide  crack,  and  there  was  no  combustible  material  near  them 
on  the  inside  to  receive  their  radiant  heat. 

Capt.  Sewell,  if  I  understood  his  remarks  aright,  suggested 
a  steel  shutter  stiffened  by  ribs. 

Ribs  are  dangerous  unless  very  carefully  designed  and  at- 
tached, and  as  generally  applied  increase  the  liability  to  warp. 

I  happen  to  have  been  an  eye-witness  of  the  fire  twenty  or 
twenty-five  years  ago  that  gave  to  the  tin-clad  shutter  its  great 
start  on  the  road  to  popularity.  This  fire  was  in  the  Pacific 
Mills,  at  Lawrence,  Mass.  In  that  case  there  was  a  tin-clad 
wooden  fire-door,  of  what  has  since  become  standard  construc- 
tion, standing  immediately  beside  a  steel-plate  shutter  that  was 
heavily  ribbed  on  the  edges.  Apparently  it  was  a  fair  com- 
parative test  for  the  two  shutters.  The  ribbed-steel  shutter 
warped  away  from  its  bearings  two  inches  or  three  inches,  as 
I  now  remember  it,  in  a  way  that  let  the  fire  play  freely  around 
its  edges,  while  the  tin-clad  wooden  shutter  remained  in  place 
without  warping  and  was  in  good  working  order  when  the  fire 
was  over,  the  tin  covering  intact  and  the  wood  charred  only 
about  half  an  inch  deep.  These  results  were  published  far  and 
wide,  and  this  gave  the  first  great  impetus  to  tin-clad  wooden 
shutters. 

There  have  since  been  hundreds  of  demonstrations  of  the 
endurance  of  tin-clad  shutters  in  fires,  and  I  have  taken  advan- 
tage of  many  opportunities  to  examine  carefully  into  the  con- 
ditions under  which  they  have  been  exposed.  The  result  of 
these  examinations  has  been  to  convince  me  that  the  endurance 
of  the  tin-clad  shutter  is  limited;  that  its  limit  of  endurance  is 
often  passed;  that  for  severe  cases  we  do  need  something  better 
than  the  ordinary  underwriters'  tin-clad  wooden  shutter,  and 
that  we  do  need  something  very  much  better  than  the  ribbed- 
steel  shutter  or  the  rolling  jointed  steel  shutter. 

At  present  the  best  we  can  do  in  any  important  case  is  to 
use  two  fire-shutters  or  fire-doors,  one  outside  and  another 


'284      SUGGESTIONS   TO  FIRE  UNDERWRITERS. 

inside;  one  will  receive  the  brunt  of  the  onslaught  and  per- 
haps in  the  course  of  half  an  hour  or  an  hour  warp  or  break 
down;  the  second,  shielded  behind  the  first,  will  stand  up  to 
its  work  until  any  ordinary  fire  is  over. 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  main  reason  why  those  steel  shutters 
in  Baltimore,  at  the  building  which  I  have  just  mentioned, 
performed  so  well  was  that  they  were  free  from  ribs,  and  thus 
became  heated  more  uniformly,  with  but  very  slight  warping; 
that  they  happened  to  be  so  fastened  to  a  frame  that  they  were 
free  to  expand,  and  their  seat  happened  to  be  of  such  a  shape 
that,  although  the  shutter  did  warp  a  little,  this  did  not  open 
much  of  a  crack,  and  that  there  was  no  combustible  material 
close  to  them  on  the  inside. 

The  path  of  safety  from  exposure  fires  for  office-buildings 
and  the  like  lies  in  a  window-casing  formed  so  that  we  can 
attach  to  it  a  shutter  of  a  form  similar  to  the  ordinary  inside 
house-blind.  Our  ordinary  business  buildings  have  walls  thick 
enough,  so  that  by  making  the  shutter  in  four  folds,  or  leaves, 
two  being  hinged  together,  and  these  two  in  turn  attached  to 
the  wall,  making  each  fold  in  the  shutter  only  about  fifteen 
inches  wide,  the  window  will  be  wide  enough  for  all  practical 
purposes,  and  we  can  fold  the  shutter  back  within  the  window- 
jamb,  very  much  as  we  do  the  inside  blind. 

To  do  that  with  the  present  ordinary  tin-clad  shutter  would 
be  almost  impossible,  because  of  the  thickness  of  that  form  of 
shutter.  It  can  be  done  with  a  steel-plate  shutter  without  ribs 
and  the  radiation  from  the  inside  can  be  checked  by  some  thin 
incombustible  porous  covering  like  asbestos  board.  If  in  our 
underwriters'  laboratories,  in  our  technical  schools,  and  in  our 
tours  of  survey  we  can  direct  attention  to  these  views  and 
urge  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  how  to  make  an  efficient 
fire-shutter  which  shall  only  be  three-quarters  of  an  inch  or  an 
inch  in  thickness,  I  believe  that  before  long  the  problem  of  pro- 
tecting an  office-building  against  exposure  fires  will  be  found 
solved. 

It  is  entirely  possible  to  design  a  window  opening  adapted 
to  receive  a  safe  shutter,  so  that  it  will  be  just  as  convenient 
for  ordinary  business  purposes  as  the  type  now  common.  I 
think  it  probable  that  the  best  place  for  the  shutters  is  inside 
the  glass,  sacrificing  the  glazed  sash  outside  them  in  case  of  any 
great  conflagration. 

" WATER-CURTAINS"  AND  " WIRE-GLASS."— We  hear  a  good 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  FIRE  UNDERWRITERS.     285 

deal  nowadays  about  "water-curtains,"  and  I  would  like  to 
say  just  a  word  on  that,  because  I  think  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  misapprehension  about  their  efficiency.  I  would  like  to 
say  a  word  about  wire-glass  also,  because  although  in  general 
excellent  I  think  there  is  a  great  misapprehension  as  to  what 
wire-glass  can  do. 

I  began  experimenting  with  wire-glass  very  soon  after  it 
first  came  out,  and  I  have  used  it  in  numerous  instances,  and 
it  is  a  most  excellent  material  in  its  way,  but  it  has  its  limita- 
tions; it  has  the  same  limitations  that  a  water-curtain  has, 
and  that  is,  that  it  does  not  stop  the  passage  of  radiant 
heat. 

You  all  have  noticed  how,  when  you  are  travelling  in  a  rail- 
way train,  perhaps  at  sixty  miles  an  hour,  and  they  happen  to  be 
burning  a  pile  of  ties  along  the  track,  that  although  your  face 
is  directed  towards  your  newspaper,  you  will  feel  the  flash  of 
heat  passing  through  the  car  window  and  striking  against  your 
face  as  you  go  past  that  pile  of  burning  ties.  That  simply 
illustrates  the  great  ease  and  rapidity  with  which  radiant  heat 
passes  through  glass. 

Now,  radiant  heat  passes  through  glass  with  wire  netting 
in  it  almost  as  easily  as  it  does  through  any  other  glass,  and 
the  record  made  by  wire-glass  in  a  certain  building  in  Balti- 
more, which  is  pointed  to  with  so  much  pride,  is,  I  think,  simply 
due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  at  a  place  where  nothing  combus- 
tible was  immediately  behind  it.  If  you  have  a  stock  of  dry 
goods,  or  wooden  ware,  or  baled  cotton  or  hemp  just  inside  a 
wire-glass  window  without  shutters,  and  there  is  a  hot  fire 
across  the  street,  these  can  probably  be  set  on  fire  with  much 
promptness  by  the  radiant  heat  passing  through  the  glass,  and 
the  subject  should  be  thoroughly  studied  on  a  large  scale  in 
our  underwriters'  laboratories.  For  safety,  there  must  be 
something  which  will  stop  the  radiant  heat,  and  that  can  only 
be  in  the  form  of  a  shutter,  and,  by  virtue  of  stopping  the 
heat,  the  shutter  will  become  hot. 

The  case  with  the  water-curtain  is  very  much  the  same  as 
with  the  glass.  Water  is  diathermous,  as  physicists  call  it — 
that  is,  radiant  heat  passes  through  water  very  easily. 

We  must,  I  believe,  set  down  these  stories  that  have  been 
told  about  the  efficiency  of  water-curtains  as  being  mainly 
fairy  tales. 

This    supposed   efficiency   of   the  waler-curtain   is   another 


286     SUGGESTIONS  TO  FIRE  UNDERWRITERS, 

topic  which  I  hope  that  some  one  of  our  underwriters'  labora- 
tories and  some  of  our  schools  of  applied  science  will  take 
up  and  investigate  with  precision  of  measurement. 

I  have  heard  stories  of  the  wonderful  efficiency  of  the  water- 
curtain,  but  I  must  beg  to  disbelieve  them,  largely  on  theo- 
retical grounds  as  yet.  It  is  a  matter  which  can  be  tested  very 
easily. 

The  window-sprinkler  came  in  for  a  good  deal  of  praise  in 
certain  quarters  in  Baltimore.  I  took  particular  pains  to  inves- 
tigate that,  because  I  wanted  to  find  just  how  far  they  merited 
it,  and  I  have  no  doubt  they  did  some  good,  but  they  are  not 
entitled  to  anything  like  the  glory  that  is  claimed  for  them. 
They  will  tell  you  a  great  deal  about  the  remarkable  work 
done  by  the  window-sprinklers  in  the  Toronto  fire.  Now, 
I  sent  a  bright  young  engineer  up  there  especially  to  investi- 
gate that  question  and  to  go  into  it  in  detail,  and  to  take  photo- 
graphs of  the  individual  windows  and  to  get  right  down  to 
the  bed-rock  facts,  and,  from  the  mass  of  evidence  that  he 
brings  back,  I  do  not  doubt  that  they  did  some  good;  but  the 
inside  ordinary  automatic  sprinkler  near  each  of  these  windows 
did  very  much  more  good. 

In  short,  if  you  want  to  provide  against  an  exposure  fire,  I 
believe  that  the  only  way  to  do  it  is, 

First,  by  a  wall  either  of  brick  or  cement  concrete. 

Second,  by  properly  designed  window  openings  and  window 
casings,  and 

Third,  by  good  shutters  in  those  windows. 

In  the  absence  of  shutters,  automatic  sprinklers,  supple- 
mented by  heroic  efforts  with  hose  streams  on  the  inside,  may 
sometimes  save  the  day ;  with  great  expense  for  water  damage, 
but  where  exposures  are  bad,  a  good  shutter  on  a  proper  window 
should  be  the  first  care  of  architect  and  owner. 

Fire  Resisting  Devices. — Of  the  many  fire-retardant 
and  fire-resistant  devices  with  which  the  modern  building  is 
equipped  much  lies  in  the  province  of  the  superintendent.  Per- 
haps in  even  larger  measure  than  in  the  realm  of  materials  does 
proper  installation  secure  success. 

The  more  important  of  these  devices  have  been  the  sub- 
ject of  extensive  investigations  by  the  engineering  bodies  of 
the  -National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  and  rules  governing 
their  manufacture  and  installation  have  been  issued.  Copies 
of  these  rules  may  be  had  gratis  on  application  to  the  Na- 


FIRE-RESISTING  DEVICES.  287 

tional  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  32  Nassau  Street,  New  York 
City. 

Among  the  subjects  covered  are  the  following: 

Rules  and  requirements  for  the  installation  of  automatic 
electric  fire-alarm  systems  and  the  construction  of  thermostat 
alarm  circuit  closers;  the  construction  and  installation  and 
use  of  acetylene-gas  machines,  and  for  the  storage  of  calcium 
carbide;  the  installation  of  auxiliary  fire-alarm  systems;  the 
installation  of  automatic-sprinkler  equipments;  the  construc- 
tion and  installation  of  stationary  chemical  fire-extinguishers; 
the  manufacture  of  wired  glass  and  the  construction  of  frames 
for  wired  and  prism  glass  used  as  a  fire  retardant;  the  con- 
struction, installation,  and  use  of  gasolene  vapor  gas  lighting 
machines,  lamps,  and  systems;  for  the  installation  of  electric 
wiring  and  apparatus. 

Each  of  these  subjects  is  so  thoroughly  and  concisely  covered 
by  the  several  rules  just  mentioned  that  their  careful  perusal 
by  the  superintendent  will  provide  both  information  and  incen- 
tive looking  to  the  exercise  of  the  most  judicious  oare  in  all 
fire  protection  matters  within  his  province. 

Among  the  most  important  of  the  National  Board's  rules  are 
those  which  deal  with  sprinkler  systems  and  with  the  manu- 
facture and  installation  of  wire-glass  and  frames  to  contain 
the  same. 

The  automatic  sprinkler  is  a  device  for  applying  water  for 
the  extinguishment  of  fire,  such  water  to  be  applied  auto- 
matically at  the  right  spot  and  in  the  least  volume  necessary 
for  such  extinguishment.  This  is  accomplished  by  valves  or 
sprinkler-heads  which  will  open  by  the  effect  of  heat  from 
the  fire  they  are  intended  to  extinguish. 

To  secure  the  most  efficient  sprinkler  service,  the  following 
general  conditions  should  prevail: 

1.  Sprinklers   to   be   so   located   that   every   portion   of   the 
building  can  be  covered  by  water.     This  necessitates  an  open 
type  of  construction,  free  from  concealed  spaces  where  water 
cannot  penetrate. 

2.  Sprinkler  piping  to  be  of  ample  size  and  provided  with 
water  at  all  times.     Should  danger  of  freezing  exist,  what  is 
called  the  "dry-pipe  system"  should  be  used. 

3.  The  general  supply  of  water  should  be  of  ample  pressure 
and  volume,  and  the  service  be  automatic  in  its  action  at  all 
times. 


288  FORMULA  FOR  ERECTION  OF  FIRE-ESCAPES. 

Location  of  sprinkler-heads,  sizes  of  piping,  and  general 
instructions  for  installation  are  fully  set  forth  in  the  National 
Board's  rules,  to  which  the  superintendent  should  refer. 

As  fire-escapes  are  one  of  the  main  features  of  building 
protection,  the  following  is  taken  from  the  Philadelphia  Building 
Law: 

Formula  Governing  the  Erection  of  Fire-escapes. 
- — In  accordance  with  the  Act  of  Assembly  approved  June  3, 
1885,  and  the  Ordinance  of  Councils  approved  December  10, 
1896,  and  supplemental  thereto,  the  following  formula  will 
govern  the  matter  of  the  design,  construction,  and  erection  of 
all  fire-escapes  hereafter  required  within  the  city  of  Phila- 
delphia. 

PLATFORMS. — The  platforms  shall  consist  of  iron  balconies 
not  less  than  four  (4)  feet  in  width,  the  length  of  the  platform 
to  be  dependent  upon  the  size  of  the  building  and  the  number 
of  its  occupants.  The  inspector  of  the  district  will  designate 
the  length  of  such  platform,  which  shall  extend  in  front  of,  and 
not  less  than  nine  (9)  inches  beyond,  at  least  two  windows, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  doorway  leading  from  the  floor  level  of 
the  building  to  the  floor  level  of  the  platform,  in  which  case 
such  doorway  opening  will  suffice.  Each  platform  shall  be 
provided  with  a  landing  at  the  head  and  foot  of  each  stairway 
of  not  less  than  twenty-four  (24)  inches,  the  stairway  opening 
of  the  top  platform  to  be  no  longer  than  sufficient  to  provide 
clear  headway.  The  floors  of  balconies  must  be  of  wrought 
iron  or  steel,  one  and  one-half  (1^)  inches  by  five-sixteenths 
(5/ie)  inch  slats,  not  more  than  one  and  one-fourth  (1^)  inches 
apart,  and  be  securely  riveted  to  frame  and  brackets.  Outside 
angle  frame  to  be  not  less  than  two  and  one-fourth  (2|)  inch 
angle  iron.  If  flooring  is  made  of  wire,  same  to  be  not  less 
than  No.  6  wire  gauge,  three-fourths  (f)  inch  mesh,  securely 
fastened  to  frame  and  brackets.  All  stair  openings  to  be 
sufficient  to  provide  clear  headway.  In  all  cases  platforms 
must  be  designed,  constructed,  and  erected  to  safely  sustain 
in  all  their  parts  a  safe  load,  at  a  ratio  of  four  to  one,  of  not  less 
than  eighty  (80)  pounds  per  square  foot  of  surface. 

RAILINGS. — The  outside  top  railing  to  extend  around  the 
entire  length  of  the  platform,  and  through  the  wall  at  each  end, 
and  to  be  properly  secured  by  nuts  and  washers,  or  otherwise 
equally  well  braced  and  bolted.  The  top  rail  of  the  balcony 
must  not  be  less  than  one  (1)  inch  pipe  iron,  or  material  equally 


FORMULA  FOR  ERECTION  OF  FIRE-ESCAPES.    289 

as  strong.  The  bottom  rail  must  not  be  less  than  three-fourths 
(f)  inch  pipe  iron,  or  material  equally  as  strong,  well  leaded 
into  the  wall.  The  standards  must  be  not  less  than  one  (1) 
inch  pipe  iron  or  material  equally  as  strong,  and  must  be  securely 
connected  with  top  and  bottom  rail  and  platform  frame. 
Standards  must  also  be  securely  braced  by  means  of  outside 
brackets  at  suitable  intervals.  Railings  in  all  cases  to  extend 
around  the  stairway  openings  and  be  continuous  down  the 
stairway,  the  height  of  the  railing  to  be  not  less  than  three 
(3)  feet. 

STAIRWAY. — Stairways  must  be  designed,  constructed,  and 
erected  to  safely  sustain  in  all  their  parts  a  safe  load,  at  a  ratio 
of  four  to  one,  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  (100)  pounds  per 
step,  with  the  exception  of  the  tread,  which  must  safely  sustain, 
at  a  ratio  of  four  to  one,  a  load  of  two  hundred  (200)  pounds 
per  tread.  The  treads  to  be  not  less  than  six  (6)  inches  wide, 
and  the  rise  not  more  than  ten  (10)  inches.  The  stairs  in  all 
cases  to  be  not  less  than  twenty-four  (24)  inches  wide,  and  the 
strings  or  horses  to  be  not  less  than  three  (3)  inch  channels  of 
iron  or  steel,  or  other  shape  equally  as  strong  and  to  rest  upon 
and  be  fastened  to  a  bracket;  said  bracket  to  be  fastened 
through  the  wall  as  otherwise  provided  for  brackets.  The 
strings  or  horses  to  be  also  securely  fastened  to  the  balcony  a't 
the  top.  The  steps  in  all  cases  to  be  double  riveted  or  bolted 
to  the  strings  or  horses. 

BRACKETS. — Brackets  must  not  be  less  than  two  and  one- 
fourth  (2J)  inch  angle  iron,  or  material  equally  as  strong,  not 
more  than  three  (3)  feet  apart,  braced  by  means  of  not  less  than 
one  (1)  inch  square,  or  one  and  one-fourth  (1^)  inch  round 
iron,  let  into  the  wall  at  least  four  (4)  inches,  with  shoulders 
on  brace,  and  three  (3)  inch  washer  between  shoulder  and 
wall,  and  to  extend  down  the  wall  four  (4)  feet  from  the  top 
of  the  bracket,  and  out  on  the  bracket  angle  three  (3)  feet  from 
the  wall.  In  all  cases  the  bracket  angle  directly  under  the 
balcony  must  be  secured  to  wall  by  means  of  bolts  of  suitable 
size  passing  through  the  wall,  and  four  (4)  inch  washers.  There 
must  also  be  a  bar  of  wrought  iron  or  steel  two  (2)  inches  by 
three-eighths  (f)  inch,  let  into  the  wall  four  (4)  inches  edge- 
wise, between  the  brackets,  and  riveted  to  the  balcony  for  the 
floor  to  rest  upon.  Whenever  the  bottom  balcony  is  supported 
by  means  of  suspension-rods  (riveted  or  bolted)  to  the  balcony 
above,  the  brackets  (of  the  above  balcony)  shall  be  increased 


290      CONSTRUCTION  OF  TOWER  FIRE-ESCAPE. 

in  size  to  meet  the  increase  strain  occasioned  thereby.  The 
bottom  balcony  to  have  a  drop-ladder  of  same  construction  as 
the  stairway,  to  be  hinged  and  hung  with  a  counter  weight. 
Whenever  the  drop-ladder  is  upheld  by  means  of  a  counter 
balance-weight  suspended  to  a  chain,  such  weight  shall  hang 
within  the  platform  railing  if  practicable. 

In  all  cases  the  bolts,  rivets,  and  other  material  used  shall  be 
proportioned  so  as  to  develop  the  full  strength  of  the  members 
connected  by  them. 

All  the  parts  of  such  fire-escapes  must  receive  not  less  than 
two  coats  of  paint — one  coat  in  the  shop  and  one  after  erection. 
Formula  for  Construction  of  Tower  Fire-escape. 
— The  said  tower  fire-escape  shall  be  divided  from  the  building 
by,  and  completely  inclosed  with,  brick  walls  or  such  other 
fire-proof  materials  as  shall  be  accepted  by  the  Bureau  of  Build- 
ing Inspection.  The  said  walls  to  be  built  solidly  from  the 
foundation  to  and  at  least  36  inches  above  the  roof. 

The  roof  of  said  tower  shall  be  built  of  hard,  incombustible 
materials. 

The  stairs  of  said  tower  may  be  iron  or  wood;  but  in  all 
cases  there  must  be  provided  stone  or  iron  thresholds,  iron 
frames,  or  wood  frames  covered  with  metal,  and  iron  doors, 
or  wood  doors  covered  with  tin.  The  rise  of  said  stairs  shall 
not  be  more  than  eight  (8)  inches  and  the  tread  not  less  than 
nine  (9)  inches.  The  entrance  to  said  tower  shall  be  by  means 
of  an  outside  balcony  or  an  incombustible  vestibule,  of  which 
one  side  shall  be  entirely  open  and  extend  from  the  top  of 
floor  to  under  side  of  ceiling  and  the  full  width  of  the  tower, 
the  said  open  side  to  face  a  street  or  such  open  space  as  pro- 
vides for  exit  of  said  tower. 

There  shall  be  a  brick  wall,  or  other  wall  of  hard,  incom- 
bustible material  separating  the  tower  from  the  vestibule. 
The  opening  into  tower  from  said  vestibule  to  be  not  over 
seven  (7)  feet  in  height.  The  floor,  ceiling,  and  sides  of  said 
vestibule  to  be  of  hard,  incombustible  material. 

The  rails  inclosing  the  side  facing  the  open  space  or  street, 
to  be  not  over  four  (4)  feet  high  and  not  less  than  three  (3)  feet, 
may  be  open  or  inclosed. 

The  entrance  to  the  tower  from  the  building  shall  be  through 
the  vestibule. 

Towers  that  have  not  the  fire-proof  vestibule  shall  have 
outside  balconies;  floors  of  balconies  to  be  solid,  and  built 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  TOWER  FIRE-ESCAPE.     291 

of  hard,  incombustible  material,  and  be  of  sufficient  strength 
to  carry  the  imposed  weights. 

The  rails  around  said  balconies  shall  be  not  over  four  (4)  feet 
in  height  nor  less  than  three  (3)  feet,  and  may  be  inclosed  or 
open. 


PART  IV. 

LATHING  AND  PLASTERING.  CAEPEN- 
TEY;  TIMBEE.  PLUMBING;  TIN  AND 
SHEET  METAL  WOEK.  PAINTING, 
GLAZING,  AND  PAPEE-HANGING. 
IEONWOEK.  ELECTEIC  WIEING,  ETC. 
HEATING. 


loathing  and  Plastering1. — The  duties  of  the  superin- 
tendent during  this  branch  of  the  work  will  be  first  to  see  that 
the  laths,  when  wooden  laths  are  used,  are  sound,  straight- 
grained,  and  free  from  sap,  loose  knots,  or  oil. 

As  the  laths  are  put  on  he  should  see  that  they  are  nailed 
solid  and  given  the  proper  space  between;  they  should  be 
spaced  about  f  inch  apart  for  ordinary  lime  mortar  and 
about  i  inch  apart  when  any  of  the  hard  or  patent  plasters 
are  used.  The  laths  should  have  one  nail  to  every  bearing  and 
have  two  nails  to  each  end.  The  perpendicular  joints  in  the 
laths  should  be  broken  about  every  six  lath.  No  laths  should 
be  set  vertical  to  fill  out  any  corner  or  any  other  place.  Where 
laths  cross  a  bearing  over  two  inches  wide  a  lath  or  strip 
should  be  put  under  the  laths  so  the  plaster  will  have  a  chance 
to  key. 

Laths  over  door  or  other  openings  should  have  as  few  vertical 
joints  as  possible  so  as  to  prevent  cracks;  if  possible  the  laths 
should  extend  across  the  opening. 

1000  laths  If  inches  wide  will  cover  about  570  square  feet. 

1000  laths  1^  inches  wide  will  cover  about  620  square  feet. 

1000  laths  require  about  5  pounds  of  lath  nails,  6  nails  to  a 
lath. 

292 


PLASTERING.  293 

METAL  OR  WIRE  LATHING. — Where  metal  or  wire  lathing  is 
used  it  must  be  stretched  tight  and  securely  fastened.  If  it  is 
put  on  wooden  joists  or  studs  it  should  be  fastened  with  staples, 
and  if  fastened  to  metal  furring  or  beams  should  be  fastened  with 
galvanized  or  coated  wire.  All  metal  lathing  should  be  coated 
to  prevent  rust;  it  is  usually  prepared  in  this  way  by  the  manu- 
facturers. In  all  angles  where  wood  or  terra-cotfca  partitions 
join  the  main  wall  of  the  building  there  should  be  a  strip  of 
the  metal  lath  bent  in  the  angle  and  extending  out  on  each  side 
about  six  inches  and  securely  fastened;  this  will  prevent  any 
cracks  in  the  angles  after  the  plastering  is  done. 

CORNER  BEADS. — Metal  corner  beads  should  be  used  on  all 
external  angles,  and  care  must  be  taken  in  setting  them  to  get 
them  straight  and  fastened  solid. 

Plastering1. — Lime  for  making  mortar  for  plastering  should 
be  of  the  very  best  quality  and  free  from  all  dirt.  It  should 
slake  readily  so  there  will  be  no  unslaked  particles  of  lime  in 
the  mortar  to  slake  after  it  is  put  on  the  wall.  If  this  happens 
the  small  pieces  of  lime  swelling  and  slaking  will  cause  small 
pieces  of  the  plaster  to  fall  off,  leaving  "pits"  or  holes.  The 
lime  should  be  slaked  at  least  a  week  before  being  put  on  the 
wall. 

SAND. — The  sand  should  be  sharp  and  angular,  free  from 
any  dirt  or  oil  or  anything  to  stain  the  plaster.  When  sea  sand 
is  used  it  must  be  thoroughly  washed  with  fresh  water  so  as 
to  remove  all  salt. 

HAIR  AND  FIBRE. — These  are  used  in  the  mortar  to  form  a 
bond  and  bind  the  sheet  of  mortar  together.  Cattle  hair  is 
generally  used,  but  of  late  years  jute  and  several  fibre 
products  have  been  used  satisfactorily  to  a  great  extent. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS. — Plaster  of  Paris  is  prepared  by  grinding 
and  heating  natural  gypsum  in  a  furnace  so  as  to  drive  off  its 
water  of  crystallization.  Plaster  of  Paris  owes  its  value  to 
the  property  it  possesses  of  absorbing  water  and  passing  into 
the  water-soaked  condition,  in  doing  which  it  sets  into  a  hard 
mass.  This  setting  takes  place  quickly,  but  sufficient  time 
elapses  between  mixing  it  with  water  and  setting  to  permit 
it  to  be  run  into  moulds  or  for  coating  surfaces,  and  to  gauge 
the  skim  or  finish  coat  and  for  running  cornices,  centre-pieces, 
and  other  ornamental  work.  Plaster  of  Paris  should  be  kept 
in  a  dry  place,  as  it  readily  absorbs  moisture. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  mortar  is  made  up  at 


294  PLASTERING. 

least  a  week  before  it  will  be  required  for  use.  Ordinarily  the 
hair  is  mixed  with  the-  mortar  when  it  is  made  up,  but  on  first- 
class  work  it  should  be  added  when  the  mortar  is  mixed  for 
use. 

When  the  hair  is  added  to  the  mortar  when  the  lime  is  first 
slaked  there  is  danger  of  the  hot  lime  burning  the  hair  and 
causing  it  te  rot. 

Before  the  mortar  is  put  on  the  superintendent  should  ex- 
amine all  grounds  to  see  that  they  are  straight  and  solid,  also 
see  that  all  gas  and  electric  outlets  are  in  their  proper  places, 
and  that  every  possible  provision  has  been  made  for  securing 
the  wood  or  other  finish  in  place.  All  walls  should  be  dusted 
off  and  wet  before  any  mortar  is  put  on.  The  superintendent 
should  watch  and  see  that  the  plasterers  use  sufficient  force 
in  spreading  the  first  coat  of  mortar  to  force  it  through  the 
lathing  and  key  in  all  spaces.  The  space  back  of  all  wainscot 
or  base  should  be  plastered  flush  with  the  face  of  the  grounds, 
so  the  wood  will  lay  solid  against  the  plaster. 

Cornices  or  any  ornamental  work  should  be  run  and  put  in 
place  before  the  finish  or  skim  coat  of  plaster. 

In  putting  on  the  skim  coat  the  superintendent  must  see 
that  it  is  given  sufficient  trowelling  to  bring  it  to  a  smooth 
glossy  surface.  By  looking  along  the  finished  walls  where  the 
light  strikes  them  he  can  tell  if  they  have  a  good  finish;  there 
should  be  no  trowel-  or  brush-marks  show  on  the  finished 
surface. 

PATENT  PLASTERS. — There  are  a  number  of  hard  or  patent 
plasters  on  the  market  and  sold  under  various  names,  as 
Adamant,  King's  Windsor,  Rock  Wall,  Granite,  Elastic  Pulp, 
Ideal,  Elyria  Wood,  Kallolite,  Imperial  Wall,  etc. 

The  composition  of  the  various  plasters  is  pretty  much  the 
same,  the  hardness  being  based  on  the  plaster  of  Paris  or  gypsum 
used  in  their  manufacture.  These  plasters  give  good  satisfaction 
and  make  a  hard  durable  job  of  plastering.  For  quick  work 
or  for  use  in  cold  weather  they  are  preferable  to  lime  plaster, 
as  they  will  set  and  harden  much  quicker. 

When  any  of  the  hard  finishes  are  used  the  plasterer  will 
generally  try  to  work  lime  putty  in  along  with  it  to  make  it 
work  smoother  and  easier.  This  may  be  permitted  to  the  extent 
of  about  15  per  cent  lime  putty,  but  no  more,  and  when  this 
permission  is  granted  the  superintendent  will  have  to  watch 
to  see  that  no  more  is  used. 


Wall 


PLASTERING.  295 

The  covering  capacity  of  the  different  patent  plasters  varies 
from  90  to  150  yards  per  ton  of  plaster. 

OUTSIDE  STUCCO-WORK. — This  is  the  name  usually  given  to 
exterior  plastering,  and  is  generally  done  with  cement  mortar. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  any  outside  work  from  freezing, 
or  from  being  dried  too  fast  with  the  heat;  it  should  be  shaded 
to  protect  it  from  the  sun,  and  wetting  it  two  or  three  times  a 
day  for  several  days  will  improve  it. 

SCAGLIOLA. — This  is  a  composition  made  to  imitate  marble. 
It  is  composed  of  plaster  of  Paris  or  Keene's  cement  mixed 
with  glue  or  gelatine  and  the  various  colors  are  added  to  obtain 
the  desired  imitation.  This  work  when  properly  done  will 
take  a  good  polish  and  makes  a  good  imitation  of  marble. 

CORNICES  AND  MOULDINGS. — Cornices,  mouldings,  etc.,  are 
usually  run  with  a  mould  made  of  sheet  iron  and  cut  the  reverse 
contour  of  the  mouldings  to  be  run. 
Strips  of  wood  are  tacked  around 
the  walls  and  ceiling  to  form  a  guide 
to  run  the  mould  along.  These 
moulds  are  usually  made  to  set  at 
right  angles  to  the  mouldings,  thus 
leaving  a  space  the  width  of  the 
moulding  or  cornice  at  all  angles 
which  have  to  be  worked  out  by  '  FlG>  2io 

hand.     If  the  mould  is  made  to  set 

at  an  angle  of  45°,  or  a  true  mitre  with  the  moulding  and  the 
mould  made  to  correspond  with  the  profile  of  the  mouldings 
on  this  angle,  then  the  mould  can  be  run  in  close  to  all  angles. 
Fig.  210  shows  how  this  mould  is  made  and  used.  , 

PLASTERING  DATA. — 1  barrel  of  lime  will  make  about  2f 
barrels  of  paste. 

1  bushel  of  hair  weighs  about  15  pounds. 

1  barrel  of  lime,  18  cubic  feet  of  sand,  and  22  pounds  of  hair 
will  brown  coat  about  40  yards  on  wooden  lath  with  |-inch 
grounds,  or  about  32  yards  on  brick  or  terra-cotta  walls  with 
f-inch  grounds,  or  about  30  yards  on  wire  or  metal  lath. 

1  barrel  of  lime,  1  barrel  of  plaster  of  Paris,  1  barrel  white 
sand  will  skim  coat  about  140  square  yards. 

First  coat  mortar  =  1  barrel  lime,  18  cubic  feet  sand,  1| 
bushels  hair. 

Second  coat  mortar  =  1  barrel  lime,  21 J  cubic  feet  sand, 
f  bushel  hair. 


296  CARPENTRY. 

LAFARGE  CEMENT. — Lafarge  cement  is  much  used  for  out- 
side stucco-work.  It  should  be  mixed  as  follows: 

First  coat,  1  part  cement,  3  parts  sand,  25  per  cent  lime  paste, 
and  sufficient  hair. 

Second  coat,  1  part  cement  2  parts  sand,  10  per  cent  lime 
paste.  1  barrel  of  cement  and  3  of  sand  will  cover  about 
34  square  yards  f  inch  thick. 

1  barrel  of  cement  and  2  of  sand  will  cover  about  25  square 
yards  f  inch  thick. 

KEENE'S  CEMENT. — This  cement,  or  plaster,  is  made  by  recal- 
cining  plaster  of  Paris  after  soaking  it  in  a  solution  of  alum; 
it  is  used  for  wainscot,  base,  caps,  etc.,  and  also  for  hard 
finish. 

The  first  coat  is  composed  of  1  part  cement,  1  part  lime 
paste,  and  3  parts  sand. 

The  second  coat  of  1  part  cement,  1  part  lime  paste,  and  4 
parts  sand. 

1  ton  of  Keene's  cement  will  first  coat  about  475  yards, 
or  brown  coat  and  white  hard  finish  about  300  yards,  or  first 
and  second  coat  about  350  yards. 

WHITEWASH. — Common  whitewash  is  made  by  slaking  fresh 
lime  and  adding  enough  water  to  make  a  thin  paste;  by  using 
2  pounds  of  sulphate  of  zinc  and  1  pound  of  salt  to  each  half 
bushel  of  lime  the  whitewash  will  be  much  harder  and  not  crack. 
A  half  pint  of  linseed-oil  to  each  gallon  of  whitewash  will  make 
it  more  durable  for  outside  work.  To  color  add  to  each  bushel 
of  lime  4  to  6  pounds  of  ochre  for  cream  color;  6  to  8  pound- 
amber,  2  pounds  Indian  red,  and  2  pounds  of  lampblack  for 
fawn  color;  6  to  8  pounds  raw  umber  and  3  or  4  pounds  lamps 
black  for  buff  or  stone  color. 

Carpentry. — In  superintending  this  branch  of  work,  the 
superintendent,  in  addition  to  examining  the  materials  used, 
will  be  required  to  see  that  all  work  is  fitted  together  and 
secured  in  a  proper  manner. 

In  fire-proof  structures,  among  the  first  work  of  the  carpenter 
will  be  the  setting  of  the  window-frames,  laying  floor  strips,  etc. 
Before  being  set  the  window-frames  should  be  examined  to 
see  that  they  conform  to  the  detail  drawings,  that  the  pulleys 
and  pockets  are  put  in  as  desired,  and  that  partitions  are  pro- 
vided in  the  boxes  to  separate  the  weights.  Care  should  be 
taken  in  setting  the  frames  to  get  them  plumb,  and  to  show 
theproper  reveal  on  the  outside  jamb;  then  they  should  be  se- 


CARPENTRY.  297 

* 

curely  fastened  to  the  anchors  or  whatever  means  that  have  been 
provided  for  fastening  them.  As  soon  as  the  frames  are  set 
the  sills  should  be  covered  to  protect  them  from  any  damage. 

FLOOR  STRIPS. — The  setting  of  the  floor  strips  will  require 
close  attention  to  be  got  straight  and  level,  and  the  superin- 
tendent should  see  that  this  is  done  or  a  bad  floor  will  be  the 
result.  Where  there  is  to  be  a  diagonal  underfloor  laid  there 
should  be  a  floor  strip  around  all  sides  of  the  room  to  catch 
the  ends  of  the  diagonal  flooring.  After  the  concrete  filling 
is  put  in  place  all  the  floor  strips  should  be  examined  with  a 
straight-edge,  and  any  not  straight  or  level  should  be  taken  out 
and  reset. 

In  putting  down  the  floor  strips,  they  should  be  run  so  that 
when  the  finished  floor  is  laid  it  will  run  lengthwise  of  the  room. 

Wherever  an  underfloor  is  used  it  should  be  laid  diagonally,  as 
the  top  floor  can  then  be  laid  across  the  floor  strips,  and  also 
across  the  joints  of  the  underfloor.  If  the  underfloor  is  laid  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  top  floor  it  will  cause  much  trouble 
in  laying  the  top  floor,  as  the  underfloor  will  usually  cup  up  at 
the  joints  enough  to  make  the  top  floor  irregular,  but  if 
the  top  flooring  crosses  the  underfloor  this  trouble  will  be 
avoided. 

In  terra-cotta  and  other  fire-proof  partitions  it  is  customary 
to  set  a  rough-wood  frame  in  the  opening,  and  build  up  to  it. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  have  these  frames  set  plumb  and 
securely  fastened  top  and  bottom,  and  as  the  tile  is  built  up 
against  them,  to  fasten  the  tile  to  them  with  metal  clips,  or  nails 
driven  through  the  tile.  As  the  partitions  are  built,  provisions 
must  be  made  for  nailing  or  fastening  the  wood  finish.  (See 
page  303.) 

JOISTS. — In  framing  wood  joist  for  a  building,  they  should  be 
given  a  "camber"  or  crown  of  about  \  inch  in  20  feet,  and  the 
end  should  be  cut  on  a  bevel  of  about  4  inches,  so  that  in  case 
of  fire  the  joist  can  drop  out  of  the  wall  and  do  no  damage. 
In  levelling  up  joists  no  wood  should  be  used,  but  the  joist  blocked 
where  necessary  with  slate  or  flat  pieces  of  iron.  Wood  joist 
in  brick  or  stone  walls  should  have  the  ends  cut  on  a  bevel,  so 
that  in  case  of  fire,  the  joist  can  drop  out  without  pulling  down 
the  wall. 

In  setting  joists  the  superintendent  should  see  that  none  are 
set  less  than  8  inches  from  the  inside  of  any  flue,  and  4  inches 
from  any  chimney  or  hot-air  pipe;  he  should  watch  as  the 


298 


CARPENTRY. 


joist  are  framed  together  and  see  that  all  joints  are  tight  and 
have  good  bearings. 

BRIDGING. — All  joists  should  be  bridged  as  the  specifications 
may  call  for.  The  bridging  should  be  heavy  enough  so  that 
two  tenpenny  nails  can  be  used  in  each  end  without  splitting 
the  bridging.  It  should  be  cut  and  put  in  place  by  nailing 
the  top  end  only,  leaving  the  bottom  end  to  be  nailed  after 
the  floor  is  laid;  in  this  way  the  flooring  draws  the  joists  to  a 
straight  line  and  the  bridging  braces  and  holds  them  there. 
The  nails  should  be  started  in  the  lower  end  before  the  bridging 
is  put  in  place;  then  all  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  drive 
them  home  after  the  floor  is  laid. 

GROUNDS. —  This  is  one  of  the  most  particular  parts  of  the 
carpenter- work,  and  one  that  is  most  often  slighted.  If  the 
grounds  are  not  put  up  solid  and  straight,  then  the  plastering 
will  be  crooked  and  the  wood  finish  will  not  fit  the  walls  tight. 
The  superintendent  should  pay  special  attention  and  see  that 
all  the  .grounds  are  put  up  in  the  best  possible  manner;  he 
should  take  a  straight-edge  and  try  them,  and  if  he  finds  any 
not  straight,  have  them  made  so  at  once. 

PARTITIONS. — All  stud-partitions  should  be  bridged  at  half- 
height;  the  studs  should  be  brought  to  a  line  by  tacking  a 
straight  piece  of  2X4  or  2X6  along  them  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  211. 
One  of  the  best  methods  of  bridging  is  shown  in  Fig.  211,  called 
" herring-bone"  bridging;  material  of  the  same  dimensions 
as  the  studs  is  used,  and  being  set  on  an  angle,  as  shown,  gives 
a  good  chance  for  nailing  the  ends  of  the  bridging  and  making 
the  partition  solid. 

Fig.  212  shows  another  good  method  of  bridging,  by  running 
the  bridging  horizontally,  but  setting  it  diagonally  across  the 
stud,  as  shown  at  A,  each  alternate  piece  of  bridging  being 
set  at  opposite  angles.  Bridging  set  in  this  manner  gives  the 
plastering  a  chance  to  key,  and  there  will  be  no  "dead"  plaster. 


Fro.  211. 


FIG.  212. 


DOOR    OPENINGS. — All    door   openings    in    partitions   which 
carry  any  weight  should  be  trussed  as  shown  in  Fig.  213,  and 


CARPENTRY. 


299 


for  bracing  it  is  well  to  continue  the  brace  to  the  floor,  as 
shown.  In  stud  partitions  a  block  should  be  placed  at  the 
sides  of  the  door  openings  to  catch  and  nail  the  end  of  the 
base  to,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  213. 


FIG.  213. 

ANGLES. — Care  must  be  taken  to  make  all  angles  solid,  and 
in  no  case  should  one  be  permitted  to  set  the  partition-studs 
so  that  laths  can  be  run  from  one  room  to  another.  Fig.  214 


I 


FIG.  214. 

shows  several  methods  of  setting  studs  at  angles.  All  studs 
for  partitions  should  be  sized  to  a  width,  and  all  caps  and 
plates  sized  to  a  width  and  thickness;  this  saves  much  time 
and  trouble  and  makes  straight  work. 

SHINGLING. — In  laying  shingles  the  essential  points  are  that 
the  shingles  be  not  too  wide,  that  each  shingle  receives  two 
nails,  that  they  are  not  laid  too  much  to  the  weather,  that  the 
joints  are  well  broken,  that  the  shingles  have  a  good  lap  and 
are  fitted  close  along  any  ridges,  hips,  etc.  Shingles  should 
not  be  over  7  inches  wide  to  make  a  good  roof,  and  any 
over  this  width  should  be  split  in  two.  Each  shingle  should 
receive  two  nails,  regardless  of  its  width.  Shingles  should 
not  be  laid  more  than  5  inches  to  the  weather,  and  4J  inches 
makes  a  better  roof.  In  laying  shingles  the  joints  should 
be  broken  and  the  shingles  lapped  enough,  so  that  there  ia 


300 


CARPENTRY. 


no  danger  of  the  water  following  under  the  shingle  to  the  joint 
in  the  course  below;  care  should  be  taken  to  break  joints  with 
the  last  two  courses  laid  so  that,  in  case  a  shingle  should  split 
under  a  joint,  the  split  will  not  come  over  a  joint  in  the  course 
below. 

In  shingling  hips  the  full  shingle  should  be  carried  out  to 
the  hip,  and  if  no  saddle  is  to  be  used  the  courses  should  be 
lapped  and  woven  together  and  also  flashed  so  as  to  make  a 
water-tight  job,  or  a  more  desirable  method  called  the  Boston 
hip  is  shown  by  Fig.  215. 


FIG.  215. 

Gauged  shingles  or  shingles  of  a  uniform  width  should  be 
selected  to  shingle  the  hip  and  two  lines  drawn  on  the  sheathing 
parallel  to  the  hip,  as  at  AA,  A  A.  The  roof -shingles  should  be 
carried  up  to  these  lines  in  steps  as  shown  bY  1,  2,  3,  after  which 
the  hip  should  be  shingled,  as  shown  by  B,  C,  D,  working  the 
shingles  so  they  lap  alternately  as  shown.  This  makes  a  very 
neat  and  water-tight  hip. 

When  valleys  are  to  be  shingled  close  and  flashed,  the  super- 
intendent must  see  that  flashings  of  a  large  enough  size  are  used 
and  that  no  nails  are  driven  where  they  will  be  liable  to  cause 
a  leak. 

In  open  valleys,  in  order  to  keep  both  sides  of  the  shingles 
straight,  a  good  scheme  is  to  lay  a  studding  of  the  desired 
width  in  the  valley  and  fit  the  shingles  up  to  it  on  both  sides. 


CARPENTRY. 


301 


The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  shinglers  do  not 
drive  nails  through  the  roof  in  building  their  scaffold.  This 
is  often  done  and  the  nail-holes  plugged  up  as  they  take  down 
the  scaffold;  but  it  should  never  be  permitted,  for  the  plugs 
will  rot  or  dry  out  and  cause  a  leak. 

In  shingling  up  the  corners  of  a  building  or  the  hips  of  a  roof, 
the  shingles  should  be  lapped,  as  shown  in  Fig.  216,  as  this 
will  show  the  edge  of  the  shingle  on  both  sides  of  the  corner, 


FIG.  216. 


FIG.  217. 


or  hip,  alternately.  A,  Fig.  217,  shows  how  the  shingles  should 
be  lapped  two  courses  at  a  time. 

If  the  courses  of  shingles  are  simply  lapped  time  about  it 
will  bring  all  the  edges  of  the  shingles  to  show  on  the  one  side 
of  the  corner. 

Flashing  should  be  used  up  the  sides  of  all  frames  and  across 
the  top,  or  any  place  where  the  water  is  liable  to  penetrate. 
Shingles  should  always  be  laid  with  galvanized  nails. 

Four  pounds  of  4d  common  or  three  pounds  of  3d  common 
wire  nails  will  put  on  1000  shingles. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  shingles  required 
to  a  square  and  the  surface  1000  shingles  will  cover: 


Exposure  to 
the  Weather 
in  Inches. 

Number  of  Square  Feet  of 
Roof  Covered  by  One 
Thousand  Shingles. 

Number  of  Shingles  Required 
for  One  Hundred  Square 
Feet  of  Roof. 

Four  Inches 
Wide. 

Six  Inches 
Wide. 

Four  Inches 
Wide. 

Six  Inches 
Wide. 

4 
5 
6 

8 

Ill 
139 
167 
194 
222 

167 
208 
250 
291 
333 

900 
720 
600 
514 
450 

600 
480 
400 
343 
300 

302 


CARPENTRY, 


The  average  width  of  shingles  is  4  inches;  thus  1000  shingles 
is  the  equivalent  of  1000  shingles  4  inches  wide.  This  is  usually 
four  bunches,  as  each  bunch  contains  250  shingles,  although  on 
the  Pacific  Coast  the  redwood  shingles  are  put  up  200  to  a 
bunch  and  four  bunches  are  sold  for  1000  shingles,  while  in 
reality  they  contain  but  800.  This  same  rule  is  used  by  the 
shinglers  in  that  section  of  the  country:  they  charge  so  much 
a  thousand  for  laying  the  shingles,  but  call  four  bunches 
1000. 

To  approximate  the  number  of  squares  in  a  roof,  see  page 
555. 

SHEATHING. — When  the  sheathing  of  the  roof  is  being  put 
on  the  superintendent  should  see  that  a  good  joint  is  made 
along  the  line  of  the  hips  and  valleys,  so  the  lining  of  the  valley 
will  lay  solid,  and  that  there  will  be  solid  wood  at  the  angle 
of  the  hip  to  hold  the  nails  of  the  shingles  or  slate. 

FLAG-POLES. — Masts  or  flag-poles  should  be  made  with  a 
small  swell  to  them,  as  described  for  the  entasis  of  columns, 
page  574. 

PITCH  OP  STAIRS: — In  putting  up  horses  for  stairs  and  getting 
them  out  the  tread  should  be  made  to  pitch  about  £  inch  in 
its  width,  as  this  makes  a  much  easier  stair  than  if  the  treads 
were  perfectly  level. 

SASH  AND  DOORS. — Great  care  must  be  taken  in  fitting  sash 
and  doors,  and  also  in  hanging  them;  they  should  have  just 
enough  play  to  work  without  binding. 
One  of  the  main  troubles  with  sash  is 

;  j I  found  in  the  thickness  of  the  sash  and 

meeting-rail,  the  sash  often  being  made 


I  too    thick    for    the    runs   in    the    frame. 
j  When    the    meeting-rails    are    too    thick 
they   will   strike   as  the   bottom   sash   is 
closed  and  pull  the  top  sash  down  from 
^jpd  the  top;    then  when  the  bottom  sash  is 
!  raised  there  will   be  too  much  play  be- 
tween the  sash  and  the  parting  bead,  as 
shown  at  B,  Fig.  218,  and  thp  sash  will 
rattle.     4 ,  Fig.  218,  shows  how  the  meet- 
ing-rails should  come  together.     Care  also 
must   be   taken   in   hanging  the   sash  to 
FIG.  218.  get  the  proper  weights  so  the  sash  will 

be  evenly  balanced. 


CARPENTRY. 


303 


FIG.  219. 


PANEL-MOULDINGS.— The  superintendent  should  examine  all 
doors  and  panel-work  and  see  how  the  mouldings  are  nailed  or 
fastened.  The  moulding  should  be  nailed  to  the 
rail  or  stile  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  219,  and  not  to 
the  panel.  If  the  moulding  is  fastened  to  the 
panel  and  the  panel  shrinks,  as  it  generally  does, 
it  will  make  an  open  joint  as  shown  at  B. 

In  nailing  up  finish  or  any  interior  work,  the 
nails  should  be  concealed  as  much  as  possible; 
this  can  be  done  by  nailing  in  members  of  the 
mouldings  which  will  be  covered,  or  if  the  mould- 
ing is  all  exposed,  by  nailing  in  the  quirks  of  the 
moulding  where  it  will  not  be  noticed  after  being 
puttied  up;  in  quartered  oak,  chestnut,  ash,  etc., 
if  the  nail  is  driven  in  one  of  the  pores  of  the  wood  and  puttied 
neatly  it  will  not  be  noticeable. 

SECURING  INTERIOR  WOOD  TRIM. — During  the  entire  construc- 
tion of  a  building  the  superintendent  must  see  that  proper 
provisions  are  made  as  the  work  progresses  for  nailing  or  fasten- 
ing the  wood  finish  or  trim.  Until  recent  days  it  has  been 
customary  to  build  wood  blocks  in  the  wall  and  nail  the  trim 
to  these  blocks.  Wood  blocks  in  some  cases  do  not  give  entire 
satisfaction,  as  they  are  liable  to  shrink  and  come  loose,  and 
this  will  usually  happen  unless  they  are  built  in  properly. 

Of  late  some  architects  go  so  far  as  to  specify  that  no  wood 
blocks  or  plugs  shall  be  used  to  secure  the  inside  trim.  Still 
there  are  some  places  where,  if  built 
in  properly,  a  wood  block  will  give 
better  satisfaction  than  anything  else 
for  nailjng  and  securing  the  trim. 
For  base  moulding,  chair-rail,  picture 
mould,  etc.,  a  wood  block,  if  cut  dove- 
tail shape  as  shown  by  Fig.  220  and  built  solid  in  the  wall  will 
give  good  satisfaction  and  can  never  come  loose,  or  take  a  wood 
block  and  drive  nails  in  both  sides,  leaving  the  nails  project 
out  about  I  inch  and  build  this  in  the  -wall  so  the  projecting 
nails  are  bedded  in  the  mortar  joint,  it  will  always  remain  solid 
and  secure. 

If  it  is  not  desired  to  use  wood  blocks  exposed,  a  tenra-cotta 
block  filled  with  wood  and  built  in  the  wall  will  answer  quite 
as  well  provided  nails  long  enough  are  used  so  as  to  reach  into 
the  wood. 


FIG.  220. 


304 


CARPENTRY. 


All  door  openings  in  terra-cotta  walls  usually  have  a  rough 
stud  frame,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  221,  and  the  tile  should  be  built 
up  to  this  frame  and  each  course  nailed  or  anchored  to  the  stud. 

Wherever  there  is  to  be  any  nailing  in  the  terra-cotta  the 
author  has  derived  the  best  satisfaction  by  inserting  a  wood 


FIG.  221. 

block  in  the  tile  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  221,  and  then  nailing  through 
the  tile  into  the  block.  Terra-cotta  is  supposed  to  hold  a  nail, 
but  will  not  give  satisfaction  for  nailing  trim  to;  the  jar  of 
the  hammer  in  setting  the  nail  will  nearly  always  jar  the  nail 
loose. 

Fig.  222  shows  a  good  method   of   fastening  window-frames 
and  securing  the  trim;  the  bolts  as  shown  are  built  in  as  the 


FIG.  222. 

walls  are  built,  and  a  2-inch  nailing-piece  is  bolted  fast  as 
shown,  keeping  one  edge  out  to  form  a  plaster  ground.  The 
frame  can  be  set  and  anchored  as  shown,  and  the  trim  nailed 
to  the  nailing-piece  before  the  back  strip  is  put  on. 

The  space  around  the  frame  should  always  be  well  calked 
with  oakum  or  mineral  wool. 


CARPENTRY. 


305 


Door-frames  and  trim  in  brick  openings  can  be  secured  in 
a  similar  manner. 

Metal  nailing-plugs  are  used  to  some  extent  for  securing 
finish  or  trim,  but  nothing  gives  as  good  satisfaction  as  wood 
securely  anchored.  In  some  cases  expansion-bolts  can  be  used 
with  good  satisfaction  where  there  is  nothing  to  nail  to. 

Figs.  223  and  224  show  a  method  the  author  has  used  for 
fastening  up  wainscotting  to  brick  walls,  the  bolts,  as  shown, 
being  built  in  as  the  walls  were  built;  the  blocking  or  core  piece, 
as  shown,  is  bolted  fast  to  the  wall  as  the  wainscot  is  put  up 
and  bolted  fast.  The  cap  and  base  can  then  be  nailed  securely 
to  the  wainscot  and  blocking. 


FIG.  223. 


Fir,.  224. 


In  tile  partitions,  in  place  of  a  bolt  being  built  in  the  wall 
a  toggle  bolt  can  be  used. 

HARDWARE. — All  hardware  should  be  fitted  in  place  before  any 
painting  or  varnishing  is  done,  and  when  this  is  done  the  superin- 
tendent should  have  it  left  in  place  long  enough  for  him  to 
examine  it  and  see  that  all  pieces  work  easily.  After  examining 
them  all  he  should  have  all  hardware  taken  off  and  put  on 
final  at  the  completion  of  the  painting. 

HANDS  OF  DOORS. — The  hand  of  a  door  is  determined  from 
the  outside  of  a  building,  room,  or  closet.  Door  No.  1  in  Fig. 
225  is  a  right-hand  door  because  it  opens  to  the  right  as  you 
enter  the  room,  and  No.  2  is  a  left-hand  door,  as  it  opens  to 
the  left  as  you  enter. 

If  the  doors  open  to  the  outside,  as  shown  in  Fig.  226,  door 


306 


CARPENTRY. 


No.  1  will  be  a  right-hand  reverse  bevel,  because  it  opens  to 
the  right,  and  No.  2  will  be  a  left-hand  reverse  bevel,  as  it 
opens  to  the  left,  but  the  bevel  for  locks  for  these  doors  will 


r 


*: 


FIG.  225. 


FIG.  226. 


be  just  the  reverse  of  those  for  doors  hung  or  opening  on  the 
inside  of  the  room. 

Regarding  wood  beams,  etc.,  the  New  York  Building  Code 
says: 

Sec.  59.  WOOD  BEAMS,  GIRDERS,  AND  COLUMNS.  —  Wood 
Beams. — All  wood  beams  and  other  timbers  in  the  party 
wall  of  every  building  built  of  stone,  brick,  or  iron  shall  be 
separated  from  the  beam  or  timber  entering  in  the  opposite 
side  of  the  wall  by  at  least  four  inches  of  solid  masonwork.  No 
wood  floor-beams  or  wood  roof-beams  used  in  any  building 
hereafter  erected  shall  be  of  a  less  thickness  than  three  inches. 
All  wood  trimmer  and  header  beams  shall  be  proportioned  to 
carry  with  safety  the  loads  they  are  intended  to  sustain.  Every 
wood  header  or  trimmer  more  than  four  feet  long  used  in  any 
building  shall  be  hung  in  stirrup-irons  of  suitable  thickness 
for  the  size  of  the  timbers.  Every  wood  beam,  except  header 
and  tail  beams,  shall  rest  at  one  end  four  inches  in  the  wall,  or 
upon  a  girder  as  authorized  by  this  Code.  The  ends  of  all 
wood  floor-  and  roof-beams,  where  they  rest  on  brick  walls, 
shall  be  cut  to  a  bevel  of  three  inches  on  their  depth.  In  no 
case  shall  either  end  of  a  floor-  or  roof-beam  be  supported  on 
stud  partitions,  except  in  frame  buildings.  All  wood  floor- 
and  wood  roof-beams  shall  be  properly  bridged  with  cross- 
bridging,  and  the  distance  between  bridging  or  between  bridg- 
ing and  walls  shall  not  exceed  eight  feet.  All  wood  beams 
shall  be  trimmed  away  from  all  flues  and  chimneys,  whether 
the  same  be  a  smoke,  air,  or  any  other  flue  or  chimney.  The 
trimmer  beam  shall  be  not  less  than  eight  inches  from  the 
inside  face  of  a  flue  and  four  inches  from  the  outside  of  a  chimney- 
breast,  and  the  header  beam  not  less  than  two  inches  from  the 


CARPENTRY.  307 

outside  face  of  the  brick  or  stone  work  of  the  same,  except  that 
for  the  smoke-flues  of  boilers  and  furnaces  where  the  brickwork 
is  required  to  be  eight  inches  in  thickness,  the  trimmer  beam 
shall  be  not  less  than  twelve  inches  from  the  inside  of  the  flue. 
The  header  beam,  carrying  the  tail  beams  of  a  floor,  and  support- 
ing the  trimmer  arch  in  front  of  a  fireplace,  shall  be  not  less 
than  twenty  inches  from  the  chimney-breast.  The  safe  carrying 
capacity  of  wood  beams  for  uniformly  distributed  loads  shall 
be  determined  by  multiplying  the  area  in  square  inches  by  its 
depth  in  inches  and  dividing  this  product  by  the  span  of  the 
beam  in  feet.  This  result  is  to  be  multiplied  by  seventy  for 
hemlock,  ninety  for  spruce  and  white  pine,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  for  oak,  and  by  one  hundred  and  forty  for  yellow  pine. 
The  safe  carrying  capacity  of  short-span  timber  beams  shall 
be  determined  by  their  resistance  to  shear  in  accordance  with 
the  unit  stresses  fixed  by  Section  139  of  this  Code. 

Sec.  60.  Anchors  and  Straps  for  Wood  Beams  and  Girders. 
— Each  tier  of  beams  shall  be  anchored  to  the  side,  front,  rear, 
or  party  walls  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  six  feet  apart 
with  good,  strong,  wrought-iron  anchors  of  not  less  than  one 
and  a  half  inches  by  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  size,,  well 
fastened  to  the  side  of  the  beams  by  two  or  more  nails  made 
of  wrought  iron  at  least  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Where  the  beams  are  supported  by  girders,  the  girders  shall  be 
anchored  to  the  walls  and  fastened  to  each  other  by  suitable 
iron  straps.  The  ends  of  wood  beams  resting  upon  girders 
shall  be  butted  together  end  to  end  and  strapped  by  wrought- 
iron  straps  of  the  same  size  and  distance  apart,  and  in  the  same 
beam  as  the  wall  anchors,  and  shall  be  fastened  in  the  same 
manner  as  said  wall  anchors. 

Or  they  may  lap  each  other  at  least  twelve  inches  and  be 
well  spiked  or  bolted  together  where  lapped. 

Each  tier  of  beams  front  and  rear,  opposite  each  pier,  shall 
have  hardwood  anchor  strips  dovetailed  into  the  beams  diag- 
onally, which  strips  shall  cover  at  least  four  beams  and  be  one 
inch  thick  and  four  inches  wide,  but  no  such  anchor  strips  shall 
be  let  in  within  four  feet  of  the  centre  line  of  the  beams;  or 
wood  strips  may  be  nailed  on  the  top  of  the  beams  and  kept 
in  place  until  the  floors  are  being  laid.  Every  pier  and  wall, 
front  or  rear,  shall  be  well  anchored  to  the  beams  of  each  story 
with  the  same  size  anchors  as  are  required  for  side  walls,  which 
anchors  shall  hook  over  the  fourth  beam. 


308  CARPENTRY. 

Sec.  61.  Wood  Columns  and  Plates. — All  timber  columns 
shall  be  squared  at  the  ends  perpendicular  to  their  axes. 

To  prevent  the  unit  stresses  from  exceeding  those  fixed  in 
this  Code,  timber  or  iron  cap  and  base  plates  shall  be  provided. 

Additional  iron  cheek  plates  shall  be  placed  between  the  cap 
and  base  plates  and  bolted  to  the  girders  when  required  to 
transmit  the  loads  with  safety. 

Sec.  62.  TIMBER  FOR  TRUSSES. — When  compression  mem- 
bers of  trusses  are  of  timber  they  shall  be  strained  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  fibre  only.  When  timber  is  strained  in  tension,  it 
shall  be  strained  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre  only.  The  working 
stress  in  timber  struts  of  pin-connected  trusses  shall  hot  exceed 
seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  working  stresses  established  in 
section  139,  this  Code. 

Sec.  63.  BOLTS  AND  WASHERS  FOR  TIMBER-WORK. — All  bolts 
used  in  connection  with  timber  and  wood-beam  work  shall  be 
provided  with  washers  of  such  proportions  as  will  reduce  the 
compression  on  the  wood  at  the  face  of  the  washer  to  that 
allowed  in  Section  139,  this  Code,  supposing  the  bolt  to  be 
strained  to  its  limit. 

Nails. — Functions  and  Requirements. — Nails  are  used  to 
fasten  pieces  of  wood  superposed  or  adjacent  to  each  other. 
They  are  driven  perpendicularly  to  the  materials  when  they  are 
superposed  and  obliquely  when  adjacent.  In  the  former  case 
they  draw  directly  in  line  of  the  axis  of  the  nail,  and  in  the 
latter,  obliquely  to  its  axis;  in  this  case  the  rigidity  or  trans- 
verse strength  of  the  nail  plays  an  important  part. 

In  all  cases  the  adhesive  resistance  of  a  nail  is  nearly  in  ratio 
to  the  area  of  surface  of  the  nail  subjected  to  compression 
of  the  wood  fibre,  into  which  it  is  imbedded.  It  is  therefore 
requisite  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  nail  be  imbedded  in 
the  piece  to  which  another  is  fastened;  but  in  no  instance  is 
it  necessary  that  it  should  penetrate  through  it. 

Adhesive  Resistance. — This  property  in  a  nail  is  secondary 
to  none,  and  must  always  be  supplemented  with  the  proper 
area  of  head  to  increase  the  crushing  strength  of  wood  fibre, 
in  order  that  a  nail  may  fulfill  its  primary  function  of  holding 
pieces  together  by  compression. 

It  has  been  found  in  practice  that  the  cut  nail  is  harder  to 
drive  in  than  the  wire  nail,  on  account  of  the  blunt  point  and 
tapering  sides.  While  it  has  more  adhesive  resistance  than  a 
smooth  wire  nail  of  the  same  length,  this  is  due  directly  to  the 


CARPENTRY. 


309 


fact  that  two  of  its  sides  are  tapering,  or  wedging,  and  that  it 
has  nearly  twice  the  area  of  compression;  but  the  slightest  with- 
drawal of  the  nail  releases  the  wedge,  which  immediately  re- 
duces the  area  of  compression  and  lowers  its  adhesive  resistance 
about  40  per  cent. 

This  is  not  so  with  the  wire  nail,  because  the  area  of  com- 
pression only  varies  as  the  distance  the  nail  is  imbedded,  and 
its  adhesive  resistance  is  nearly  in  ratio  to  this  area. 

From  what  has  been  stated  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  greatest 
area  of  compression  and  adhesive  resistance  in  a  cut  nail  is 
towards  the  head  of  the  nail,  whereas  it  should  be  at  the  point, 
while  in  the  wire  nail  it  varies  only  as  the  units  of  its  length; 
therefore  the  excess  of  metal  used  and  the  very  form  of  the 
cut  nail  is  primarily  wrong,  as  proved  by  modern  practice,  and 
is  contrary  to  the  very  sense  of  its  purpose,  while  the  wire  nail 
fulfils  the  requirements  of  a  perfect  nail. 

Herein  follow  tables  showing  comparative  tests  of  smooth 
steel  wire  nails,  steel  cut  nails,  and  coated  steel  wire  nails,  with 
reference  to  their  area  of  compression  and  adhesive  resistance 
to  pull. 

TESTS  SHOWING  ADHESIVE  RESISTANCE  FOR  EACH  ONE- 
HALF  INCH  UNIT  OF  LENGTH  OF  NAIL  IMBEDDED  INTO 
WHITE  PINE. 


Kind  of  Nail. 

Com- 
mercial 
Gauge. 

Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 

Adhesive  Resistance  in  Pounds 
for  Each  i-inch  Unit. 

2  Ins., 
Lbs. 

H  Ins., 
Lbs. 

1  In., 
Lbs. 

Un., 
Lbs. 

8d    common     smooth 
wire  
lOd     common    smooth 
wire  
20d    common     smooth 
wire  

101 
9 
6 

.135 
.148 
.192 

210 
200 
220 

170 
150 
130 

140 
110 
110 

90 
80 
80 

120 
150 

8d      common     coated 
wire  nail  
lOd      common     coated 
wire  nail  

11 
10 

.120 
.135 

370 
400 

2*0 
330 

220 
250 

8d  common  cut  steel.  .  . 
lOd  common  cut  steel.  .  . 
20d  common  cut  steel.  .  . 

Dimensions. 
1(HX9 
10*X5* 
7  X4 

260 
320 
280 

90 
140 
90 

40 
60 
40 

0 
0 
0 

Remarks. — The  resistance  here  given  was  recorded  on  the  machine  gauge, 
the  nail  being  driven  into  the  wood  2  inches  deep,  then  each  reading  of  the 
gauge  was  taken  successively  as  the  nail  was  withdrawn  to  the  measurements 
given. 


310 


CARPENTRY. 


A  CUT  NAIL  LOSES  FORTY  PER  CENT  OF  ITS  ADHESIVE  RE- 
SISTANCE THE  MOMENT  IT  HAS  BEEN  SLIGHTLY  WITH- 
DRAWN. 


Dis- 

Resist- 

Resist- 

Resist- 

Kind  of  Nail. 

Com- 
mercial 
Gauge. 

"tance 
Em- 
bedded, 
Inches. 

ance  to 
Initial 
Pull, 
Lbs. 

ance 
Second 
Pull, 
Lbs. 

Loss 
after 
First 
Pull. 

Per 

Cent 
Loss. 

8d  cut  common  

10* 

H 

260 

160 

100 

40 

12d    "           "       

9 

2 

390 

220 

170 

43 

Remarks. — The  first  pull  extracted  the  nail  about  392  inch. 

ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT,  U.  S.  A. 

Reports  of  mechanical  tests  made  with  the  United  States  Testing  Machine 
at  Watertown  Arsenal,  Watertown,  Mass.,  June  30,  1902,  and  August  5 
and  16,  1902,  for  .1.  C.  Pearson  Company. 

(Nails  driven  perpendicular  to  the  grain  of  the  wood.     All  nails  driven  in 
the  same  stick.) 


Test 
Num- 
ber. 

Description  of  Nail. 

Length 
Driven, 
Inches. 

Adhe- 
sive 
Resist- 
ance, 
Total 
Lbs. 

Aver- 
age, 
Lbs. 

Size  and  Name. 

Diam- 
eter, 

Inches. 

.145 
.145 
.145 
.117 
.117 
.117 
.132 
.132 
.132 
.114 
.114 
.114 
.132 
.132 
.132 
.112 
.112 
.112 
.097 
.097 
.097 
.092 
.092 
.092 

Total 
Length, 
Inches. 

11.989 
12.058 
11.991 
11.992 
11.993 
12.044 
11.998 
12.059 

(  lOd  common  smooth  . 
•<10d        "             "       . 
llOd 
(  lOd  coated  
^  lOd      " 

2.99 
2.99 
2.99 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 
2.83 
2.83 
2.83 
2.68 
2.68 
2.68 
2.52 
2.52 
2.52 
2.39 
2.39 
2.39 
2.05 
2.05 
2.05 
1.94 
1.94 
1.94 

2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 
2.25 
2.25 
2.25 
2.25 
2.25 
2.25 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
2.00 
1.625 
1.625 
1.625 
1.625 
1  .  625 
1.625 

136 
144 
220 
414 
406 
435 
226 
125 
196 
345 
318 
317 
146 
228 
192 
322 
318 
309 
100 
112 
105 
214 
218 
247 

>•  167 
I  418 
I  182 
j-  327 
I  189 
I  316 
>-  106 
j-  226 

1  lOd       "  
(    9d  common  smooth  . 
\    9d        "             "       . 
1    9d        "              "        . 
(    9d  coated  
\    9d      "      
{    9d       "      

(    8d  common  smooth  . 
\    8d        "             "       . 
1    8d        "              "        . 
i    8d  coated 

•<    8d       " 

I    Sd       "   
I    6d  common  smooth  . 
\    6d        "             "       . 
1    6d        "              "        . 
(    6d  coated  
\    6d       " 

1    6d       •"     

The  coated  nails  used  in  making  the  above  tests  were  those 
manufactured  by  J.  C.  Pearson  Company,  Boston. 

The  various  kinds  of  nails  derive  their  names  from  their 
shape,  material  from  which  they  are  made,  or  from  the  use 
for  which  they  are  intended. 


CARPENTRY. 


311 


The  term  penny,  as  applied  to  nails,  is  derived  from  pound. 
It  originally  meant  so  many  pounds  to  the  thousand.  Three- 
penny nails  would  mean  three  pounds  to  the  thousand  nails; 
eight-penny,  eight  pounds  to  the  thousand  nails,  etc.  Now 
the  term  penny  is  used  only  to  refer  to  the  length  of  the  nail. 

3  Ibs.  8d  nails  will  lay  one  square  flooring, 
2    "    8d     "       "      "      "         "       sheathing. 
2    "    8d     "       "      "      "         "       siding, 

For  quantity  of  nails  required  see  Lathing,  Shingling,  and 
Slating. 

SPIKES,   NAILS,   AND   TACKS. 


Standard  Steel  Wire  Nails. 

Steel  Wire 
Spikes. 

Common  Iron 
Nails. 

1 

Common. 

Finishing. 

1 

A 

1 

^3 

y 
C5 

y 
C 

« 

o 
c 

1 

3 

f| 

1? 

|| 

|3 

K-  1 

II 

1 

1—  1 

PH 

CO 

M 

—   C 

g  o3 

S  c 

?   Q^ 

"So 

S  c 

e 

CC 

t3> 

r" 

ce 

j 

Cj^ 

s 

|Cj 

S 

|a 

1 

s 

ffi 

1 

!§ 

2d 

1 

0524 

1060 

.0453  1558 

3 

.1620 

41 

2d 

1 

800 

3d 

H 

.0588 

640 

.0508    913 

.1819 

30 

3d 

H 

400 

4d 

If 

.0720 

380 

.0508    761 

4 

.2043 

23 

4d 

H 

300 

5d 

I* 

.0764 

275 

.0571    500 

41 

.2294 

17 

5d 

if 

200 

6d 

2 

.0808 

210 

.0641:   350 

5 

.2576 

13 

6d 

2 

150 

7d 

21 

.0858 

160 

.0641     315 

.2893 

11 

7d 

21 

120 

8d 

.0935 

115 

.0720    214 

6 

.2893 

10 

8d 

2* 

85 

9d 

2i 

.0963 

93 

.0720     195 

6* 

.2249 

9d 

2* 

75 

lOd 

3 

.1082 

77 

.0808'    137 

7" 

.2249 

7 

lOd 

3 

60 

12d 
16d 

it 

.1144 
.1285 

60 

48 

.0808!    127 
.  0907      90 

8 
9 

.3648 
.3648 

5 

12d 
16d 

It 

50 

20d 

4 

.1620 

31 

.1019 

62 

20d 

4 

20 

30d 

41. 

1819 

22 

30d 

41 

16 

40d 

5 

.2043 

17 

40d 

K 

14 

50d 

2294 

13 

50d 

5^ 

11 

60d 

6 

.2576 

11 

60d 

8 

i 

TACKS. 


Title, 
Ounce. 

Length, 
Inches. 

Num- 
ber per 

Title, 
Ounce. 

Length, 
Inches. 

Num- 
ber per 

Title, 
Ounce. 

Length, 
Inches. 

Num- 
ber per 

Pound. 

Pound. 

Pound. 

1 

u 

16,000 

4 

tte 

4000 

14 

18/lo 

1143 

1* 

1 

10,666 
8,000 

6 

8 

%a 

% 

2666 
2000 

16 

18 

14 

15/ie 

1000 
888 

2^ 

6/ia 

6,400 

10 

Hie 

1600 

20 

1 

800 

3 

H 

5,333 

12 

H 

1333 

22 

IMe 

727 

24 

m 

666 

312 


CARPENTRY. 


WROUGHT  SPIKES. 
Number  to  a  keg  of  150  pounds. 


L'gth, 

I  u.s. 

MIn., 
Num- 
ber. 

546ln" 

Num- 
ber. 

%In., 
Num- 
ber. 

L'gth, 
Ins. 

MIn., 
Num- 
ber. 

5/ie  In., 
Num- 
ber. 

Ys  In., 
Num- 
ber. 

%eln., 
JN  um- 
ber. 

X  In., 

Num- 
ber. 

3 
3* 

1* 

6 

2250 
1890 
1650 
1464 
1380 
1292 

1208 
1135 
1064 
930 
868 

742 
570 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 

1161 

662 
635 
573 

482 
455 
424 
391 

445 
384 
300 
270 
249 
236 

306 
256 
240 
222 
203 
180 

WEIGHT  OF  COPPER  NAILS. 

CUT  COPPER  SLATING  NAILS. 
\\  inch,  about  190  to  the  pound. 
1J  inch,  about  135  to  the  pound. 

CUT  YELLOW  METAL  SLATING  NAILS. 
1|  inch,  about  154  to  the  pound. 
1J  inch,  about  140  to  the  pound. 

COPPER  WIRE  SLATING  NAILS. 

|  inch  No.  12  gauge  about  303  per  pound. 
1        lt       "12      ec          fe      270    (t        tf 


•J  1       It          "11          IC               ct 

1£     "       "    10      "          " 

•I  I        (f          (t      -|  o          i(                {t 
1  i-        (t           "12          "                 " 

NUMBER  OF  BOAT  SPIKES 

196    "          " 
134    " 
231    "        " 
210    " 

TO   200-POUND  KEG. 

Diameter. 


s-g 

Is 

14  Inch 
Square. 

«Ke  Inch 
Square. 

^Inch 
Square. 

Vie  Inch 
Square. 

\4  Inch 
Square. 

y9  Inch 
Square. 

%  Inch 
Square. 

3 

3300 

31 

2880 

4 

2343 

167i 

*J 

2200 

1364 

i039 

5 

2030 

1308 

935 

•r«* 

1828 

1175 

880 

. 

6 

1624 

1115 

710 

562 

433 

7 

1420 

988 

665 

516 

400 

8 

1220 

849 

602 

453 

337 

9 

519 

409 

305 

10 

468 

369 

297 

'182 

12 

410 

302 

241 

155 

14 

216 

130 

'95' 

16 

182 

122 

80 

TIMBER. 


313 


NUMBER   AND   DIAMETER   OF   WOOD   SCREWS. 


Num- 

Diam- 

i  Num- 

Diam- 

Num- 

Diam- 

Num- 

Diam- 

ber. 

eter. 

1     her. 

eter. 

ber. 

eter. 

ber. 

eter. 

0 

.056 

8 

.162 

16 

.268 

24 

.374 

1 

.069 

9 

.175 

17 

.281 

25 

.387 

2 

.082 

10 

.188 

18 

.293 

26 

.401 

3 

.096 

11 

.201 

19 

.308 

27 

.414 

4 

.109 

12 

.215 

20 

.321 

28 

.427 

5 

.122 

13 

.228 

21 

.334 

29 

.440 

6 

.135 

14 

.241 

22 

.347 

30 

.453 

7 

.149 

15 

.255 

23 

.361 

Timber. — DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  VARIOUS  WOODS  USED  IN 
CONSTRUCTION. — White  Pine,  or  Northern  pine,  is  found  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada.  It  is  a  light, 
soft,  straight-grained  wood  of  a  light  yellowish  color;  it  is 
mostly  used  in  buildings  for  trim  and  mouldings,  where  the 
work  is  to  be  painted  or  stained.  It  is  one  of  the  most  reliable 
of  woods  for  staying  in  place  after  it  is  put  up,  as  it  does  not 
twist  and  warp  like  some  of  the  other  woods. 

Georgia  Pine,  which  is  also  known  as  pitch  or  hard  pine,  and 
is  usually  specified  as  "long-leaf  pine,"  is  found  along  the 
southern  coast  of  the  United  States,  from  Virginia  to  Texas; 
it  is  the  best  variety  of  the  yellow  pine,  and  is  much  used  for 
flooring,  and  also  for  heavy  framing.  It  is  a  very  strong  wood 
and  contains  much  resin.  It  should  not  be  used  under  ground 
or  in  damp  places,  as  it  decays  very  fast  in  such  places.  The 
other  species  of  yellow  pine  are  often  sold  as  Georgia  "long- 
leaf,  "  but  they  are  much  softer  and  not  so  strong.  The  super- 
intendent should  make  himself  familiar  with  the  different 
species  so  as  to  be  able  to  distinguish  them. 

Spruce  is  the  name  given  to  all  the  varieties  of  the  spruce- 
fir  tree,  of  which  there  are  four:  white,  black,  Norway,  and 
single  spruce.  Spruce  is  a  very  tough  light  wood,  with  a  red- 
dish color,  and  is  much  used  for  framing  lumber;  it  is  also 
much  used  for  piles,  as  it  preserves  well  in  the  water  or  in  damp 
places. 

Oregon  Pine. — This  is  the  best  framing  lumber  found  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  much  harder  and  stronger  than  the  white 
pine  and  does  not  contain  as  much  resin  as  the  yellow  pine. 
It  can  be  got  in  any  size  and  length  and  is  much  used  for  masts 
and  spars. 

Hemlock  is  similar  to  spruce  in  appearance,  but  is  a  much 
inferior  wood.  It  is  very  brittle,  splits  very  easily,  and  is  often 


314  TIMBER. 

found  shaky.  The  grain  is  very  coarse  and  the  concentric 
circular  layers  of  the  wood  separate  easily.  It  is  only  used  as 
a  cheap  framing  lumber,  and  for  sheathing,  as  it  holds  a  nail 
better  than  the  soft  pine. 

White  Cedar  is  a  soft  white,  fine-grained  wood,  and  is  very 
durable  when  exposed  to  dampness,  hence  it  makes  good  shingles, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  much  used. 

Red  Cedar  is  a  similar  wood  to  the  white  cedar,  but  is  of  a 
reddish-brown  color.  It  possesses  a  strong  odor  which  repels 
insects,  and  on  this  account  is  much  used  for  making  chests, 
lining  wardrobes,  etc.  It  is  also  a  good  wood  for  use  in  damp 
places,  as  it  stands  the  moisture  very  well. 

Cypress  is  a  wood  somewhat  similar  to  cedar,  and  is  much 
used  for  shingles,  and  for  use  where  dampness  is  to  be  con- 
sidered. It  is  found  in  the  southern  and  southwestern  parts  of 
the  United  States. 

Red  Wood,  which  is  the  common  name  given  to  the  Sequoia 
or  "big  trees"  of  California,  is  a  valuable  lumber  for  building 
purposes  where  great  strength  is  not  necessary.  It  has  great 
lasting  qualities  when  exposed  to  dampness  and  makes  the 
best  of  shingles.  For  sills  or  posts  in  the  ground  it  is  one  of 
the  best  woods  to  be  found.  It  makes  good  weather-boarding 
or  mouldings  and  takes  the  paint  well.  It  is  of  a  dull-reddish 
color  and  makes  a  very  nice  finish  when  finished  natural. 

White  Oak  is  the  hardest  of  the  several  varieties  of  oak,  and 
is  found  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States.  The  wood 
is  very  heavy,  hard,  and  strong,  and  is  used  where  strength  is 
desired. 

Red  Oak  is  of  a  more  open  grain  than  the  white  oak  and  is 
softer  and  not  so  strong.  It  is  more  easily  worked  and  is  much 
used  for  inside  finish.  Red  oak  when  quarter-sawed  makes 
one  of  the  most  pleasing  finishes  to  the  eye. 

Ash. — This  wood  grows  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  very  heavy  and  hard,  is  usually  white  in  color,  and 
is  used  for  finish  and  for  furniture. 

Hickory  is  the  'heaviest,  toughest,  hardest,  and  strongest  of 
all  woods  found  in  America.  It  is  very  close-grained  and  is 
very  flexible.  It  is  not  used  much  for  building  purposes,  unless 
for  wedges,  pins,  and  such  like. 

Locust  is  a  hard,  close-grained  wood  of  a  yellowish  color; 
its  use  is  principally  for  posts  in  the  ground  or  such  places,  as  it 
is  a  very  lasting  wood  in  damp  places. 


TIMBER.  315 

Black  Walnut  is  a  heavy,  hard  wood  of  a  dark-brown  color 
and  has  a  very  nice  even  grain.  On  account  of  its  value  it  is 
not  used  much  for  building  purposes,  but  its  use  is  confined 
mostly  to  furniture  and  cabinet  work. 

White  Walnut  (butternut)  is  a  specie  of  the  walnut;  the  wood 
is  lighter  in  color  and  heavier  in  grain.  Its  uses  are  about  the 
same  as  black  walnut. 

Cherry — This  wood,  which  is  obtained  from  the  wild-cherry 
tree,  is  used  for  interior  finish  and  for  furniture.  It  is  hard, 
close-grained,  and  very  durable;  it  takes  a  high  polish  and 
stands  well,  as  it  is  not  liable  to  twist  or  warp. 

Birch  is  much  similar  to  cherry  in  structure  and  in  appearance, 
but  it  does  not  stand  as  well,  being  more  liable  to  twist  and 
warp. 

Maple  is  a  hard,  heavy,  strong,  close-grained  wood  of  a 
light  color.  It  is  one  of  the  best  woods  in  use  for  flooring,  and 
is  much  used  for  this  purpose.  The  "bird's-eye"  maple,  which 
is  covered  with  small  spots  which  resemble  small  knots,  is  used 
for  finish  and  for  furniture. 

Chestnut,  which  is  a  soft,  coarse-grained  wood  of  a  somewhat 
similar  color  to  oak,  is  found  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  not  a  strong  wood,  being  very  brittle,  but  its 
lasting  qualities  are  very  good.  It  is  used  for  inside  finish  and 
resembles  oak.  It  is  also  used  for  outside  structures  exposed 
to  the  weather,  on  account  of  its  durability. 

Poplar  (whitewood)  is  a  wood  of  a  yellowish  color,  soft 
and  brittle,  with  a  close  grain.  It  is  used  mostly  for  mouldings 
or  inside  finish,  frequently  to  imitate  hard  woods,  as  it  has  a 
close  grain  and  takes  stain  well.  The  sap-wood  is  nearly  white 
in  color. 

Mahogany.  —  This  wood  comes  from  the  West  Indies  and 
Central  America,  and  is  very  valuable.  It  is  used  principally 
in  the  manufacture  of  furniture;  also  for  finishing  in  the  more 
expensive  houses  or  buildings. 

When  timber  of  any  kind  is  to  be  used  in  any  structure  or 
construction  of  any  kind,  it  will  be  the  duty  of  the  superin- 
tendent to  see  that  it  is  free  from  all  defects,  of  which  the  most 
common  are  rot,  dry-rot,  wind-shakes,  splits,  bad  knots, 
sap,  etc. 

In  lumber  which  contains  sap,  and  which  has  been  piled 
for  some  time,  just  after  being  sawed,  and  piled  without  stick- 
ing, the  sap  will  usually  turn  a  dark-blue  or  drab  color.  This 


316  TIMBER. 

is  "black  or  blue  sap"  and  is  the  first  stages  of  " dry-rot," 
and  any  lumber  in  this  condition  should  be  rejected. 

Lumber  which  has  been  cut  from  trees  growing  in  soft  soil 
or  swamps  is  often  found  to  contain  "wind-shakes,"  caused 
by  the  usually  rapid  growth  of  the  trees  and  the  swaying  or 
bending  of  the  trees  by  the  wind.  These  shakes  are  Bracks 
separating  the  concentric  circular  rings  of  the  wood. 

Heart-shakes,  or  splits,  are  the  cracks  found  in  the  heart  of 
the  log,  usually  caused  by  the  shrinkage  of  the  log,  or  the  heart 
of  the  tree  or  log  separating  from  the  outside  layers  of  the 
wood. 

A  sound  stick  of  timber  when  struck  a  sharp  blow  with  a 
hammer  on  the  end  should  give  forth  a  clear  ringing  sound, 
and  which  can  be  heard  by  a  person  placing  his  ear  at 
the  opposite  end  of  the  stick.  If  the  sound  is  dull  and 
faint  it  is  an  indication  of  decay  or  some  defect  in  the 
stick. 

Timber  for  posts  carrying  great  weight  should  be  from  the 
heart  of  the  tree,  as  this  is  usually  the  strongest,  and  the  com- 
pression strength  will  be  the  same  on  all  outside  parts  of  the 
stick. 

Timber  for  flag-poles  or  masts  should  also  be  from  the  heart 
of  the  tree.  If  one  side  of  the  stick  is  heart-wood  and  the 
opposite  side  of  the  stick  is  wood  from  out  next  the  bark  the 
unequal  shrinkage  of  the  two  sides  of  the  stick  in  length  will 
cause  the  stick  to  bow  and  become  crooked. 

Timber  before  being  used  should  be  well  seasoned  either  by 
natural  or  artificial  means.  Timber  if  piled  when  sawed  and 
strips  placed  between  each  layer  of  timber  so  as  to  permit  the 
air  to  get  to  all  sides  of  the  timber  will  season  for  ordinary 
use  in  from  seven  months  to  two  years,  according  to  the  kind 
of  wood  and  the  size  of  the  sticks. 

When  timber  is  used  in  any  place  where  shrinkage  in  the 
timber  may  weaken  the  structure,  the  superintendent  should 
make  sure  that  the  timber  has  been  well  seasoned  and  is  per- 
fectly dry. 

When  lumber  of  any  kind  is  brought  to  the  work  the  super- 
intendent should  see  that  it  is  piled  up  and  covered  in  a  proper 
manner  to  protect  it  from  the  sun  and  weather,  as  good  lum- 
ber can  be  very  easily  spoiled  by  carelessness  in  piling  or 
covering. 

The  shrinkage  of  timber  is  shown  by  the  following  table: 


TIMBER. 


317 


Cedar 12  to  11 .40  inches. 

Elm 12  to  11:70  " 

Oak 12  to  11 . 75  •    " 

Pine  (white) 12  to  11. 80  " 

Pine  (yellow) 12  to  11 .90  " 

Pine  (yellow  long-leaf) 12  to  11.95  " 

Redwood  (California) 12  to  11 .95  " 

Spruce 12  to  11.85  " 

The  working  strength  of  timber  as  given  by  the  New  York 
Building  Code  is  shown  by  the  following  table: 


WORKING  STRENGTH  PER  SQUARE  INCH   IN   POUNDS. 


Name  of  Wood. 

Direct  Compres- 
sion, 

Ten- 
sion. 

Shearing. 

Safe  Ex- 
treme 
Fibre 
Stress 
(Bend- 
ing). 

With 
Grain. 

Across 
Grain. 

With 
Fibre. 

Across 
Fibre. 

Oak  
Yellow  pine  
White  pine  
Spruce  
Locust. 

900 
1000 
800 
SCO 
1200 
500 
500 

800 
600 
400 
400 
1000 
500 
1000 

1000 
1200 
800 
800 

100 
70 
40 
50 
100 
40 

600 
500 
250 
320 
720 
275 
150 

1000 
1200 
800 
800 
1200 
600 
800 

Hemlock  
Chestnut  

LASTING  QUALITIES  OF  WOOD  IN  THE  EARTH.  —  Experi- 
ments have  been  made  by  driving  sticks  of  different  woods 
into  the  ground,  by  which  it  is  ascertained  that  in  five  years 
all  of  those  made  of  oak,  elm,  fir,  ash,  soft  mahogany,  and  all 
varieties  of  pine  were  almost  totally  rotten;  larch  and  teak 
were  decayed  on  the  outside;  acacia  was  only  slightly  decayed 
on  the  outside;  hard  mahogany  and  cedar  of  Lebanon  were 
in  good  condition;  Virginia  cedar  was  as  good  as  when  put  in. 
California  redwood  is  also  one  of  the  best  woods  for  use  in 
damp  places,  as  it  is  very  slow  to  decay. 

Any  wood  to  be  exposed  to  much  dampness  should  if  possible 
be  coated  or  impregnated  with  some  preservative.  The  most 
effectual  method  of  preserving  wood  from  decay  is  to  force  the 
-preservative,  such  as  creosote  or  other  mixture,  into  the  pores 
of  the  wood.  Plants  for  doing  this  are  found  in  nearly  all  the 
large  cities. 

For  timbers,  etc.,  to  be  used  underground,  a  coat  of  coal-tar 
applied  hot  is  a  good  method  of  preserving  the  wood  from  rot. 


318 


TIMBER. 


SAFE  LOADS  UNIFORMLY  DISTRIBUTED  FOR  RECTANGULAR 
SPRUCE  OR  WHITE-PINE  BEAMS  ONE  INCH  THICK, 

The  following  table  has  been  calculated  for  extreme  fibre  stresses  of  750 
pounds  per  square  inch  corresponding  to  the  following  values  for  moduli 
of  rupture  recommended  by  Prof.  Lanza,  viz. : 

Spruce  and  white  pine 3000  Ibs. 

Oak 4000     ' 

Yellow  pine 5000     ' 

For  oak  increase  values  in  table  by  £.  For  yellow  pine  increase  values  in 
table  by  $. 

The  safe  load  for  any  other  values  per  square  inch  is  found  by  increasing 
or  decreasing  the  loads  given  in  the  table  in  the  same  proportion  as  the 
increased  or  decreased  fibre  stress. 


Depth  of  Beam. 


Span 

"^ 
in 

Feet. 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

5 

600 

820 

1070 

1350 

1670 

2020 

2400 

2820 

3270 

3750 

4270 

6 

500 

680 

890 

1120 

1390 

1680 

2000 

2350 

2730  13120 

3560 

7 

430 

580 

760 

960 

1190 

1440 

1710 

2010 

2330  |2680 

3050 

8 

380 

510 

670 

840 

1040 

1260 

1500 

1760 

2040  2340 

2670 

9 

330 

460 

590 

750 

930 

1120 

1330 

1560 

1810 

2080 

2370 

10 

300 

410 

530 

670 

830 

1010 

1200 

1410 

1630 

1880 

2130 

11 

270 

370 

490 

610 

760 

920 

1090 

1280 

1490 

1710 

1940 

12 

250 

340 

440 

560 

690 

840 

1000 

1180 

1360 

1560 

1780 

13 

230 

310 

410 

520 

640 

780 

930 

1080 

1260 

1440 

1640 

14 

210 

290 

380 

480 

590 

720 

860 

1010 

1170 

1340 

1530 

15 

200 

270 

360 

450 

560 

670 

800 

940 

1090 

1250 

1420 

16 

190 

260 

330 

42J 

520 

630 

750 

880 

1020 

1180 

1330 

17 

180 

240 

310 

400 

490 

590 

710 

830 

960 

1100 

1260 

18 

170 

230 

290 

370 

460 

560 

670 

780 

910 

1040 

1190 

19 

160 

210 

280 

360 

440 

530 

630 

740 

860 

990 

1130 

20 

150 

200 

270 

340 

420 

510 

600 

710 

820 

940 

1070 

21 

140 

190 

260 

320 

390 

480 

570 

670 

780 

890 

1020 

22    140 

190 

240 

310 

380 

460 

540 

640 

7^0 

850 

970 

23  !  130 

180 

230 

290 

360 

440 

520 

610 

710 

810 

920 

24 

130 

170 

220 

280 

350 

420 

500 

590 

680 

780 

890 

25 

120 

160 

210 

270 

330 

410 

480 

560 

660   750 

860 

26 

110 

160 

210 

260 

320 

390 

460 

540 

630 

720 

820 

27 

110 

150 

200 

250 

310 

370 

440 

520 

610 

690 

790 

28 

110 

140 

190 

240 

300 

360 

430 

500 

580 

670 

760 

29 

110 

140 

180 

230 

290 

350 

410 

490 

560 

640 

740 

To  obtain  the  safe  load  for  any  thickness  multiply  values  for  1  inch  bys 
thickness  of  beam. 

To  obtain  the  required  thickness  for  any  load  divide  by  safe  load  for 
1  inch. 


TIMBER. 


319 


SAFE   LOADS    FOR   RECTANGULAR   WOODEN   PILLARS 

(SEASONED). 

1  =  length  of  pillar  in  inches; 

d  =  width  of  smallest  side  in  inches. 


Yellow  Pine  (Southern). 
1125 

White  Oak. 
925 

+  1100rf2 

White  Pine  and  Spruce. 
800 

11       l2 

11       P 

llOOrf2 

1  HOOd2 

These  formulae  give  safe  loads  of  one-fourth  the  ultimate  strength  for 
short  pillars,  decreasing  to  one-fifth  the  ultimate  for  long  pillars. 


Ratio  of  Length 

Safe  Loads  in  Pounds  per  Square  Inch  of  Section. 

to  Lcust  Side 

i 

T 

Yellow  Pine 
(Southern). 

White  Oak. 

White  Pine  and 
Spruce. 

12 

995 

818 

707 

14 

955 

785 

679 

16 

913 

750 

649 

18 

869 

715 

618 

20 

825 

678 

587 

22 

781 

642 

556 

24 

738 

607 

525 

26 

697 

575 

495 

28 

657 

541 

467 

30 

619 

509 

440 

32 

583 

479 

414 

34 

549 

451 

390 

36 

516 

425 

367 

38 

487 

400 

346 

40 

458 

377 

326 

The  Cleveland  Building  Code  gives  the  following  proportions 
for  wood  and  other  columns: 

Sec.  14.  LENGTH  OF  COLUMNS,  POSTS,  AND  PIERS. — No  free- 
standing or  built-in  column,  pier,  or  post  shall  exceed  the  follow- 
ing proportions  of  the  least  side  or  diameter  to  the  height  with- 
out being  .anchored,  stayed,  or  tied  by  beams  or  girders  in  at 
least  two  (2)  directions  at  right  angles  to  each  other : 

Brick  piers 1 :  8 

Block  stone  piers 1:10 

Wooden  posts,  short 1:16 


320 


TIMBER. 


Wooden  posts,  long 1 : 24 

Cast-iron  columns,  short 1 : 20 

Cast-iron  columns,  long 1 : 30 

Wrought-iron  columns 1 : 40 

Steel  columns  . .  .  1 : 44 


SAFE  LOADS  IN  TONS  OF  2000  POUNDS  FOR  SQUARE  WOODEN 
PILLARS. 


Unsup- 
ported 
Length 
of  Col- 
umn in 
Feet. 

Size  of  Pillar  in  Inches. 

6X6 

8X8 

9X9 

10X10 

12X12 

14X14 

16X16 

6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 

WHITE  PINE  OH  SPRUCE. 

12.80 
11.70 
10.60 
9.54 
8.46 
7.38 

22.7 
21.3 
19.8 
18.4 
17.0 
15.5 
14.1 

29.6 
28.0 
26.3 
24.7 
23.1 
21.5 
19.8 
18.2 

35.5 
33.7 
31.9 
30.1 
28.3 
26.5 
24.7 
22.9 

51.1 
49.0 
46.8 
44.7 
42.5 
40.3 
38.2 

69.6 
67.0 
64.5 
62.0 
59.5 
57.0 

91.0 

88.0 
85.2 
82.3 
79.4 

WHITE  OAK. 

6 
8 
10 
I?. 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 

14.80 
13.50 
12.20 
11.00 
9.73 
8.64 

26.2 
24.6 
22.7 
21.1 
19.5 
17.8 
16.3 

34.0 
32.4 
30.4 
28.4 
26.5 
24.7 
22.7 
21.1 

41.0 
39.1 
36.7 
34.6 
32.4 
30.5 
28.2 
26.4 

59.1 
56.9 
54.0 
51.1 
49.1 
46.1 
43.9 

80.4 
77.8 
74.5 
71.3 
68.3 
65.5 

105.0 
102.0 
98.5 
94.7 
90.9 

YELLOW  PINE  (SOUTHERN). 

6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 

18.0 
16.4 
14.9 
13.3 
11.9 
10.4 

98.0 
94.6 
90.7 
86.9 
83.6 
80.0 

132.0 
128.0 
124.0 
120.0 
115.0 
111.0 

32.0 
29.9 
27.8 
25.8 
23.7 
21.8 
19.8 

41.6 
39.4 
36.9 
34.7 
32.3 
30.0 
27.8 
25.7 

50.0 
47.6 
44.7 
42.3 
39.5 
37.0 
34.6 
32.2 

72.0 
69.1 
65.5 
62.6 
59.8 
56.2 
53.3 

INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE.  321 

As  a  guide  to  the  superintendent  for  inspection  of  lumber 
of  various  kinds  the  rules  for  inspection  of  the  different  lumber 
associations  are  given  as  follows: 


SOUTHERN  LUMBER  MANUFACTURERS'  ASSOCIATION. 


RULES    FOR  THE  GRADING  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF 
YELLOW  PINE. 


General  Instructions. — 1.  YELLOW-PINE  LUMBER  shall 
be  graded  and  classified  according  to  the  following  rules  and 
specifications  as  to  quality,  and  dressed  stock  shall  conform 
to  the  subjoined  table  of  standard  sizes,  except  where  otherwise 
expressly  stipulated  between  buyer  and  seller. 

2.  Recognized  defects  in  yellow  pine  are  knots,  knot-holes, 
splits   (either  from  seasoning  ring  hearts  or  rough  handling), 
shake,  wane,  red  heart,  rot,  rotten  streaks,  worm-holes,  pitch 
streaks,  pitch  pockets,  solid  pitch,  torn  grain,  loosened  grain, 
seasoning  or  kiln  checks,   and  black   or  blue  sap-stains. 

3.  KNOTS. — Knots  shall  be  classified  as  pin,  standard,  and 
large,  as  to  size;  and  round  and  spike,  as  to  form;   and  as  sound, 
loose,  encased,  pith  and  rotten,  as  to  quality. 

4.  A  pin  knot  is  sound  and  not  over  J  inch  in  diameter. 

5.  A   standard   knot   is   sound   and   not   over    1J   inches-: in 
diameter. 

6.  A  large  knot  is  sound  and  any  size  over  1|  inches   in 
diameter. 

7.  A  round  knot  is  oval  or  circular  in  form,  and  the  mean  or 
average  diameter  of  the  same  shall  be  considered  in  applying 
and  construing  the  rules. 

8.  A  spike  knot  is  one  sawn  in  a  lengthwise  direction. 

9.  A  sound  knot  is  one  solid  across  its  face,  is  as  hard  as  the 
wood  it  is  in,  may  be  either  red  or  black,  and  is  so  fixed  by  growth 
or  position  that  it  will  retain  its  place  in  the  piece. 

10.  A  loose  knot  is  one  not  held  firmly  in  place  by  growth 
or  position. 

11.  A  pith  knot  is  a  small,  sound  knot  with  a  pith-hole  not 
more  than  \  inch  in  diameter  in  the  centre. 


322 


INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE. 


LUMBER  MEASURE. 


Inches 
Wide. 

Length  in  Feet. 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

IX  8 

8 

9 

11 

12 

13 

15 

16 

IX  10 

10 

12 

13 

15 

17 

18 

20 

1X12 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

2X  3 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

2X  4 

8 

9 

11 

12 

13 

15 

16 

2X  6 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

2X  8 

16 

19 

21 

24 

27 

29 

32 

2X10 

20 

23 

27 

30 

33 

37 

40 

2X12 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

2X14 

28 

33 

37 

42 

47 

51 

56 

2X16 

32 

37 

43 

48 

53 

59 

64 

3X  4 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

3X  6 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

3X  8 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

3X10 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

3X12 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

3X14 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

77 

84 

3X16 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

4X  4 

16 

19 

21 

24 

27 

29 

32 

4X  6 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

4X  8 

32 

37 

43 

48 

53 

59 

64 

4X10 

40 

47 

53 

60 

67 

73 

80 

4X12 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

6X  6 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

6X  8 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

6X10 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

6X12 

72 

84 

96 

108 

120 

132 

144 

6X14 

84 

98 

112 

126 

140 

154 

168 

6X16 

06 

112 

128 

144 

1GO 

176 

192 

8X  8 

64 

75 

85 

96 

107 

117 

128 

8X10 

80 

93 

107 

120 

133 

147 

160 

8X12 

96 

112 

128 

144 

160 

176 

192 

8X14 

112 

131 

149 

168 

187 

205 

224 

8X16 

128 

149 

171 

192 

213 

235 

256 

10X10 

100 

117 

133 

150 

167 

183 

200 

10X12 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

220 

240 

12X12 

144 

168 

192 

216 

240 

264 

288 

12.  An  incased  knot  is  one  surrounded  wholly  or  in  part  by 
bark   or  pitch. 

13.  A  rotten  knot  is  one  not  as  hard  as  the  wood  it  is  in. 

14.  PITCH. — Pitch  pockets  are  openings  between  the   grain 
of  the  wood  containing  more  or  less  pitch  or  bark,  and  shall 
be  classified  as  large  and  small  pitch  pockets. 

15.  A  standard  pitch  pocket  is  one  not  over  f  of  an  inch  in 
open  width  or  3  inches  in  length. 

A  small  pitch  pocket  is  one  less  than  f  of  an  inch  in  open 
width. 

16.  A  pitch  pocket  showing  open  on  both  sides  of  the  piece 


INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE. 


323 


LUMBER  MEASURE. 


Inches 
Wide. 

Length  in  Feet. 

26 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36 

38 

40 

2X  3 

13 

14 

15 

16 

2X  4 

17 

19 

20 

21 

'23 

'24 

"25 

'27 

2X  6 

26 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36 

38 

40 

2X  8 

35 

37 

40 

43 

45 

48 

51 

53 

2X10 

43 

47 

50 

53 

57 

60 

63 

67 

2X12 

52 

56 

60 

64 

68 

72 

76 

80 

2X14 

61 

65 

70 

75 

79 

84 

89 

93 

2X16 

69 

75 

80 

85 

91 

96 

101 

107 

3X  4 

26 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36 

38 

40 

3X  6 

39 

42 

45 

48 

51 

54 

57 

60 

3X  8 

52 

56 

60 

64 

68 

72 

76 

80 

3X10 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

3X12 

78 

84 

90 

96 

102 

108 

114 

120 

3X14 

91 

98 

105 

112 

119 

126 

133 

140 

3X16 

104 

112 

120 

128 

136 

144 

152 

160 

4X  4 

35 

37 

40 

43 

45 

48 

51 

53 

4X  6 

52 

56 

60 

64 

68 

72 

76 

80 

4X  8 

69 

75 

80 

85 

91 

96 

101 

107 

4X10 

87 

93 

100 

107 

113 

120 

127 

133 

4X12 

104 

112 

120 

128 

136 

144 

152 

160 

6X  6 

78 

84 

90 

96 

102 

108 

114 

120 

6X  8 

104 

112 

120 

128 

136 

144 

152 

160 

6X10 

130 

140 

150 

160 

170 

180 

190 

200 

6X12 

156 

168 

180 

192 

204 

216 

228 

240 

6X14 

182 

196 

210 

224 

238 

252 

266 

280 

6X16 

208 

224 

240 

256 

272 

288 

304 

320 

8X  8 

139 

149 

160 

171 

181 

192 

203 

213 

8X10 

173 

187 

200 

213 

227 

240 

253 

267 

8X12 

208 

224 

240 

256 

272 

288 

304 

320 

8X14 

243 

261 

280 

299 

317 

336 

355 

373 

8X16 

277 

299 

320 

341 

363 

384 

405 

427 

10X10 

217 

233 

250 

267 

283 

300 

317 

333 

10X12 

260 

280 

300 

320 

340 

360 

380 

400 

12X12 

312 

336 

360 

384 

408 

432 

456 

480 

I  of  an  inch  or  more  in  width  shall  be  considered  the  same  as 
a  knot-hole. 

17.  A  pitch  streak  is  a  well-defined    accumulation  of  pitch 
at  one  point  in  the  piece,  and  when   not   sufficient  to  develop 
a  well-defined  streak,  it  shall  not  be  considered  a  defect. 

18.  A  small  pitch  streak  shall  be  equivalent  to  not  over  one- 
twelfth    the  width   and   one-sixth  the  length  of    the  piece  it 
is  in. 

A  standard  pitch  streak  shall  be  equivalent  to  not  over  one- 
sixth  the  width  and  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  piece  it 
is  in. 

19.  SAP. — Bright   sap   shall   not   be   considered   a   defect   in 
any  of  the  grades  provided  for  and  described  in  these  rules. 


324  INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE. 

The  restriction  or  exclusion  of  bright  sap  constitutes  a  special 
class  of  material  which  can  only  be  secured  by  special  contract. 

20.  Blued  sap  shall  not  be  considered  a  defect  in  any  of  the 
grades  of  common  lumber. 

21.  MISCELLANEOUS. — Firm  red  heart  shall  not  be  considered 
a  defect  in  any  of  the  grades  of  common  lumber. 

22.  Defects  in  rough  stock  caused  by  improper  manufacture 
and  drying  will  reduce  grade,  unless  they  can  be  removed  in 
dressing  such  stock  to  standard  sizes. 

23.  All  stock  shall  be  inspected  on  the  face  side  to  determine 
the  grade.      For  stock  surfaced  one  side  the  dressed  surface 
shall   be   considered   the   face   side.     And   for  stock   rough   or 
dressed  two  sides,  the  best  side  shall  be  considered  the  face, 
but  the  reverse  side  of  all  such  stock  should  not  be  more  than 
one  grade  lower. 

24.  Imperfect  manufacture   in  dressed  stock,   such  as  torn 
grain,   loosened  grain,  broken  knots,  mismatched,   insufficient 
tongue  or  groove    on   flooring,   ceiling,   drop-sjding,   etc.,  shall 
be    considered    defects,    and   will    reduce    grade    according   as 
they  are  slight  or  serious  in   their  effects   on   the  use   of  the 
stock. 

25.  Pieces  of  either   flooring,  ceiling,  or  drop-siding  having 
less  than  ^  inch  of  tongue  shall  not  be  admitted  in  any  grade 
above  No.  2  Common,  pieces  with  ^  inch  or  more  of  tongue 
to  be  admitted  in  any  grade. 

26.  In  all  grades  of  flooring,  ceiling,  drop-siding,  etc.,  wane  on 
the  reverse  side,  not  exceeding  one-third  the  width  and  one- 
sixth  the  length  of  any  piece,  provided  the  wane  does  not  extend 
into  the   tongue,  nor  over   one-half  the   thickness   below   the 
groove,  is  admissible. 

27.  Chipped  grain  consists  in  a  part  of  the  surface  being 
chipped  or  broken  out  in  small  particles  below  the  line  of  the 
cut,  and  as  usually  found  should  not  be  classed  as  torn  grain 
and  shall  not  be  considered  a  defect. 

28.  Torn  grain  consists  in  a  part  of  the  wood  being  torn 
out  in  dressing.     It  occurs  around  knots  and  curly  places. 

29.  Loosened  grain  consists  in  a  point  of  one  grain  being 
torn  loose  from  the  next  grain.     It  occurs  on  the  heart  side  of 
the  piece,  and  is  a  serious  defect,  especially  in  flooring. 

30.  The  grade  of  all  regular  stock  shall  be  determined  by 
the  number,  character,  and  position  of  the  defects  visible  in  any 
piece.     The  enumerated  defects  admissible  in  any  grade  are 


INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE.  325 

intended  to  be  descriptive  of  the  coarsest  pieces  such  grades  may 
contain.  The  average  quality  of  the  grade  should  be  about 
midway  between  such  pieces  and  the  coarest  pieces  allowed 
in  the  next  higher  grade. 

31.  Lumber  and  timber  sawed  for  specific  purposes  must  be 
inspected  with  a  view  to  its  adaptability  for  the  use  intended. 
Material    not    conforming   to   standard   sizes,  for   agricultural- 
implement    companies,    wagon    companies,    car-manufacturing 
companies,    railway    companies,    etc.,   shall    be    governed   by 
special  contact. 

32.  The  standard  lengths  are  multiples  of  two  feet,  ten  to 
twenty-four    feet,    inclusive,    for    boards,    stripes,    dimension, 
joists,    and   timbers.      Longer   or    shorter  lengths   than   those 
herein  specified  are  special.     Odd  and  fractional  lengths  shall 
be  counted  as  of  the  next  higher  even  length. 

33.  On  stock-width  shipments  of  No.  1  Common  and  better 
lumber,  either  rough  or  dressed  one  or  two  sides,  no  piece  shall 
be  admissible  that  is  more  than  \  inch  scant  on  8-inch  and 
under;    f  inch  scant  on  10-inch,  or  £  inch  scant  on  12-inch  or 
wider.     All  4-inch  and  wider  No.  2  Common  stock  may  go  £  inch 
scant  in  width. 

34.  Yellow  pine  of  a  better  grade  than  No.  1  Common,  up  to 
4  inches  in  width,  shall  be  classified  as  to  grain  as  edge  grain 
and  flat  grain. 

Edge  grain  has  been  variously  designated  as  rift  sawn,  vertical 
grain,  quarter  sawn,  all  being  commercially  synonymous  terms. 
Edge-grain  stock  is  especially  desirable  for  flooring  and  admits 
no  piece  in  which  the  angle  of  the  grain  exceeds  45  degrees  from 
verticle  at  any  point,  thus  excluding  all  pieces  that  will  sliver 
or  shell  from  wear.  Such  as  will  not  meet  these  requirements 
shall  be  known  as  flat  grain. 

35.  All  dressed  stock  shall  be  measured  and  sold  strip  count, 
viz.,  full  size  of  rough  material  necessarily  used  in  its  manufac- 
ture. 

All  sizes  1  inch  or  less  in  thickness  shall  be  counted  as  1  inch 
thick. 

36.  Equivalent  means  equal,  and  in  construing  and  apply- 
ing these  rules,  the  defects  allowed,  whether  specified  or  not, 
are  understood  to  be  equivalent  in  damaging  effect  to  those 
mentioned  applying  to  stock  under  consideration. 

37.  The  foregoing  general  observations  shall  apply  to  and 
govern  the  application  of  the  following  rules: 


326  INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE. 

DRESSED  YELLOW-PINE  FINISHING. — Grades:  First  and  Sec- 
ond Clear,  Third  Clear.. 

38.  First  and  Second  Clear.  Inch,  1£,  1J,  and  2-inch,  dressed 
one  or  two  sides  up  to  and  including  8  inches  wide,  must  show 
one  face  practically  clear  of  all  defects.  10  inches  wide  will 
admit  any  one  of  the  following  defects:  One  split  not  more 
than  6  inches  long,  one  small  pitch  pocket,  one  pin  knot,  pitch 
streak,  or  blue  sap  stain  not  to  exceed  the  equivalent  of  6 
square  inches.  One-third  of  any  shipment  of  12-  and  14- 
inch  in  addition  to  one  straight  split  not  to  exceed  in 
length  the  width  of  the  piece  will  admit  any  one  of  the 
following  defects  or  its  equivalent:  Three  pin  knots,  one 
standard  knot,  two  small  pitch  pockets,  or  one  large  pitch 
pocket,  one  small  pitch  streak,  small  kiln  or  seasoning  checks, 
one  blue  sap  stain  1£  inches  wide  running  across  the  face  of 
the  piece. 

Each  two  inches  above  14  inches  in  width,  in  addition  to 
one  straight  split,  not  to  exceed  in  length  the  width  of  the 
piece,  will  admit  any  two  of  the  defects  allowed  in  12-inch 
or  their  equivalent.  Pieces  otherwise  admissible  which  have 
loosened  or  torn  grain  on  the  face  side  shall  be  put  in  a  lower 
grade. 

39.  Special. — In    case   both   sides    are    desired    clear   special 
contract   must   be    made.     Defective    dressing   on   the   reverse 
side  of  finishing  is  admissible. 

40.  Third  Clear. — Inch,  1£,  1£,  and  2-inch,  dressed  two  sides 
up  to  and  including  10  inches  in  width,   in  addition  to  one 
straight  split  not  to  exceed  in  length  the  width  of  the  piece, 
may  have  any  two  of  the  following  defects  or  their  equivalent: 
Slight  torn  grain,  three  pin  knots,  one  standard  knot,  three  small 
pitch  pockets,  one  standard  pitch  pocket,  one  standard  pitch 
streak,  three  blue  sap  stains  2  inches  wide  across  the  face  or 
blue  sap  not  over  8  inches  deep  on  one  end,  wane  not  to  exceed 
1  inch  in  width  and  £  the  length  of  the  piece,  or  small  kiln  or 
seasoning   checks.      Twelve   or  14   inches  will   admit  three  of 
the  above  defects  or  their  equivalent. 

FLOORING. — Grades:  A,  B,  and  C  Flat,  A,  B,  and  C  Edge 
Grain,  No.  1  and  2  Fence. 

Special  Section. — Defects  named  in  Flooring  and  Ceiling  are 
based  upon  a  piece  manufactured  from  1X4  —  12,  and  pieces 
larger  or  smaller  than  this  will  take  a  greater  or  less  number 
of  defects,  proportioned  to  their  size  on  this  basis. 


INSPECTION  OF 

41.  A  Flat  Flooring  must  be  practically  free  from  defects  on 
the  face  side  and  well  manufactured. 

42.  B  Flat  Flooring  may  have  any  two  of  the  following  defects 
or   their   equivalent:    Blue   sap    stain   not    to    exceed    15    per 
cent  of  the  face,  three  pin  knots,   one    standard    knot,  three 
small  pitch  pockets,  one  standard  pitch  pocket,  one  standard 
pitch   streak,    slight    torn   grain,  or   small   kiln    or   seasoning 
checks. 

Pieces  otherwise  good  enough  for  A,  but  containing  not  over 
six  small  pinworm-holes  that  have  no  blue  sap  about  them, 
shall  be  admitted  in  B. 

43.  Edge-grain  Flooring  shall    take    the  same  inspection  as 
flat  grain,  except  as  to  the  angle  of  the  grain. 

43 1 .  Heart- face  Edge  Grain  shall  be  free  from  sap  on  face 
side. 

43|.  Flat-grain  C  Flooring  shall  consist  of  stock  that  falls 
below  a  B  grade  of  flooring  in  working  B  and  better  strips, 
and  will  admit  of  any  two  of  the  following  or  their  equivalent 
of  combined  defects:  60  per  cent  of  blue  sap,  pitch  streak,  or 
firm  red  heart;  chipped  or  torn  grain  not  over  ^  inch  deep  in 
three  places  in  one  piece,  or  other  machine  defects  that  will 
lay  without  waste;  shake  or  seasoning  checks  that  do  not  go 
through,  two  standard  pitch  pockets,  or  six  small  pitch  pockets, 
twenty  pinworm-holes,  two  standard  or  six  pin  knots,  or  two 
pith  knots;  pieces  otherwise  as  good  as  "A"  can  have  one 
defect  (as  a  knot-hole)  that  can  be  cut  out  by  wasting  1|  inches 
of  the  length  of  the  piece. 

44.  No.  1  Fence  Flooring  may  contain  the  following  defects 
or  their  equivalent:    Sound  knots  not  over  one-half  the  width 
of  the  piece  at  any  one  point  throughout  its  length;  spike  knots 
whose  length  is  not  over  one-half  the  width  of  the  piece,  and 
if  on  the  edge  not  to  exceed  one-half  the  thickness;   three  pith 
knots,  pitch,  pitch  pockets,  blue  sap,  firm  red  heart,  season- 
ing   checks    or    slight   shake,    twenty    pinworm-holes,  chipped, 
loosened,  or  torn  grain  not  over  £  inch  deep  in  three  places  in 
a  piece,  or  other  machine  defects  that  will  lay  without  waste; 
and  if  otherwise  as  good  as  "B"  one  defect  (like  a  knot-hole) 
that  can  be  cut  out  by  wasting  3  inches  of  the  length  of  the 
piece. 

45.  No.  2  Fence  Flooring  admit  sail  pieces  that  will  not  grade 
as  good  as  No.  1  Fence  Flooring,  that  can  be  used  for  cheap 
floors  or  sheathing  without  a  waste  of  more  than  one-fourth 


328  INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE. 

the  length  of  any  one  piece,  and  admits  all  the  defects  named 
in  No.  2  Cemmon  Fencing. 

46.  Centre  Matched  Flooring  shall  be  required  to  come  up  to 
grade  on  face  side  only. 

CEILING. — Grades:    A,  B,  No.  1  and  No.  2  Common. 

47.  A  Ceiling  must  be  practically  free  from  defects  on  the 
face  side  and  well  manufactured. 

48.  B  Ceiling  will  admit  of  any  two  of  the  following  defects 
or  their  equivalent:     Slight  torn  grain,   three  pin  knots,   one 
standard  knot,  three  small  pitch  pockets,  one  standard  pitch 
pocket,  one  small  pitch  streak,  seasoning  or  kiln  checks  that  do 
not  go  through,  blue  sap  stain  or  firm  red  heart  not  to  exceed 
15  per  cent  of  the  face. 

Pieces  otherwise  good  enough  for  A,  but  containing  not  over 
six  small  pinworm-holes  that  have  no  blue  sap  about  them, 
shall  be  admitted  in  B. 

49.  No.  1  Common  Ceiling  will  admit  sound  knots  not  over 
one-half  the  width  of  piece  in  the  rough,  blue  sap,  pitch  streaks, 
pitch  pockets,  firm  red  heart,  slight  shake,  torn  grain,  kiln  or 
seasoning  checks,  or  defects  in  manufacture. 

Pieces  otherwise  good  enough  for  A,  but  containing  one  loose 
or  unsound  knot  or  knot-hole,  1 J  inches  in  diameter  or  less,  shall 
be  graded  No.  1  Common. 

Pieces  otherwise  good  enough  for  A,  but  containing  not  over 
ten  small  pinworm-holes  that  have  no  blue  stain  about  them, 
shall  be  graded  No.  1  Common. 

Pieces  otherwise  good  enough  for  A,  but  containing  one  pith 
knot,  shall  be  admitted  in  the  grade  of  No.  1  Common. 

50.  No.  2  Common  Ceiling  admits  of  all  pieces  not  as  good 
as  No.  1  Common  that  can  be  used  without  waste  of  more  than 
one-fourth  the  length  of  any  one  piece. 

WAGON-BOTTOMS. — Grades:    A  and  B. 

51.  Wagon-bottoms  unless  otherwise  ordered  (see  section  31) 
shall  be  graded  the  same  as  A  and  B  Flat  Flooring. 

DROP-SIDING. — Grades:    A,  B,  and  No.  1  Common. 

52.  A    Drop-siding    must    be   practically   free   from   defects 
on  the  face  side  and  well  manufactured. 

53.  B  Drop-siding  will  admit  any  two  of  the  following  defects 
or  their  equivalent:    Slight-torn  grain,   three  pin    knots,   one 
standard  knot,  blue  sap  stain  or  firm  red  heart  not  to  exceed 
15  per  cent  of  the  face,  and  slight  kiln  and  seasoning  checks. 

Pieces  otherwise  good  enough  for  A,  but  containing  not  over 


INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE.  329 

six  small  pinworm-holes  that  have  no  blue  sap   about   them, 
shall  be  admitted  in  B. 

54.  No.  1  Common  Drop-siding  will  admit  one  standard  pitch 
streak  or  one  large  pitch  pocket,  or  their  equivalent;    and  in 
addition,  sound  knots  not  over  one-half  the  width  of  piece  in  the 
rough,  blue  sap  stain,  firm  -red  heart,  slight  shake,  torn  grain, 
defects  in  manufacture,  and  kiln"  or  seasoning  checks  that  do 
not  go  through  the  piece. 

Pieces  otherwise  good  enough  for  A,  but  containing  one  loose 
or  unsound  knot  or  knot-hole  1^  inches  in  diameter  or  less, 
shall  be  graded  No.  1  Common. 

Pieces  otherwise  good  enough  for  A,  but  containing  not  over 
ten  small  pinworm-holes  that  have  no  blue  stain  about  them, 
shall  be  graded  No.  1  Common. 

Pieces  otherwise  good  enough  for  A,  but  containing  one  pith 
knot,  shall  be  admitted  in  the  grade  of  No.  1  Common. 

BEVEL-SIDING. — Grades:    A,  B,  and  No.   1  Common. 

55.  Bevel-siding  shall  be    graded  according  to  the  rules  for 
drop-siding,    and  will    admit   in   addition   slight   imperfections 
on  the  thin  edge,  which  will  be  covered  by  the  lap  when  laid 
4 1  inches  to  the  weather. 

PARTITION. — Grades:   A,  B,  and  No.  1  Common. 

56.  Partition  shall  be  graded  according  to  ceiling  rules,  and 
must  meet  the  requirements  of  the  specified  grades  on  the  face 
side  only,  but  the  reverse  side  shall  not  be  more  than  one  grade 
lower. 

MOULDED  CASING  AND  BASE.  WINDOW-  AND  DOOR-JAMBS. — 
Grades:  A  and  B. 

57.  A    Moulded   Casing  and  Base  must  be   practically   free 
from  defects  on  the  face  side  and  well  manufactured. 

58.  B  Casing  or  Base  consists  of  rejections  made  after  dressing 
stock  inspected  in  the  rough  as  "A."     The  defects  admitted  in 
B  Ceiling  shall  be  allowed. 

Window-  and  Door-jambs  shall  be  graded  the  same  as 
moulded  casing  and  base. 

See  section  No.  35  for  width. 

COMMON  BOARDS,  SHIPLAP,  AND  BARN  SIDING,  8,  10,  AND 
12  INCHES  WIDE. — Grades:  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3  Com- 
mon. 

59.  No.    1   Common  Boards,  dressed  one  or  two  sides,  and 
No.  1  Common  Shiplap  and  Barn  Siding  shall  be  well  manu- 
factured; will  admit  any  number  of  sound  knots,  not  over  one- 


330  INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE. 

fourth  of  the  width  of  the  piece  if  located  at  the  edge,  nor  over 
one-third  of  the  width  of  the  piece  if  located  away  from  the 
edge;  or  their  equivalent  spike  knots — provided,  however,  that 
the  spike  knots  when  located  on  the  edge  do  not  occupy  more 
than  one-half  the  thickness  of  said  edge — two  pith  knots,  one 
straight  split  not  to  exceed  in  length  the  width  of  the  piece, 
pitch,  pitch  pockets,  blue  sap,  seasoning  checks  that  do  not  go 
through,  firm  red  heart,  wane  \  inch  deep  on  edge,  and  one- 
third  the  length  of  the  piece  or  its  equivalent,  and  a  limited 
number  of  small  pinworm-holes  well  scattered.  These  boards 
should  be  firm  and  strong  and  suitable  for  use  in  all  ordinary 
construction. 

GROOVED  ROOFING. — Grooved  Roofing  shall  be  graded  by 
rules  governing  No.  1  Boards,  omitting  the  pith  knots,  worm- 
holes,  and  splits  in  end. 

60.  No.   2  Common  Boards,  dressed  one  or  two  sides,   and 
No.  2  Common  Shiplap,  No.  2  Common  Grooved  Roofing  may 
contain  any  number  of  knots,  none  of  which  are  over  4J  inches 
in  diameter,  or  their  equivalent  spike  knots,  worm-holes,  one 
straight  split  one-fourth  the  length  of  the  piece,  but  must  be 
free    from    through-rotten  streaks,  through-heart  shakes  over 
one-half  of  the  length  of  the  piece,  and  wane  over  2  inches  wide 
exceeding  one-half  the  length  of  the  piece. 

A  knot-hole  l^r  inches  in  diameter,  or  its  equivalent  in  small 
knot-holes  or  rotten  streaks,  will  be  allowed,  provided  the 
piece  is  otherwise  as  good  as  No.  1  Common. 

FENCING,  3,  4,  AND  6  INCHES  WIDE. — Grades:  No.  1,  2,  and 
3  Common. 

61.  No.  I  Fencing  may  contain  the  following  defects  or  their 
equivalent:    Sound  knots,  not  over  one-half  width  of  piece  at 
any  point  throughout  its  length;    spike  knots  whose  length  is 
not  over  one-half  the  width  of  the  piece,  and  if  on  the  edge  not 
to   exceed   one-half    the   thickness,   three   pith  knots   or   their 
equivalent,  wane  one-half  inch  deep  on  edge  and  one-half  of 
the  length  of  the  piece,  pitch,  pitch  pockets,  blue  sap,  seasoning 
checks,  firm  red  heart,  and  a  limited  number  of  small  pinworm- 
holes  well  scattered. 

62.  No.   2   Fencing,   in   addition   to   the   defects   allowed   in 
No.  1  Common,  will  admit  the  following  defects  or  their  equiva- 
lent.   Knots  that  do  not  badly  weaken  the  piece  at  any  point, 
small,  unsound  or  loose  knots,  one  straight  split  one-fourth  the 
length  of    the    piece,   worm-holes,   rotten  streaks  that  do  not 


INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE.  331 

go  through;    shake  and  wane,  but  must  be  good  enough  to 
be  used  in  full  length  as  fencing. 

A  knot-hole  1J  inches  in  diameter  or  its  equivalent  in  small 
hollow  knots  will  be  allowed,  provided  the  piece  is  otherwise 
as  good  as  No.  1  Common. 

63.  No.  3  Fencing  and  No.  3  Boards  are  defective  lumber,  and 
will   admit    of    coarse   knots,    knot-holes,    very   wormy   pieces, 
some  red  rot  and  other  defects  that  will  not  prevent  its  use 
as  a  whole  for  cheap  sheathing  or  cutting  one-half  its  length 
as  No.  2  Common. 

64.  Miscut    1-inch    boards    and    fencing   which    do    not   fall 
below  f  inch  in  thickness  shall  be  admitted  in  No.  2  Common, 
provided  the  grade  of  such  thin  stock  is  otherwise  as  good  as 
No.  1  Common. 

DIMENSION.  S.  1  S.  1  E. — Grades:  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3 
Common. 

65.  Inspection  of  dimension   is  a    question   of   strength  and 
uniformity  of  size,  and  whatever  reduces  its  strength  in  cross- 
section  must  be  considered  a  defect  to  that  extent. 

66.  No.    1    Common   Dimension   may    contain   sound   knots, 
none  of  which  in  2X4s  should  be  larger  than  2  inches  in  diameter 
on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  piece,  and  on  wider  stock  which  does 
not  occupy  more  than  one-third  of  the  cross-section  at  any 
point  throughout  its  length  if  located  at  the  edge  of  the  piece, 
or  more  than  one-half  of  the  cross-section  if  located  away  from 
the  edge;    two  pith  knots,  or  smaller  or  more  defective  knots 
which  do  not  weaken  the  piece  more  than  the  knot  aforesaid; 
will  admit   of  seasoning    checks,   firm   red  heart,   heart-shakes 
that  do  not  go  through,   wane,   pitch,   blue  sap  stains,   pitch 
pockets,   splits  in  ends  not  exceeding  in  length  the  width  of 
the  piece,  a  limited  number  of  small  pin  worm-holes  well  scat- 
tered, and  such  other  defects  as  do  not  prevent  its  use  as  sub- 
stantial structural  material. 

67.  No.    2   Common   Dimension   may   have  knots   which   do 
not  occupy  more  than  one-half  of  the  cross-section  at  any  one 
point  if  located  at  the  edge  of  the  piece,  nor  more  than  two- 
thirds    of   the    cross-section    if   located   away   from   the    edge; 
smaller,  loose,  hollow,  or  rotten  knots  that  do  not  weaken  the 
piece  more  than  the  knots  aforesaid;   will  admit  rotten  streaks, 
shake,    wane,    worm-holes,    and    other    defects    which    do    not 
prevent  its  use  without  waste. 

68.  No.   3   Dimension   will   include   all   pieces   falling   below 


332  INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE. 

No.  2  grade  which  are  sound  enough  to  use  for  cheap  building 
material. 

69.  Miscut  2-inch  stock  which  does  not  fall  below  1|  inches 
in  thickness  shall   be  admitted  in   No.    2  Common,   provided 
such  pieces  are  in  all  other  respects  as  good  as  No.  1  Common. 

70.  ROUGH    YELLOW    PINE    FINISHING.  —  Finish    must    be 
evenly  manufactured,  and  shall  embrace  all  sizes  from  1  to  2 
inches  in  thickness  by  4  inches  and  over  in  width. 

71.  No  inch,   1£  and  1£   finishing  lumber,   unless  otherwise 
ordered,   shall    measure   when    dry  more    than  ^    inch  scant 
in  thickness  and  on  2-inch  it  may  be  ^  inch  scant. 

72.  Wane  and  seasoning  checks  that  will  dress  out  in  work- 
ing to  standard  thickness  and  widths  are  admissible. 

73.  Subject    to    the     foregoing    provisions,    rough-finishing 
shall   be   graded   according   to   the   specifications   applying   to 
dressed  finishing  lumber. 

All  rough  finishing  lumber,  if  thicker  than  specified  thick- 
ness for  dry  or  green  stock,  may  be  dressed  to  such  standard 
thickness,  and  when  so  dressed  shall  be  considered  as  rough 
stock. 

When  like  grade  on  both  faces  is  required,  special  contract 
must  be  made, 

74.  COMMON  BOARDS,  FENCING,  AND  DIMENSION. — Rough  com- 
mon boards  and  fencing  must  be  well  manufactured,  and  should 
not  be  less  than  f-  inch  thick  when  dry. 

75.  Rough  2-inch    common  shall  be  well  manufactured  and 
not  less  than  If  inches  thick  when  green,  or  If  inches  thick 
when  dry.     The  several  widths  must  not  be  less  than  £  inch 
over  the  standard  dressing  width  for  such  stock. 

Rough  common  dimension  of  a  greater  thickness  than  2 
inches  and  less  than  4  inches  shall  be  subject  to  special  con- 
tract as  to  thickness  and  width. 

76.  Rough  Dimension,  if  thicker  than  specified  thickness  for 
dry  or  green  stock,  may  be  dressed  to  such  standard  thickness, 
and  when  so  dressed  shall  be  considered  as  rough  stock. 

77.  The   defects  admissible   in   rough    boards,   fencing,   and 
dimension  shall  be  the  same  as  those  applying  to  dressed  stock 
of  like  kind  and  grade,  and  such  further  defects  as  would  dis- 
appear in  dressing  to  standard  sizes  of  such  material  shall  be 
allowed. 

78.  No.    1    COMMON    TIMBERS. — Rough    Timbers,    4X4   and 
larger,  shall  not  be  more  than  \  inch  scant  when  green,  and 


INSPECTION  OF  YELLOW  PINE.  333 

be  well  manufactured,  with  not  less  than  three  square  edges, 
and  must  be  free  from  knots  that  will  materially  weaken  the 
piece. 

Timbers  10X10  in  size  may  have  a  2-inch  wane  on  one 
corner,  measured  on  faces,  or  its  equivalent  on  two  or  more 
corners,  one-third  the  length  of  the  piece.  Larger  sizes  may 
have  proportionately  greater  defects. 

Shakes  extending  not  over  one-eighth  of  the  length  of  the 
piece  are  admissible,  and  seasoning  checks  shall  not  be  con- 
sidered a  defect. 

79.  Dressed  timbers  shall  conform  in  grading  to  the  speci- 
fications applying  to  rough  timbers  of  same  size. 

80.  Rough  timbers,  if  thicker  than  specified  thickness    for 
dry  or  green  stock,  may  be  dressed  to  such  standard  thickness 
and  when  so  dressed  shall  be  considered  as  rough  stock. 

STANDARD  SIZES  OF  DRESSED  LUMBER. — Finishing. — 1-inch 
S.  1  S.  or  2  S.  to  Jf ,  li  inch  S.  1  S.  or  2  S.  to  1&,  1£  inch  S. 
1  S.  or  2  S.  to  1$,  2  inch  S.  1  S.  or  2  S.  to  If  inches. 

Moulded  Casing  and  Base. — ^f  to  patterns  as  per  Southern 
Lumber  Manufacturers'  Association  Moulding  Book,  1901  edition. 
1X4  S.  4  S.  shall  be  3£  inches  wide,  finished,  and  1X6  S.  4  S. 
shall  be  5|  inches  wide,  finished. 

Flooring.— The  standard  of  1X3,  1X4,  and  1X6  inches  shall 
be  i|X2£,  31,  and  5|  inches,  If -inch  flooring  shall  be  1^  inches 
thick. 

Drop  Siding. —  D.  and  M.  |X3f  and  5  £  inches;  shiplap, 
f  X5  inch  face,  5J  over  all. 

Partition. — fX3£  and  5J  inches. 

Ceiling.  —  §-inch  ceiling,  ^  inch;  ^-inch  ceiling,  ^  inch; 
f-inch  ceiling,  YS  inch;  f-inch  ceiling  j^  inch.  Same  width  as 
flooring.  The  bead  on  all  ceiling  and  partition  shall  be  depressed 
^2  of  an  inch  below  surface  line  of  piece. 

Bevel  Siding. — To  be  made  from  stock  S.  4  S.  to  £f  X  5|  and 
resawed  on  a  bevel. 

Window-  and  Door-jambs. — (See  section  35.) 

Dressed,  rabbeted,  and  ploughed  as  ordered,  worked  f  inch 
scant  of  width. 
'   Boards  and  Fencing. — 1-inch  S.  1  S.  or  2  S.  to  xf  inch. 

Shiplap.— 8-,  10-,  and  12-inch.     H  X7£,  9£,  and  11£  inches. 

D.  and  M.—8-,  10-,  and  12-inch,     if  X7|,9|,  and  11 1  inches. 

Grooved  Roofing.— 10- and  12-inch  S.  1  S.  and  2  E.  to 
and  11J. 


334  INSPECTION  OF  CYPRESS. 

Wagon-bottoms,  unless  otherwise  ordered  (see  section  31), 
shall  be  made  in  sets  38  and  42  inches  face  and  from  stock 
4  inches  or  over  in  width. 

Dimension. — 2X4  D.  1  S.  and  1  E.  to  If  X3f  inches;  2X6  D. 
1  S.  and  1  E.  to  If  X5|  inches;  2X8  D.  1  S.  and  1  E.  to  If  X7£ 
inches;  2X10  D.  1  S.  and  1  E.  to  If  X9|  inches;  2X12  D.  1  S. 
and  1  E.  to  If  Xll£  inches;  4X4  and  4X6  D.  1  S.  and  1  E. 
to  |  inch  off  side  and  edge;  S.  4  S.  i  inch  off  each  side. 


SOUTHERN  CYPRESS  LUMBER  ASSOCIATION. 
In  effect  February  22, 1897. 

Strips. — 4"  to  6"  strips  shall  be  graded  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  read 
the  same  as  flooring  grades. 

Siding. — "Clear  and  A"  Siding  may  have  1"  of  bright  sap 
on  thin  edge,  and  may  contain  one  small  sound  knot. 

"B"  may  have  |  of  face  bright  sap  if  otherwise  clear,  or 
in  lieu  of  J  sap  may  contain  two  small  sound  knots. 

"C"  may  be  all  bright  sap  or  may  have  one  to  five  knots, 
the  whole  not  aggregating  over  3",  or  knots  or  other  defects 
that  can  be  removed  in  two  cuts  with  waste  not  exceeding 
12"  in  length,  or  three  pinworm-holes,  and  may  have  check 
or  split  at  one  end,  not  exceeding  12//  in  length. 

"D"  may  have  stained  sap  and  pinworm-holes,  or  may 
have  other  defects  that  will  not  cause  a  waste  to  exceed  J  the 
piece. 

DRESSED  FINISHING. — Seven  inches  (7")  and  up  random 
width  to  be  two  grades,  as  described  in  1st  and  2d  Clear  and  Select. 

FLOORING,  CEILING,  AND  PARTITION. — Clear  must  be  free  of  sap 
and  defects. 

"A"  may  have  1"  bright  sap  on  one  edge,  may  contain  one 
small  sound  knot,  or  may  have  bright  sap  J  its  width  on  one  end 
for  not  exceeding  two  feet  from  end. 

"B"  may  have  $  of  its  face  bright  sap  if  otherwise  clear, 
or  in  lieu  of  bright  sap  contain  two  small  sound  knots,  or  may 
have  a  split  not  to  exceed  9"  at  one  end. 

"C"  may  have  all  bright  sap,  or  may  have  one  to  five 
knots,  the  whole  not  aggregating  over  3",  or  knots  or  other 
defects  that  can  be  removed  in  two  cuts  with  waste  not  to 
exceed  12"  in  length,  or  may  have  three  pinworm-holes,  or 
may  have  check  or  split  at  one  end  not  to  exceed  12"  in  length. 


INSPECTION  OF  CYPRESS.  335 

"D"  may  have  stained  sap  and  pinworm-holes,  or  may  have 
unsound  knots  or  other  defects  that  will  not  cause  a  waste  to 
exceed  $  of  the  piece. 

DRESSED  FINISHING. — Strips  1,  1J,  and  1  |X4  to  6  inches  wide 
to  be  graded  as  1st  and  2d  Clear  and  Select.  The  above  1st 
and  2d  Clear  strips,  which  are  1,  11,  and  1J  thick,  shall  have 
one  heart  face,  and  will  admit  one  inch  sap,  on  one  edge. 
Select  may  be  all  bright  sap,  or  in  lieu  of  sap  may  contain  two 
standard  knots.  2X4  and  2X6  to  be  graded  Clear  and 'Select 
as  described  in  above  1,  If,  and  1J  strips. 

SQUARES. — Squares  to  be  graded  Clear  and  Select  4X4  to 
10X10.  A  clear  square  to  admit  1  its  size  of  sap  on  one  corner. 
Select  may  have  half  bright  sap. 

SHINGLES. — Best. — A  dimension  shingle,  4,  5,  and  6  inches,  each 
width  separately  bunched,  sixteen  inches  long,  five  butts  to  meas- 
ure two  inches,  all  heart  free  of  shakes,  knots,  and  other  defects. 

Primes. — Dimension,  each  width  separately  bunched,  six- 
teen inches  long,  five  butts  to  measure  two  inches,  admitting 
tight  knots  and  sap,  free  of  shakes  and  other  defects,  but  with 
no  knots  within  eight  inches  of  the  butt. 

Extra  "A." — Same  as  Primes,  except  random  width  and 
may  admit  of  shingles  fourteen  inches  long. 

Clippers. — Any  shingles  which  are  sound  for  five  inches  from 
the  butts — worm-holes  excepted — and  two  and  one-half  inches 
or  up  in  width. 

WEIGHTS. 

Pounds  per  M. 

Lumber,  rough,  2  inches  and  under 3000 

Lumber,  rough,  2|  and  3  inches 3500 

f-inch  flooring  and  ceiling 2300 

f-inch  ceiling 1600 

£-inch  ceiling 1300 

f-inch  ceiling 1000 

J-inch  bevel  siding 1000 

Shingles,  all  grades 300 

f-inch  plaster  lath 500 

f-inch  fence  lath 900 

liXl|X4  D.  &  H.  pickets 1600 

|X2|X4  D.  &  H.  pickets 1800 

2-inch  O.  G.  battens 500 

2^-inch  0.  G.  battens 600 

3-inch  0.  G.  battens.  ...  700 


336  INSPECTION  OF  CYPRESS. 

GAUGES  FOR  MATCHED  LUMBER. — Flooring. — 1X4  and  1X6 
shall  be  E  by  3*"  and  §f  X  5i". 

li"  flooring  shall  be  1&. 

Ceiling.— f"  shall  be  &";  J"  shall  be  ^5  f "  shall  be  &"* 
f  "  shall  be  }£",  and  the  width  shall  be  the  same  as  flooring. 

TANK  STOCK  shall  be  5"  and  over  in  width,  1J"  to  4" 
thick,  and  8'  and  over  long.  Pieces  up  to  7"  shall  be  free  of 
sap.  Pieces  wider  than  7"  may  have  1"  of  sound  sap  on  one 
edge,  'not  to  exceed  half  the  length  and  half  the  thickness  of 
the  piece.  In  all  widths,  sound  knots  that  do  not  impair  its 
usefulness  for  tank  purposes  may  be  admitted. 

IST  AND  2o  CLEAR  shall  be  8"  and  over  in  width.  Pieces 
8"  to  10"  may  have  1"  of  bright  sap  on  each  edge,  or  its 
equivalent  on  one  edge,  otherwise  they  must  be  clear. 
Pieces  10"  and  under  12"  wide  may  have  1|"  of  bright  sap 
on  each  edge,  or  3"  on  one  edge,  and  one  standard  knot  \\"  in 
diameter. 

Pieces  12"  wide  may  have  one  standard  knot  and  2"  of 
bright  sap  on  each  edge,  or  the  equivalent  on  one  edge;  or 
in  lieu  of  sap  may  have  two  standard  knots  or  their  equiva- 
lents. Pieces  wider  than  12"  may  admit  of  defects  in  pro- 
portion as  width  increases.  Pieces  14"  and  wider  may  have 
one  straight  split  not  over  10"  to  12"  long,  when  comparatively 
free  from  other  defects.  Slight  season  checks  allowed  in  above 
grade. 

SELECTS  shall  have  one  face  side  and  be  7"  and  over  in 
width.  Pieces  10"  and  under  in  width  shall  admit  two  stand- 
ard knots  of  \\"  in  diameter,  and  an  additional  standard  knot 
for  every  two  inches  in  width,  over  10".  Bright  sap  not  con- 
sidered a  defect.  Unsound  knots  that  do  not  go  through  the 
piece  to  be  allowed.  Pieces  free  from  other  defects,  10"  and 
over  wide,  to  admit  pinworm-holes  on  one  edge  cae-tenth  the 
width  of  the  piece.  Season  checks  no  defect.  Slight  wane 
on  10"  pieces  and  over,  allowed  on  one  side,  not  over  3  feet 
in  length.  When  no  other  defects  appear,  slight  amount 
stained  sap  may  be  allowed.  Pieces  10"  and  over  in  width  may 
have  a  straight  split  not  to  exceed  12"  in  one  end,  when  com- 
paratively free  from  other  defects. 

SHOP. — Shop  to  be  6"  and  over  in  width,  8'  and  over  in 
length,  and  to  include  all  lumber  that  will  not  go  into  above 
grades,  but  that  will  cut  for  shop  use  60  per  cent  clear  of  waste. 


RULES  FOR  GRADING    OREGON  WHITE  PINE.     337 

MERCHANTABLE  OR  COMMON  may  be  any  width,  admitting 
sap,  knots,  shake,  or  peck,  when  the  strength  is  not  impaired. 


RULES  FOR  GRADING  EASTERN  OREGON  WHITE  PINE. 

Common  lumber  will  be  divided  into  four  grades  as  follows: 
No.  1  Common,  No.  2  Common,  No.  3  Common  or  Sheathing, 
and  No.  4  Common  or  Culls. 

No.  1  COMMON  BOARDS  AND  STRIPS  shall  include  all  sound, 
tight-knotted  stock  whether  red  or  black  knots,  but  must  be 
free  from  large  coarse  knots  that  will  weaken  the  piece  or  loose 
knots  that  will  fall  out  in  the  seasoning  or  handling.  A  small 
amount  of  blue  sap  stain  is  admissible  in  a  piece  where  the  knot 
defects  are  not  very  pronounced. 

Ex.  1.  No.  1  COMMON  1X12—16  S.  1  S.— Has  five  red  knots 
from  1J  to  2  in.  in  diameter,  three  limb  knots  or  V  1^X3  in., 
but  running  in  not  more  than  one-half  thickness  of  the  board; 
also  twelve  small  black  and  red  knots  all  sound  and  well  scattered, 
these  smaller  knots  varying  in  size  from  J  in.  to  1  in.  in  diameter. 

Ex.  2.  No.  1  COMMON  1 X 12—20  S.  1  S.— Has  seven  red  knots 
from  1£  in.  to  2  in.  in  diameter  and  five  red  branch  knots  extend- 
ing across  not  more  than  one-third  the  width  of  the  board  nor 
running  in  not  more  than  one-half  the  thickness  of  the  board  ; 
also  several  small  sound  knots  from  |  in.  to  1J  in.  in  diameter. 
This  is  a  heart  board. 

Ex.  3.  No.  1  COMMON  1X10 — 16  GROOVED  ROOFING. — This 
piece  contains  three  sound  smooth  knots  from  1|  to  2  in.  in 
diameter  and  eight  small  red  knots  from  £  to  1  in.  in  diameter 
and  a  small  amount  of  blue  stain. 

Ex.  4.  No.  1  COMMON  1X8 — 16  SHIPLAP  OR  RUSTIC. — This 
piece  contains  three  sound  red  knots  from  1^  in.  to  1£  in.  in 
diameter  and  eight  or  ten  small  sound  knots  and  pin  knots  and 
will  admit  of  a  small  amount  of  blue  stain.  The  piece  must 
work  smooth  and  sound. 

Ex.  5.  No.  1  COMMON  1X6—16  FENCING  $.  1  S.— This  piece 
contains  five  sound  knots  from  1  in.  to  1£  in.  in  diameter  well 
scattered  and  some  small  sound  tight  knot  sthat  will  in  no  way 
weaken  the  piece.  It  will  also  admit  of  some  blue  stain. 

Ex.  6.  No.  1  COMMON  1X4—16  FENCING  S.  1  S.— Has  three 
sound  knots  from  1  in.  to  1J  in.  well  scattered  through  the  piece 
and  a  few  smaller  sound  knots,  but  none  that  will  impair  the 


338     RULES  FOR  GRADING  OREGON  WHITE  PINE. 

strength  of  the  board.     It  will  also  admit  of  a  small  streak 
of  blue  stain. 

No.  2  COMMON  BOARDS  AND  STRIPS  shall  also  be  sound  in 
appearance,  but  will  admit  of  larger  and  coarser  knots  not 
necessarily  sound  and  more  sap  stain  than  No.  1  Common.  It 
will  also  admit. of  larger  and  coarser  V  or  limb  knots,  but  not 
so  large  or  so  coarse  as  to  weaken  the  piece  or  materially  impair 
its  strength.  It  shall  be  free  from  knot-holes,  rot,  or  splits,  but 
should  a  knot  on  the  edge  of  the  board  slough  off  in  the  milling 
it  will  not  disqualify  it  for  this  grade.  It  must  have  a  good 
bearing  on  both  sides.  A  single  split  not  to  exceed  2  feet  in 
length  in  one  end  of  a  piece  shall  not  disqualify  it  for  this  grade. 

Ex.  1.  No.  2  COMMON  1x12—16  S.  1  S.—  Has  five  knots  2| 
to  3  in.  in  diameter  and  three  limb  or  V  knots  and  a  number 
of  smaller  knots  and  will  admit  of  considerable  discoloration. 
All  the  knots  must  be  firmly  set  and  the  limb  knots  must  not 
extend  more  than  one-half  the  width  of  the  piece. 

Ex.  2.  No.  2  COMMON  1X12—20  S.  1  S.— Has  six  knots 
from  2J  to  3  in.  in  diameter  and  five  limb  or  V  knots  that  do 
not  extend  across  over  half  the  face  of  the  board  and  a  number 
of  smaller  knots  from  £  to  1A  in.  in  diameter.  All  knots  firmly 
set  and  well  distributed.  One-third  of  the  face  of  the  piece 
is  slightly  stained. 

Ex.  3.  No.  2  COMMON  1X10— 16  S.  1  S. — Has  three  round 
knots  3  in.  in  diameter  and  several  smaller  knots  from  1J  to 
2  in.  in  diameter  and  a  number  of  knots  from  \  to  \\  in.  in 
diameter,,  but  all  well  scattered  and  firmly  set. 

Ex.  4.  No.  2  COMMON  1X8—16  S.  1  S.— Has  several  red  and 
black  knots  from  2  in.  to  2|  in.  in  diameter  and  a  number 
of  smaller  knots  scattered  throughout  the  piece  and  all  firm; 
will  also  admit  of  medium-sized  live-limb  knots. 

Ex.  5.  1X6—16  No.  2  COMMON  S.  1  S.— Will  admit  of  large 
red  or  black  knots  scattered  throughout  the  centre  of  the  piece 
where  they  do  not  materially  impair  its  strength. 

Ex.  6.  1X4—16  No.  2  COMMON  S.  1  S.— Graded  practically 
the  same  as  1X6  No.  2  Common,  admitting  of  the  large  knots 
not  to  exceed  2  in.  scattered  throughout  the  piece,  but  no  large 
knots  in  the  edge  of  the  board. 

No.  3  COMMON  OR  SHEATHING. — Will  not  only  admit  of  all 
defects  of  the  better  grades,  but  will  also  admit  of  large  loose 
knots  and  knot-holes  and  any  amount  of  blue  stain  or  pitch  and 
a  split  extending  not  more  than  one-third  length  of  board;  but 


RULES  FOR  GRADING  OREGON  WHITE  PINE.     339 

no  rot  will  be  admitted  in  this  grade  except  the  unsound  knots 
or  red  stain  if  the  wood  is  quite  firm.  The  boards  of  this  grade 
must  be  of  good  thickness  and  full  size,  i.e.,  no  pieces  of  split 
or  broken  boards  will  be  allowed  to  go  in  this  grade. 

No.  4  COMMON  OR  CULLS. — The  defects  characterizing  this 
grade  are  red-  and  black-rot  pieces  showing  numerous  large  worm- 
holes  or  a  large  number  of  knot-holes  or  pieces  that  are  extremely 
coarse-knotted  or  badly  split. 

Eastern  Oregon  White  Pine  Selects  or  Uppers  will  be  divided 
into  three  grades  of  finish  and  shall  be  known  as  A  or  No.  1, 
B  or  No.  2,  and  C  or  No.  3. 

A  OR  No.  1  FINISH  shall  be  perfectly  bright  on  the  face  side 
and  free  of  knots  or  stain  or  pitch  seams.  The  reverse  side  of 
the  board  may  show  one  knot  1  in.  in  diameter  or  two  knots 
less  than  1  in.  and  small  pitch  seams,  and  may  admit  of  a  slight 
discoloration.  Wider  pieces  will  admit  of  relatively  more 
defects  on  the  reverse  side. 

B  OR  No.  2  FINISH  will  admit  of  more  defects,  larger  and 
coarser  knots,  longer  pitch  seams  and  also  some  stain  if  not  too 
pronounced.  A  12-in.  piece  may  show  one  knot  1J  in.  to  2  in. 
in  diameter  or  two  or  three  smaller  knots;  also  a  few  small 
pitch  seams.  Light-blue  sap  stain  may  extend  over  not  to 
exceed  one-third  of  the  face  of  the  board  where  the  knot  defects 
are  not  so  pronounced.  In  wider  boards  the  defects  may 
increase  proportionately. 

C  OR  No.  3  FINISH. — This  is  the  lowest  recognized  grade  of 
finish  lumber  and  will  admit  of  quite  serious  defects  as  long  as 
the  piece  has  the  appearance  of  finish  in  the  knotty  type. 
A  12-in.  piece  may  contain  a  large  number  of  small  knots  and 
one  or  two  very  coarse  knots  or  occasionally  a  knot-hole  if  board 
is  otherwise  fairly  clear,  or  in  the  absence  of  knots  the  whole 
face  of  the  piece  may  be  blue,  but  where  the  piece  is  very  blue 
no  other  defects  are  admissible.  In  this  grade  of  finish  the 
appearance  of  the  face  side  only  will  be  taken  into  consideration 
except  that  the  reverse  side  must  have  a  good  bearing. 

FLOORING,  DROP  SIDING,  RUSTIC,  AND  CEILING,  SELECT. — In 
grading  this  lumber  the  same  rules  will  be  used  that  govern  the 
other  selects  except  that  the  grade  is  determined  from  the  face 
side  only.  In  all  except  ceiling,  and  that  only  when  it  is  specified 
as  partition,  then  the  grade  shall  be  determined  from  the  poorer 
side,  but  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  reverse 
side  should  have  a  good  bearing  surface  and  nothing  will  be 


340     RULES  FOR  GRADING  OREGON  WHITE  PINE. 

allowed  in  A  or  B  that  would  materially  weaken  the  piece 
and  only  in  a  C  when  the  defect  may  be  removed  by  wasting 
six  inches. 

COMMON  FLOORING. — All  flooring  in  the  common  grades  shall 
be  graded  the  same  as  wider  pieces  in  the  same  grade,  with  the 
proper  allowance  for  width. 

BEVEL  SIDING. — Care  shall  be  taken  in  selecting  this  stock, 
which  shall  be  free  from  knots  in  the  edge,  as  in  working  the 
knots  are  liable  to  drop  out,  and  a  knot  broken  out  in  the  thick 
edge  gives  the'  piece  a  rough  appearance. 

This  siding  shall  be  graded  into  four  grades :  No.  1  or  A,  No.  2 
or  B,  No,  3  or  C,  No.  4  or  D. 

In  A,  or  No.  1,  the  only  defects  admissible  are  a  sound  knot 
not  to  exceed  J  in.  in  diameter  or  a  very  slight  pitch  pocket  in 
a  piece  12  feet  or  longer. 

B,  or  No.  2,  will  admit  of  the  defects  in  A  or  No.  1,  together 
with  other  defects  such  as  a  small  amount  of  stain,  larger  pitch 
pockets,  or  a  little  pitch  or  two  or  three  small  sound  knots  not 
exceeding  £  in.  in  diameter. 

In  C,  or  No.  3,  the  defects  admissible  are  the  same  as 
B  or  No.  2,  only  more  pronounced.  It  will  admit  of  more 
discoloration  and  also  of  one  or  two  loose  knots  or  small 
knot-holes  provided  there  would  not  be  more  than  six  inches 
of  waste  in  the  piece  by  cutting  out  these  defects,  and  when 
the  waste  is  allowed  the  balance  of  the  piece  must  show  a  B 
face. 

D,  or  No.  4,  will  admit  of  all  the  defects  of  the  better  grades 
and  any  amount  of  blue  stain,  or  where  the  piece  is  badly  dis- 
colored it  shall  be  practically  free  of  other  defects.  This  grade 
is  practically  a  cutting  grade  when  not  colored. 

FACTORY  PLANK. — Grades  described  under  this  head  are 
valued  for  cutting-up  qualities  only  and  should  not  be  con- 
founded, either  in  quality  or  value,  with  grades  outlined  in 
another  part  of  this  book  for  yard  purposes. 

Factory  plank  of  all  kinds  shall  be  graded  for  the  percentages 
of  door  cuttings  that  can  be  obtained. 

Two  grades  of  door  cuttings  only  shall  be  recognized,  and 
are  to  be  known  as  No  1  and  No.  2  cuttings. 

The  only  defect  admissible  in  No.  1  cuttings  is  white 
sap. 

The  grade  of  No.  1  door  cuttings  must  be  free  from  all  other 
defects. 


RULES  FOR  GRADING  OREGON  WHITE  PINE.     341 

The  grade  of  No.  2  door  cuttings  will  admit  of  one  defect 
only  in  any  one  piece.  This  may  be  a  small  knot  of  sound 
character,  not  to  exceed  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  or 
the  defect  may  be  slightly  stained  sap  which  does  not  extend 
over  more  than  one-half  of  the  face  of  the  piece  on  one  side. 

No.  I  Shop  Common. — The  sizes  and  grades  of  cuttings  ad- 
missible in  the  grade  of  No.  1  Shop  Common  are  as  follows: 

No.  1  Stiles  in  width  5|  or  6  in.  and  in  length  from  6  ft.  8  in. 
to  7  ft.  6  in. 

No.  1  Rails  9  or  10  in.  wide  and  from  2  ft.  4  in.  to  3  ft.  in 
length. 

No.  1  Muntins  5 J  in.  wide  and  from  3  ft.  6  in.  to  4  ft.  in  length. 

Any  number  of  pieces  of  either  the  stiles  or  rails  mentioned 
above  are  admissible  in  the  grade  of  No.  1  Shop  Common; 
but  only  two  muntins  of  the  sizes  mentioned  above  shall  be 
considered,  and  one  No.  2  door  stile  may  also  be  considered, 
in  securing  the  required  percentage  of  cuttings  in  any  given 
plank. 

Each  plank  of  No.  1  Shop  Common  shall  contain  not  less 
than  50  per  cent  nor  more  than  70  per  cent  of  door  cuttings 
of  the  sizes  and  grades  above  mentioned. 

No.  2  Shop  Common. — The  sizes  admissible  in  No.  2  Shop 
Common  are  as  follows: 

Stiles  in  width  5|  in.  or  6  in.  and  from  6  ft.  8  in.  to  7  ft.  6  in. 
in  length. 

Rails  9  or  10  in.  in  width  and  from  2  ft.  4  in.  to  3  ft.  in 
length. 

Top  rails  5J  in.  wide  and  from  2  ft.  4  in.  to  3  ft.  in  length. 
Top  rails  must,  however,  be  of  No.  1  door-cutting  quality. 

Muntins  5J  in.  wide  and  from  3  ft.  6  in.  to  4  ft.  in  length. 

Any  number  of  cuttings  of  any  one  of  the  above  sizes  are 
admissible  in  the  grade  of  No.  2  Shop  Common. 

Each  piece  of  No.  2  Shop  Common  shall  contain  either  one 
of  the  following:  At  least  25  per  cent  of  No.  1  door  cuttings, 
or  not  less  than  40  per  cent  of  all  No.  2  door  cuttings,  or  not 
less  than  33^  per  cent  of  No.  1  and  No.  2  door  cuttings  combined. 

No.  3  Shop  Common,  1|  in.,  1-|  in.,  and  2  in.,  will  admit  all 
below  the  grades  described  as  No.  2  Shop  Common,  except  such 
plank  without  cuttings  as: 

Show  excessive  rot. 

Excessively  pitch  pieces. 

Pieces  stained  on  the  greater  part  of  both  sides. 


342     GRADING  OF  DOUGLAS  FIR  OR  OREGON  PINE. 

The  type  where  there  are  no  cuttings  between  knots  and 
those  knots  are  too  unsound  to  be  admitted  in  a  cheap  door. 

A  few  small  worm-  or  grub-holes,  when  not  combined  with 
blue  sap  or  other  serious  defects,  are  admissible  on  one  side 
of  the  piece  only. 


DOUGLAS    FIR    OR    OREGON    PINL 

GRADING    RULES. 
NOTES    TO    SURVEYORS. 

BUREAU  OF  GRADES  AND  INSPECTION. — Surveyors  at  ports 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  established  Bureau  of  Grades  and 
Inspection  will  receive  their  appointment  from  and  be  sub- 
ject to  the  instructions  of  the  properly  designated  officers  of 
said  Bureau,  particularly  as  to  an  interpretation  of  the  fol- 
lowing rules: 

At  ports  outside  of  said  jurisdiction  the  surveyor  shall  be 
satisfactory  to  and  subject  to  the  mutual  instructions  of  both 
buyer  and  seller  as  to  any  special  conditions,  but  otherwise 
shall  conform  to  the  rules  hereinafter  noted  and  exercise  his 
best  judgment  as  to  a  correct  interpretation  thereof. 

SALE  MEASURE. — All  intermediate  (odd  or  fractional)  lengths 
shall  be  measured  as  of  the  contents  of  the  next  longer  length, 
unless  otherwise  especially  instructed  by  the  proper  parties. 

All  lumber  sawn  less  than  1"  in  thickness  shall  be  measured 
as  of  1"  (i.e.,  at  surface  measure). 

All  rough  lumber  V  and  over  in  thickness  shall  be  meas- 
ured at  board-measure  contents . 

All  worked  lumber  shall  be  measured  at  board-measure 
contents  before  working. 

Sizes  4"  and  under  in  thickness  will  be  worked  \"  less  for 
each  side  surfaced.  Sizes  over  4"  in  thickness  will  be  worked 
i"  less  for  each  side  surfaced. 

T.  &  G.  S.  1  S.  shall  be  worked  \"  less  in  thickness  and  f" 
narrower  on  face. 

All  sizes  are  subject  to  natural  shrinkage,  whether  "green, " 
partially  or  wholly  seasoned,  and  in  such  cases  the  surveyor 
will  make  allowance  for  variations  from  above. 

Recognized  defects  are  knots,  knot-holes,  splits  (either  from 
seasoning,  ring  heart,  or  rough  handling),  shakes,  wane,  red 


GRADING  OF  DOUGLAS  FIR  OR  OREGON  PINE.     343 

heart,  rot,  rotten  streaks,  worm-holes,  pitch  seams,  pitch  pockets, 
solid  pitch,  chipped  grain,  torn  grain,  loosened  grain,  seasoning 
checks,  and  black  sap. 

KNOTS  shall  be  classified  as  pin,  small,  standard,  and  large  as 
to  size;  round  and  spike  as  to  form;  and  sound,  loose,  incased, 
pith,  and  rotten  as  to  quality. 

A  pin  knot  is  sound  and  not  over  \"  in  diameter. 

A  small  knot  is  sound  and  not  over  1"  in  diameter. 

A  standard  knot  is  sound  and  not  over  \\"  in  diameter. 

A  large  knot  is  sound  and  any  size  over  \\"  in  diameter. 

A  round  knot  may  be  oval  or  circular  in  form,  and  the  mean 
or  average  diameter  shall  be  considered  in  applying  these  rules. 

A  spike  knot  is  one  sawn  in  a  lengthwise  direction. 

A  sound  knot  is  one  solid  across  its  face,  as  hard  as  the  wood 
it  is  in,  and  so  fixed  by  growth  or  position  that  it  will  retain 
its  place  in  the  piece. 

A  loose  knot  is  one  not  held  firmly  in  place  by  growth  or 
position. 

An  incased  knot  is  one  surrounded  wholly  or  in  part  by 
bark  or  pitch. 

A  pith  knot  is  a  small  sound  knot  with  a  pith  hole  not  more 
than  \"  in  the  centre. 

A  rotten  knot  is  one  not  as  hard  as  the  wood  it  is  in. 

PITCH. — Seams  are  openings  between  the  grain  of  wood 
containing  more  or  less  pitch  and  shall  be  classified  as  large  and 
small. 

A  large  pitch  seam  is  one  \"  and  over  in  open  width  and 
not  over  8"  in  length. 

A  small  pitch  seam  is  one  less  than  |"  in  open  width  and  not 
exceeding  4"  in  length. 

A  pitch  pocket  is  a  well-defined  accumulation  of  pitch  at 
one  point  of  the  piece. 

A  pitch  seam  or  pocket  showing  open  on  both  sides  of  the 
piece  \"  or  more  in  width  shall  be  considered  the  equivalent 
of  a  knot-hole. 

GRAIN. — Chipped  grain  consists  of  a  part  of  the  surface  being 
chipped  or  broken  out  in  small  particles  below  the  surface,  but 
shall  not  be  classed  as  torn  grain. 

Torn  grain  consists  of  a  part  of  the  wood  being  torn  out  in 
dressing,  usually  around  knots  or  curly  places. 

Loosened  grain  consists  of  the  point  of  one  grain  being  torn  loose 
from  the  next  grain,  noticeable  on  the  heart  side  of  a  piece. 


344  GRADING  OF  DOUGLAS  FIR. 

SAP. — Colored,    blue  or  black. 

Bright  sap  shall  not  be  considered  a  defect  unless  the  sur- 
veyor shall  receive  from  the  supervising  inspector,  or  both 
buyer  and  seller,  contrary  instructions. 

SUNDRIES. — Firm  red  heart  shall  not  be  considered  a  defect 
in  any  of  the  grades  of  commons. 

Occasional  variations  in  sawing,  or  occasional  scant  thick- 
ness, shall  not  be  considered  a  defect  when  not  rendering  the 
piece  unfitted  for  its  probable  use. 

Imperfect  manufacture  in  dressed  stock,  such  as  chipped 
grain,  torn  grain,  loosened  grain,  broken  knots,  mismatching, 
or  insufficient  tongue  or  groove,  will  reduce  the  grade,  according 
to  whether  such  defects  are  slight  or  serious,  in  their  effect  upon 
the  use  of  the  piece. 

Equivalent,  in  the  application  of  these  rules,  means  that  the 
defects  allowed,  whether  specified  or  not,  are  understood  to  be 
equivalent  in  damaging  effect  to  those  specially  mentioned. 

The  grades  of  all  regular  stock  shall  be  determined  by  the 
number,  character,  and  position  of  defects  visible  in  any  piece. 
The  enumerated  defects  permissible  in  any  grade  are  intended 
to  be  descriptive  of  the  coarsest  piece  such  grade  may  contain 
hereunder;  the  average  quality  of  the  grade  should  be  about 
midway  between  such  piece  and  the  coarsest  piece  allowed  in 
the  next  higher  grade. 

DOUGLAS  FIR. 

Grades  shall  be  known  and  designated  as  follows: 

ROUGH  AND  WORKED  COMMONS. — "Merchantable,"  "Sec- 
onds," "Refuse." 

ROUGH  UPPERS. — "Clear,"  "Select." 

Car  Stock— "No.  1,"  "No.  2." 

Ship  Stuff— "No.  1,"  "No.  2." 

WORKED  UPPERS.— D.  &  M.  Flooring— "No.  1,"  "No.  2," 
"No.  3." 

Stepping— "No.  1,"  "No.  2,"  "No.  3." 

Rustic— "No.  1,"  "No.  2,"  "No.  3." 

Ceiling— "No.  1,"  "No.  2,"  "No.  3." 

ROUGH  'COMMONS. — Merchantable. — This  grade  shall  consist 
of  lengths  10'  and  over  (except  shorter  lengths  be  ordered)  of 
sound,  strong  lumber,  free  from  loose  or  rotten  knots,  knot- 
holes, splits,  shakes,  wane,  rot,  pitch  seams  (open  on  both 
sides  of  the  piece),  or  other  defects  that  materially  impair  the 


GRADING  OF  DOUGLAS  FIR.  345 

strength  of  the  piece;  well  manufactured  and  suitable  for  good 
substantial  construction  purposes,  or  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  intended.  Will  allow : 

Occasional  variations  in  sawing,  or  occasional  scant  thick- 
nesses. 

Sound  large  knots. 

Large  pitch  seams. 

Bright  or  colored  sap  on  corners  one-third  the  width  and 
one-half  the  thickness. 

Firm  red  heart. 

Recognized  defects  in  all  cases  to  be  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  size  of  piece  and  its  quality  otherwise. 

Bill  Stuff  shall  consist  of  sizes  ordered  'for  specific 
construction  and  not  intended  for  "Yard  Stock,"  and  must 
be  inspected  with  the  view  of  its  adaptability  to  the 
uses  intended,  and  unless  manifestly  unfit  therefor  shall 
be  surveyed  under  this  grade,  except  the  order  be  for  a  higher 
grade. 

Seconds. — This  grade  shall  consist  of  lengths  10'  and  over 
(except  shorter  lengths  be  ordered)  having  any  of  the  recog- 
nized defects  which  exclude  it  from  grading  as  Merchantable. 
Will  allow: 

Recognized  defects  which  render  it  unfit  for  good  substan- 
tial construction  purposes  but  suitable  for  an  inferior  class  of 
work. 

Refuse. — This  grade  shall  consist  only  of  commons  absolutely 
unfit  for  any  other  use  than  firewood. 

ROUGH  UPPERS. — Selects. — Shall  be  sound,  strong  lumber, 
and  in  flooring,  ceiling,  and  finish  stock  of  good  grain,  well 
manufactured.  Will  allow : 

In  sizes  under  6"X6": 

Pin  knots,  bright  sap  on  corners  one-quarter  the  width  and 
one-half  the  thickness,  and  small  pitch  seams.  Not  more  than 
two  such  defects  in  for  each  10  linear  feet. 

In  sizes  6"X6"  and  over: 

Small  and  standard  knots  varying  in  diameter  according  to 
size  of  piece. 

Bright  sap  on  corners  not  to  exceed  3"  on  both  faces  and 
edges. 

Large  pitch  seams. 

Recognized  defects  to  be  considered  in  all  cases  in  connec- 
tion with  size  of  piece  and  its  general  quality. 


346  GRADING  OF  DOUGLAS  FIR. 

Clears. — Flooring,  ceiling,  and  finish  stock  shall  be  sound, 
close  grain,  well  sawn,  and  on  one  side  and  two  edges 
free  from  defects  impairing  its  use  for  probable  purposes 
intended. 

Edge  grain  in  widths  VI"  and  wider  shall  be  so  graded  if  show- 
ing grain  on  edge  within  an  angle  of  45  degrees  for  at  least 
three-fourths  of  width  and  otherwise  free  from  defects  on 
one  face  and  two  edges. 

Slash  grain  (nearly  parallel  to  surface)  shall  be  otherwise 
free  from  recognized  defects  on  one  face  and  two  edges. 

Other  lumber  in  this  grade  shall  be  uniformly  sawn  and  gen- 
erally free  from  recognized  defects.     Will  allow — 
In  dimensions  containing  24"  or  less  to  the  linear  foot: 

Bright  sap  when  not  exceeding  one-quarter  the  width,  thick- 
ness, or  length. 

Small  pitch  seams  when  not  extending  through  the  piece. 
In  dimensions  3"  to  6"  thick  and  over  8"  to  12"  wide: 

Pin  knots  when  on  one  side  and  lower  half  of  edges. 

Bright  sap  not  exceeding  one-fourth  the  face  or  edges,  or 
one-third  the  length. 

Small  pitch  seams  when  not  extending  through  the  piece. 
In  dimensions  larger  than  above: 

Small  knots,  according  to  size  of  piece,  when  on  one  face 
and  lower  half  of  edges,  leaving  one  face  and  upper  half  "of  edges 
clear. 

Bright  sap  on  corners  not  exceeding  3"  on  face  and  edges, 
or  one-half  the  length. 

Large  pitch  seams  when  not  extending  through  the  piece. 

Ship  Stuff. — All  lumber  for  this  purpose  shall  be  strong,  of 
live  wood,  and  close  grain. 

No.  1  Plank. — Includes  outboard  planking,  garboards,  wales, 
clamps,  rails,  and  lumber  for  similar  purposes;  if  worked,  to 
be  fairly  smooth.  Will  allow: 

Small  tight,  hard  knots  when  not  on  corners  or  calking 
seam. 

Bright  sap  on  face  side  edges  not  exceeding  one-quarter  the 
width  or  thickness. 

Small  pitch  seams  not  extending  through  the  piece. 

Said  defects  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  size  of 
piece  and  its  quality  otherwise. 

No.  1  Decking. — Shall  be  uniformly  sawn,  close  grain,  free 
from  recognized  defects  on  one  face  and  both  edges,  and  if 


GRADING  OF  DOUGLAS  FIR.  347 

worked  to  be  of  uniform  size  and  fairly  smooth.  Flat  sizes 
shall  show  edge  grain  on  broad  face,  and  both  square  and  flat 
sizes  be  free  from  recognized  defects  on  edge  grain  face.  Will 
allow : 

Pin  knots  on  under  side  and  lower  part  of  calking 
edges. 

Bright  sap  on  face  side  edges  not  exceeding  one-eighth  the 
width  and  one-fourth  the  thickness. 

No.  2  Plank  and  Decking. — This  grade  shall  include  all  of 
above  material  not  suited  for  grading  as  No.  1  hereunder,  but 
in  quality  shall  be  equal  to  the  grade  of  Select. 

Car  Stock. — Lumber  in  this  grade  shall  be  strong,  of 
fine  grain,  and  uniformly  sawn.  Sizes  2"  thick  and  less 
and  12"  and  less  wide  shall  be  practically  clear,  free 
from  all  recognized  defects  that  would  impair  it  for  its 
intended  use.  Will  allow  in  dimensions  over  2"  thick  and 
12"  wide: 

Small  knots,  according  to  size  of  piece. 

Bright  sap  in  limited  amount,  according  to  size  of  piece. 

Small  pitch  seams. 

Said  defects  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  size  of  piece 
and  its  quality  otherwise. 

No.  2. — This  grade  shall  include  material  impaired  by  recog- 
nized defects  from  grading  as  No.  1,  but  generally  conforming 
to  the  grade  of  "Selects." 

Car  Siding  and  Roofing. — To  be  graded  under  rules  for  D.  & 
M.  ceiling. 

WORKED  UPPERS. — D.  &  M.  Flooring.  No.  1. — This  grade 
shall  consist  of  lengths  10'  and  up  (except  shorter  lengths  be 
ordered),  edge  grain  on  face  for  three-quarters  of  width;  of 
sound,  close  grain  lumber,  and  free  from  recognized  defects 
on  face  and  edges;  well  worked  and  conform  generally  to 
grade  of  Clears.  Will  allow: 

One  pin  knot  in  each  piece. 

Bright  sap  when  not  extending  over  one-quarter  face  and 
length. 

Only  one  such  defect  allowed  in  any  one  piece. 

No.  2. — This  grade  shall  consist  of  edge  or  slash  grain  of 
lengths  10'  and  up  (except  shorter  lengths  when  ordered),  well 
worked  and  conform  generally  to  the  grade  of  Selects.  Will 
allow: 

Small  knots  if  not  appearing  on  edges. 


348  GRADING  OF  DOUGLAS  FIR. 

Bright  sap  when  not  extending  over  one-half  the  face  and 
length. 

Small  pitch  seams. 

Chipped  grain. 

Said  defects  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  length  of 
piece  and  its  quality  otherwise.  Not  more  than  two  such 
defects  to  each  12  linear  feet. 

No.  3. — This  grade  shall  consist  of  lengths  6'  and  up  re- 
gardless of  grain  and  conform  generally  to  grade  of  Merchant- 
able. 

Stepping. — This  material  shall  consist  of  lengths  10"  and  over 
(except  shorter  lengths  be  ordered),  and  defects  allowed  shall 
be  considered  with  regard  to  length  of  piece. 

No.  1. — This  grade  shall  conform  generally  to  grade  of  Clears, 
be  worked  smooth  on  one  side,  shall  show  edge  grain  on  face 
to  extent  of  not  less  than  three-fourths  of  width,  and  free  from 
defects  on  face  and  one  edge. 

No.  2. — This  grade  shall  show  edge  grain  on  face  to  extent 
of  not  less  than  one-half  the  width  and  conform  generally  to 
grade  of  "Selects."  Will  allow: 

Pin  knots  on  one  face  or  one  edge. 

Bright  sap  when  not  extending  over  one-quarter  the 
width. 

Small  pitch  seams. 

Chipped  grain  and  other  recognized  defects  impairing  it  from 
grading  as  No.  1. 

No.  3. — This  grade  shall  be  regardless  of  grain  and  conform 
generally  to  grade  of  Merchantable. 

Rustic  Siding  and  Ceiling.  No.  1. — Shall  consist  of  lengths 
10'  and  up  (except  shorter  lengths  be  ordered),  sound  lumber, 
regardless  of  grain,  free  from  recognized  defects  on  face  and 
edges,  well  worked,  and  conform  generally  to  grade  of  "Clears." 
Will  allow: 

One  pin  knot. 

Or  bright  sap  not  extending  over  one-quarter  width  or  length 
of  piece. 

Only  one  such  defect  allowed  in  any  one  piece. 

No.  2. — This  grade  shall  conform  generally  to  grade  of 
"Selects."  Will  allow: 

Small  knots  if  not  appearing  on  edges. 

Bright  sap  when  not  extending  over  one-half  the  face  and 
length. 


GRADING  OF  CALIFORNIA  REDWOOD.        349 

Small  pitch  seams  if  not  extending  through  the  piece. 
Chipped  grain. 

Said  defects  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  size  and 
length  of  piece. 

No.  3. — Shall  conform  generally  to  grade  of  Merchantable. 


CALIFORNIA  REDWOOD. 

CLEAR  REDWOOD. — No.  1.  Shall  be  good  and  sound,  clear 
of  knots,  splits,  sap  and  shakes,  and  well  manufactured  to 
standard  thickness.  Will  allow: 

Small  birdseye. 

Slash-grained  sawing. 

No.  2.  Shall  be  inferior  in  quality  to  No.  1.     Will  allow: 

Small  sound  knots  and  pin  knots,  sap  on  end  and  edge  not 
exceeding  4  per  cent  of  area. 

Slight  roughness  in  milling. 

Tank,  Panel,  and  Casing  Stock. — Shall  be  good  and  sound 
clear  of  knots,  splits,  sap,  and  shakes,  and  well  manufactured. 

Sap  Clear. — This  grade  shall  conform  generally  to  No.  1  and 
No.  2  Clear,  except  that  it  shall  contain  sap  in  excess  of  4  per 
cent  of  the  area.  Will  allow: 

Discoloration  of  sap. 

Flooring,  Ceiling,  and  Rustic  Stock. — No.  1.  Shall  be  the 
grade  of  No.  1  clear.  Will  allow: 

Slash-grained  sawing  that  will  probably  not  rough  up  in 
working. 

No.  2.  Shall  conform  to  the  grade  of  No.  2  clear. 

Standard  Grade,  Rustic  Stock. — Will  allow: 

3  or  4  sound  standard  (\\"  diameter)  knots. 

1  or  2  sound  knots  not  to  exceed  1"  in  diameter. 

Sap  with  small  knots. 

Poor  machining,  which  would  make  it  unfit  for  No.  1  and 
No.  2  clear. 

Half-inch  Lumber. — Shall  be  graded  under  the  same  rules 
as  inch  lumber  of  the  same  quality. 

GRADES,  COMMON. — No.  1.  This  grade  shall  consist  of  sound, 
strong  lumber,  free  from  rot,  large  shake  and  large,  loose  knots. 
It  shall  be  well  manufactured  and  suitable  for  good,  substantial 
construction  purposes.  Will  allow: 

Occasional  variations  in  widths  and  thickness. 


350 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  WOOD 


Knots,  weather  check,  and  small  shake  that  do  not  materially 
impair  its  strength. 

Sap  not  to  exceed  4  per  cent  of  the  area  of  outside  surfaces. 

No.  2.  This  grade  shall  consist  of  lumber  having  any  of  the 
recognized  defects  which  exclude  it  from  the  No.  1  grade.  Will 
allow : 

Sap,  loose  and  rotten  knots  and  shakes ;  also  splits  not  extend- 
ing over  one-fourth  the  length  of  the  piece. 

Recognized  defects  which  render  it  unfit  for  good,  sub- 
stantial construction  purposes  but  suitable  for  an  inferior  class 
of  work. 

No.  3.  This  grade  shall  consist  of  anything  that  is  not  good 
enough  to  go  into  No.  2  grade,  but  which  can  be  used  for  any 
purpose  as  lumber. 


DIFFERENT  KINDS   OF  WOOD  AND   WHERE   FOUND. 


NAME. 

Acacia 

Alder 

Almond 

Amboine.  .  .  . 

Apple 

Apple  (crab). 
Arbor-vitse.  . 
Ash 

' '     black.  .  . 

' '     blue.  .  .  . 
'     white.  .  . 

Bamboo 

Barwood.  .  .  . 
Basswood.  .  . 

Beech 

Birch 

Bite 

Black  Botany 

Bay  wood.  ...Australia. 
Blue-gum.  . 
Bog-oak.  .  . 
Boxwood.  .  . 


WHERE  FOUND. 
.Warm  climates. 
Europe,  etc. 
.  South  of  Europe. 
.  Africa. 

.Europe,  America. 
.East.  United  States. 
.Temperate  climates. 
.  Britain,  etc. 
.  East.  United  States. 


.China  and  India. 

.  Africa. 

.  East.  United  States. 

.Europe,  America. 
.India. 


Brazil  wood. . 
Buckeye 


.  England,  Ireland. 

.  Southern  and  west- 
ern Europe. 

.  Brazil. 

.Tennessee  and 
North. 

.  Jamaica. 


Bullet-tree.  . . 

Buttonwood.  .  .(See  Sycamore.) 

Calamander.  . .  .Ceylon. 

Camphor Warm  climates. 

Camwood Africa. 

Canary-wood  .  .  Brazil. 
Caugica-wood  .       " 

Catalpa East.  United  States. 

Cedar,  bastard .  Southern  California. 

red.  .  .  .East.  United  States. 

yellow.  .Utah       to       Pacific 
Coast. 


NAME.  WHERE  FOUND. 

East    India 

blackwood.  .   East  Indies. 
Ebony Ceylon,    Africa,    In- 
dia. 

Elder Jamaica. 

Elm Europe. 

'    red East.  United  States. 

'    white ' 

Fir,  red  silver.  .  Sierra  Nevada  Mts. 
'     Scotch  ....  Europe. 

'     silver California. 

Fustic North     and     South 

America. 

Greenheart.  .  .  .  Guiana,  Trinidad. 
Gum,  black  and 

red East.  United  States. 

Hawthorn Europe,  etc. 

Hazel " 

Hemlock 

(spruce) North  America. 

Hickory America. 

Holly Europe,     Southeast- 
ern United  States. 

Hoonsay India. 

Iron-wood East.  United  States. 

red. .  .  Jamaica. 

Jackwood Asia,  Ceylon. 

Juniper (See  Cedar.) 

Kjaboca East  Indies. 

Kingwood Brazil. 

Laburnum Europe. 

Lancewood.  .  ...South  America. 

' '        black.  Jamaica. 
Larch Europe. 

4 '      Western .  Oregon. 
Laurel,     moun- 
tain  Penn.  and  South. 

Leopard-wood.  Central  America. 


AND  WHERE  FOUND.  351 

DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  WOOD  AND  WHERE  FOUND— (Continued). 


NAME.  WHERE  FOUND. 

Cedar,  Spanish.  West      Indies      and 

South  America. 
Western. Utah  to  Oregon, 
white.  .  .  United  States. 
"       West  In- 
dia. .  .West  Indies. 

Cherry Europe,  America. 

Cherry,  wild,. 

black East.  United  States. 

Cherry-tree Australia. 

Chestnut America,  Europe. 

Cocoa -wood.  ..  .West  Indies. 
Coquilla-nut. . . .  Brazil. 

Cork-oak Southwest  Europe. 

Cotton  wood. .  .  .West.  United  States. 

Cowdi-pine Temperate  climates. 

Cypress So.  Lnited  States. 

Ne\y  Zealand. 

Deodar India. 

Dogwood Tasmania,    Jamaica, 

and   East.    United 
States. 

Mustaiba Brazil. 

Myrtle Southern        Europe, 

Tasmania. 

Nellec India. 

Nettle-tree South  of  Europe. 

Norfolk     Island 

pine Norfork  Island. 

Norway  spruce .  Norway. 

Novaladdi India. 

Oak Europe,  etc. 

African  .  .  .Africa. 

black East.  United  States. 

white ' 

red ' 

chestnut. .  .     ' 
Olive Europe,  Syria,  Cali- 
fornia. 
Osage  orange. .  .  Arkansas  and  South. 

Osiers Europe. 

Oyster    Bay 

wood Tasmaniar 

Paddle-wood.  .  .Guiana. 

Palm Tropical  climates. 

Partridge-wood.West    Indies,    South 

America. 
P  ne Europe  and  Asia. 


yello\ 
red  .  .  .  . 
white., 
spruce. 
Plane.  . 


North  America. 


.North     America, 
Asia,  Britain. 

Plum Britain,  etc. 

Poon West  Indies. 

Poplar Europe,  Asia. 

East.  United  States. 

Porcupine-wo'd  .Tropical  climates. 
Prima  Vera.  ..  .  Mexico. 
Purpleheart  .  .  .Brazil. 

Quassia Tropical  climates. 

Rattans 

Red  sanders  .  .  .India. 
Redwood California. 


NAME.  *      WHERE  FOUND. 

Lignum-vita?.  ..West      Indies      and 
Florida. 

Lime Europe. 

Linn East.  United  States. 

Locust West  Indies. 

East    of    Missippissi 

River. 

Mahogany Central  America  and 

Cuba, 
moun- 
tain .  Rocky  Mountains, 
white. (See  Prima  Vera.) 

Mangrove Tropics. 

Maple,  black.  . .  East.  United  States, 
red  .  .  . .     ' 

sugar.  .  .     "         "  •• 

Mountain-ash.  .Australia,      Britain, 
etc. 

Mulberry Europe  and  China. 

red.  .  .East.  United  States. 
Muskwood.  ....  Tasmania,        New 

South  Wales. 
Rhododendron.  Himalaya. 

Rosewood Tasmania. 

Sandalwood. .  .  .  India. 
Sapan-wood.  .  .     ' 

Sassafras America,  Tasmania. 

Satmwood East  Indies. 

Saul " 

Scotch  fir Scotland. 

Service-tree East.  United  States. 

She-oak Tasmania. 

Silverwood.  .  .  .  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Snakewood.  .  .  .West  Indies. 
Spindle-tree.   .  .Britain,  etc. 
Spruce,  black.  .  Sierra  Nevada  Mts. 
Engle- 

man's Rocky  Mountains. 

Stringy -bark.  .  .Australia. 

Sycamore Temperate  climates. 

East.  United  States. 

(fig)Egypt. 
Tamarack  (Amer- 
ican larch)...  .N  o  rt  hern    and 
Northeastern 
United  States. 
Teak,  African.  .  Africa. 
Indian.  ..India. 

Thorn East.  United  States. 

Toonwood India. 

Toqua Himalaya. 

Tulip-wood.  .  .  .Australia. 
Vegetable  ivory.Central  America. 
Walnut,  black.   East.  United  States. 
White     (1  utter- 
nut.  .     ' 

English. .  Europe. 
French.  .Persia,  Asia  Minor. 
Whitewood.  .  .  .  New  South  Wales. 

Willow Europe,  America. 

Yacca-wood.  .  .Jamaica. 
Yew-wood.  .  . .  Britain,      California, 

Oregon. 
Zebray Brazil. 


352     STRENGTH,  WEIGHT,  ETC.,  OF  VARIOUS  WOODS. 

STRENGTH,  WEIGHT,  ETC.,  OF  VARIOUS  WOODS. 


Name. 

Strength  per 
Sq.  In.  in  Lbs. 

Moduli 
of  Elas- 
ticity. 

Relative 
Hardn  'ss 
Shell- 
bark 
Hickory 

iooa 

Weight 
per 
Cubic 
Foot. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Tensile. 

Crushing 
in  Direc- 
tion of 
Grain. 

Acacia-wood.  .  .  . 

46.5 
50 
49 
40.77 
38.96 
62 
35.44 
40.42 
23.50 
44.70 
41.25 
15 
37.25 
35 
27.60 
47.25 
86.16 
42 
32 
52.69 
53.75 
47.50 
49.50 

43.12 
23.00 
37.00 
35.37 
45 
34.55 
83.31 
57.06 
45.50 
55.75 
46.87 
36 
53.75 

40.75 
47 
49.06 
23.99 
30 
33.25 
38.40 

43.62 
34 
45.50 
26.23 
55.31 
31.25 
23.93 
41.93 
33.40 

.750 
.800 
.793 
.610 
.623 
.990 
.567 
.650 
.376 
.715 
.660 
.240 
.596 
.560 
.441 
.750 
1.331 
.671 
.512 
.843 
.860 
.760 
.792 

.690 
.368 
.592 
.566 
.720 
.552 
1  .  333 
.913 
.728 
.829 
.750 
.576 
.860 

.652 
.752 
.785 
.383 
.480 
.532 
.612 

.698 
.544 
.728 
.419 
.885 
.500 
.383 
.671 
.535 

Alder-wood  
Apple-wood  

6,150 

'  '  700  '  ' 

775 

Ash  (white)  
Ash  (brown).  .  .  . 
Boxwood  
Birch  

17,000 
11,000 
18,000 
15,000 
11,500 
9,000 

8,600 

10,000 
8,000 
9,000 
6,000 

'   5,000 

;;:;::;: 

'  '  630  '  ' 
660 
440 
550 
520 

Beech  
Butternut  
Cherry 

i,'obo,666 

Chestnut  

10,500 

11,400  ' 

9,000 
5,000 

Cork 

Cedar  (white).  .  . 
Cedar  (red) 

6,500 
6,000 
6,000 

700,000 

'  900,606 

540 

'  '  750  '  ' 
'  '  580  '  ' 

'  '  720  '  ' 

Cypress  
Dogwood  

Ebony  

Elm  
Fir  

13,000 
10,000 
17,000 

8,000 
7,000 
7,000 

1,200,000 

Gum 

Hazel 

Holly  

Hickory  (pignut) 
Hickory      (shell- 
bark)  
Hemlock  

15,000 

18,000 
8,740 

9,000 

10,000 
5,400 

950 
1000 

'  900,666 

Hackmatack.  .  .  . 

Juniper  

Lancewood  

Larch  

9,500 

Lignum-  vitae.  .  .  . 
Logwood  
Locust  

12,000 

20,000  ' 
12,000 
10,000 
10,000 
16,000 

10,000 
9,800 

9,000 

11,720 
6,000 
9,000 
7,000 
6,000 

8,000 

Mahogany  
Maple  (hard).... 
Maple  (white).  .. 
Oak  (white)  
Oak    (red    or 
black)  
Pear 

1.166,666 

"  550  '  ' 

'  850  '  ' 
700 

Plum.  .  . 

Poplar  
Pine  (white).  .  .  . 
Pine  (Norway).  . 
Pine  (yellow).  .  . 
Pine(  yellow  long- 
leaf)  
Pine  (Oregon).  .. 
Rosewood  
Redwood  (Cal.).. 
Satinwood  
Spruce  (white).  . 
Tamarack  
Walnut  .  .  . 

7,000 
7,000 
8,300 
16,000 

20,000 
13,800 

'8,000  ' 
14,000 

16,000  ' 
12,000 

5,000 
5,000 
7,000 
5,500 

9,000 
7,000 

'2,500" 
'  6,500  ' 
'8,000  ' 

,ooo',666 

,200,000 
1,200,000 

1,700,000 
1,400,000 

7,66666 
1,266,666 

510 
300 

'  540 

'  650  '  ' 

Willow  

PLUMBING. 


353 


Plumbing.— In  this  part  of  the  work  the  superintendent 
must  see  that  the  materials  are  all  as  specified;  he  should  see 
that  the  pipe  used  is  of  the  right  size  and  weight,  and  that 
all  fixtures  are  in  perfect  condition.  He  should  provide  him- 
self with  a  catalogue  of  the  various  fixtures  to  be  used  so  he 
will  know  if  the  proper  fixtures  are  provided. 

In  running  the  sewers  and  soil-pipes  he  must  see  that  a 
proper  fall  is  given,  which  should  not  be  less  than  that  given 
in  the  following  table: 


Diameter  of  pipe,  inches.  .  .  . 
Length  to  1  foot  of  fall,  feet. 

2 
20 

3 
30 

4 
40 

5 

50 

6 
60 

7 
70 

8 
80 

9 
90 

10 
100 

A  small  pipe  should  have  a  greater  fall  than  a  large  one  on 
account  of  the  friction  being  greater  compared  with  the  amount 
of  water  used. 

All  turns  and  connections  should  be  made  with  Y  branches 
and  |  bends.  If  the  joints  are  made  with  lead  the  superin- 
tendent should  see  that  they  are  made  with  one  pouring  of  the 
lead  and  calked  tight. 

When  earthenware  pipe  is  used  for  sewers  they  must  be 
examined  for  cracks,  and  to  see  if  the  bowl  is  in  perfect  condi- 
tion care  must  be  taken  in  making  the  cement  joints  so  as  to 
leave  the  inside  of  the  pipes  smooth  and  level;  as  the  pipes 
are  laid  the  inside  should  be  wiped  out  so  as  to  wipe  out  any 
surplus  cement  on  the  inside.  Fig.  227,  A,  shows  how  pipes  of 


FIG.  227. 


this  kind  are  often  laid,  while  Fig.  227,  B,  shows  how  they  should 
be  laid. 

After  all  sewers,  soil-  and  vent-pipes  are  in  place  they  should 
be  tested  by  plugging  the  bottom  or  main  outlet  and  filling 
all  the  pipes  to  the  roof  level;  this  test  should  remain  on  for 
at  least  six  hours,  after  which  all  pipes  and  joints  should  be 
thoroughly  examined  for  leaks. 

Soil-  and  vent-pipes  should  be  securely  fastened  to  the  walls 
and  the  vertical  runs  of  pipe  should  set  on  a  firm  footing.  Lead 
pipe  should  be  examined  before  using  as  to  weight  and  thick- 


354      PHILADELPHIA  BUILDING  CODE  RULES. 

ness,  and  as  to  quality  and  condition  of  the  pipe.  By  rougl 
handling  of  the  coil  of  pipe  in  many  cases  the  pipe  is  flattenec 
so  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  use. 

In  laying  water-pipes,  or  in  fact  pipes  of  any  kind,  they  shoulc 
be  laid  so  that  they  will  drain  themselves,  and  in  no  case  shoulc 
any  pipe  be  placed  so  as  to  cause  a  seal  or  trap  in  the  pipe. 

Stopcocks  should  be  placed  on  all  water  lines  where  they  car 
be  got  at  conveniently,  controlling  each  fixture  or  set  of  fixtures 

After  all  fixtures  are  in  place  the  pipe  and  fixtures  should  be 
tested  with  smoke,  which  is  applied  at  the  main  outlet  b) 
burning  rags  or  waste  saturated  with  oil,  and  forcing  the  smoke 
up  the  pipes;  after  the  pipes  are  filled  with  smoke  the  whole 
system  should  be  gone  over  and  any  joint  or  connection  when 
there  is  an  odor  of  ssioke  should  be  examined,  as  any  smel' 
of  smoke  is  an  indication  of  a  leak.  This  test  is  mainly  foi 
the  connections  of  the  fixtures,  as  the  pipes  have  already  beer 
tested  by  the  water  test. 

The  water  system  should  be  tested  by  hydraulic  pressure. 

The  following  rules  regarding  plumbing  are  taken  from  the 
Philadelphia  Building  Code: 

Rule  10.  The  main  drain  of  every  house  or  Main  drain  to 
,  M  ,.  in,  T  •  i  T  ^i  be  connected 

building    shall    be    separately    and    independently  with  street 

connected   with   the   street   sewer,   where   one   is  sewer- 
provided;    and   where   there   is   no   sewer   in   the  ^|n.  private 


street,  and  it  is  necessary  to  construct  a  private  essary,  plans 
.  ,  .  .  must  be  ap- 

sewer  to  connect  with  one  on  an  adjacent  street,  proved  by 

such  plans  may  be  used  as  may  be  approved  by  Health° 
the  Board  of  Health;    but  in  no  case  shall  a  joint  j0int  drain 

drain    be   laid    in    cellars    parallel   with   street    or  Pot  t,0  be  la-id 

in  cellars. 
alley. 

All  house-drains  laid  beneath  the  ground  inside  Material  to  be 
of  buildings   or  beneath  the  cellar  floor  shall  be  derground1" 
of    plain,    extra-heavy    cast-iron    pipe,    with   well  house-drains. 
leaded  and  calked  joints,  or  of  wrought  iron,  with 
screw  joints  made  with  a  paste  of  red  lead  and 
treated  to  prevent  corrosion. 

All  other  drains  or  soil-pipes  connected  with  Material  to  be 
the  main  drain,  or  where  the  main  drain  pipe  is 
above  the  cellar  floor,  shall  be  of  plain  cast-iron 
pipe,  or  of  wrought-iron  pipe  with  screw  joints 
made  with  a  paste  of  red  lead  and  treated  to  pre- 
vent corrosion, 


REGARDING  PLUMBING.  355 

Outside  of  the  buildings,  where  the  soil  is  of  Terra-cotta 
sufficient  solidity  for  a  proper  foundation  cylindri-  may  be  used 


cal    terra-cotta    pipes    of    the    best    quality,    free 

from  flaws,  splits,  or  cracks,  perfectly  burned,  and  der  certain. 

well  glazed  over  the  entire  inner  and  outer  sur- 

faces  may  be   used,   laid   on   a  smooth   bottom, 

with  a  special  groove  cut  in  the  bottom  of  trench 

for  each  hub    (in  order  to  give  the  pipe  a  solid 

bearing   on   its    entire  length)    and   the   soil  well 

rammed   on   each  side  of   the  pipe.     The  spigot 

and  hub  ends  shall  be  concentric. 

The  space  between  the  hub  and  pipe  shall  be  Space  be- 
thoroughly   filled   with   the   best   cement   mortar,  ^pip^to  be 
made  of  equal  parts  of  the  best  American  natural  filled  with  ce- 
cement  and  bar  sand  thoroughly  mixed  dry,  and  n 
water  enough  afterward  added  to  give  it  proper 
consistency.     The  cement  must  be  mixed  in  small 
quantities    at  a  time  and  used  as  soon  as  made. 
The  joints  must  be  carefully  wiped  and  pointed,  Joints  to  be 
and  all  mortar  that  may  be  left  inside  thoroughly  j^j^Jf 
cleaned  out  and  the  pipe  left  clean  and  smooth 
throughout,   for  which  purpose   a  swab   shall  be 
used. 

No    tempered-up    cement    shall    be    used.     A  Quantyof 
straight-edge    shall    be    used,    and    the    different  cement. 
sections  shall  be  laid  in  perfect  line  on  the  bottom 
and  sides;    but  in  no  case  shall  terra-cotta  pipes  pfjgj'nof  tJ> 

be  permitted  within  five  (5)  feet  of  any  founda-  j?e  within  5 
,  .  f  .         '  ...  feet  of  foun- 

tion-wall,  or    for  extension  to  connect  with  ram-  dation-wall, 

water  conductors,  surface  or  air  inlets.  extensions?" 

Note.  —  After    the    test    has    been    approved    by  Coating  of 
the   inspector,    iron   drain-   or   soil-pipes   may   be  pipes  not  to 
tar-coated.     But  in  no  case  shall  any  coating  be  after  appro- 
applied  to  cast-iron  soil-  or  drain-pipes  until  test 
has  been  applied  and  approved  by  the  inspector. 

Rule  11.  The  house-drain  shall  be  not  less  Construction 
than  four  (4)  inches,  nor  more  than  ten  (10) 
inches  in  diameter,  and  the  fall  shall  not  be  less 
than  one-half  (J)  an  inch  to  the  foot,  unless  by 
special  permission  of  the  Board  of  Health;  it 
shall  be  laid  in  a  trench  cut  at  a  uniform  grade, 
or  it  may  be  constructed  along  the  foundation- 


356      PHILADELPHIA  BUILDING  CODE  RULES. 

walls  above  the  cellar  floor,  resting  on  nine  (9) 
inch  brick  piers  laid  in  cement  mortar  (said  piers 
to  be  not  more  than  seven  (7)  feet  apart)  and 
securely  fastened  to  said  walls;  no  tests  shall  be 
made  by  the  inspector  until  said  pipes  are  secured 
as  above  described. 

Rule.  12.     The  arrangement  of  soil-  and  waste- 
pipes  shall  be  as  direct  as  possible.     All  changes  drains. 
in  direction  on  horizontal  pipes  shall  be  made  with 
Y   branches,  one-sixteenth  (&)  or  one-eighth  (£) 
bends. 

Rule  13.  The  house-drain  shall  be  provided  with  Location  of 
a  horizontal  trap,  placed  immediately  inside  the 
cellar  wall  nearest  to  the  sewer,  or  at  the  curb. 
The  trap  shall  have  a  hand-hole,  for  convenience 
in  cleaning,  the  cover  of  which  shall  be  properly 
fitted  and  the  joints  made  air-tight. 

,  —  If  the  trap  and  the  main  drain  is  placed  Main  trap  to 


inside  of  the  cellar  wall,  there  shall  be  no  clear-  hole. 
out  between  the  water  seal  of  the  trap  and  the 
sewer. 

Rule  14.  There  shall  be  an  inlet  for  fresh  air 
entering  the  drain  just  inside  the  water  seal  of 
the  main  trap,  and  also  at  the  rear  of  the  system, 
when  the  vertical  line  of  soil-pipe  is  located  in 
the  central  part  of  the  building  and  the  main 
fresh-air  inlet  is  deemed  insufficient  to  ventilate 
the  entire  system.  Said  inlets  shall  be  at  least 
four  (4)  inches  in  diameter,  leading  to  the  outer 
air  and  opening  at  any  convenient  place,  with  an 
accessible  clean-out.  Where  air  inlets  are  located 
off  the  footway,  on  grass  plots,  lawns,  etc.,  they 
shall  extend  not  less  than  six  (6)  nor  more  than 
fifteen  (15)  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  be  protected  by  a  cowl  securely  fastened  with 
bolts. 

Rule   15.     Where   the   drain   passes   through   a 
new    foundation-wall    a    relieving    arch    shall    be  when  drain- 
built  over  it  with  a  two    (2)    inch   clearance  on 
either  side. 

Rule  16.  Every  vertical  soil-pipe  shall  extend 
at  least  two  (2)  feet  above  the  highest  part  of  the 


REGARDING  PLUMBING.  357 


building  or  contiguous  property,  and  shall  be  of 

undiminished    size,    with    the    outlet    uncovered  soil-  or  waste- 

except  with  a  wire  guard.     Such  soil-pipe  shall  plpes- 
not  open  near  a  window  nor  an  air-shaft  ventilating 
living-rooms. 

Rule   17.     Every  branch  or  horizontal  line  of  Branch  or 

soil-pipe  to  which  a  group  of  two   (2)   or  more  J^™11^^ 

water-closets  is  to  be  connected,  and  every  branch  which  water- 

line  of  horizontal  soil-pipe  eight  (8)  feet  or  more  connected  to 


in  length,  to  which  a  water-closet  is  to  be  con- 

nected,   shall   be   ventilated,    either  by   extending  such  ventila- 

said   soil-pipe,   undiminished   in   size,    to   at   least 

two  (2)  feet  above  the  highest  part  of  the  building 

or  contiguous  property,  or  by  extending  said  soil- 

pipe   and   connecting   it  with   the   main   soil-pipe 

above  the  highest  fixture,  or  by  a  ventilating  pipe 

connected  to  the  crown  of  each  water-closet  trap, 

not  less  than  two   (2)   inches  in  diameter,  which 

shall  be  increased  one-half  (J)  an  inch  in  diameter 

for  every  fifteen  (15)  feet  in  length,  and  connected 

to  a  special  air-pipe,  which  shall  not  be  less  than 

four  (4)  inches  in  diameter,  or  by  connecting  said 

ventilating  pipe  with  the  main  soil-pipe  above  the 

highest  fixture. 

Rule  18.     Where  a  separate  line  of  waste-pipes  is  Construction 

used,  not  connected'with  sewer-pipes,  it  shall  also  be  of  waste- 

.  pipes  not  con- 

carried  two  (2)  feet  above  the  highest  part  of  the  nected  with 


building  or  contiguous  property,  unless  otherwise  per- 

mitted  by  the  Board  of  Health.     But  in  no  case  shall  not  to  con- 

a  waste-pipe  connect  with  a  rain-water  conductor.      ?ain-water 

Rule  19.     There  shall  be  no  traps,  caps,  or  cowls  conductor. 
on  soil-  and  waste-pipes  which  will  interfere  with 
the  system  of  ventilation. 

Rule    20.     All    soil-,    waste-,    anti-siphon    pipes  orwaste- 
and    traps    inside   of   new   buildings,    and   of   the  !^P^S  *  n 
new  work  in  old  buildings,  and  also  of  the  entire  less  than  3 
system  when  alterations  are  made  in  old  buildings, 
and  the  owner  or  agent  of  said  building  or  buildings 
shall  have  contracted  to  have  the  entire  drainage  drain-pipes 
system    tested,  shall    have  openings  stopped  and 
a  test  of  not  less  than  three  (3)  pounds  atmospheric 
pressure  to  the  square  inch  applied, 


358      PHILADELPHIA  BUILDING  CODE  RULES. 


Rule  21.  The  drain-,  soil-,  and  waste-pipes, 
and  the  traps,  shall,  if  practicable,  be  exposed  to 
view  for  ready  inspection  at  all  times,  and  for 
convenience  in  repairing.  When  placed  within 
walls  or  partitions  and  not  exposed  to  view,  or  not 
covered  with  woodwork  fastened  with  screws  so  as 
to  be  readily  removed,  or  when  not  easily  acces- 
sible, extra-heavy  pipes  shall  be  used  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  Board  of  Health. 

Rule  22.  No  drainage  work  shall  be  covered 
or  concealed  in  any  way  until  after  it  has  been 
examined  and  approved  by  a  house-drainage 
inspector,  and  notice  must  be  sent  to  the  Board 
of  Health,  in  writing,  when  the  work  is  sufficiently 
advanced  for  such  inspection;  and  immediately 
on  the  completion  of  the  work  application  must 
be  made  for  final  inspection.  The  failure  on  the 
part  of  a  master  plumber  to  make  said  application 
for  final  inspection,  or  the  violation  of  any  of  the 
rules  of  the  Board  of  Health  in  the  construction  of 
any  drainage  work,  and  failure  to  correct  the  fault 
after  notification,  will  be  deemed  sufficient  cause 
to  place  his  name  on  the  delinquent  list  until  he 
has  complied  with  said  rules  and  regulations.  Any 
attempt  on  the  part  of  a  master  plumber  to  con- 
struct or  alter  a  system  of  drainage  during  the 
time  his  name  appears  on  said  delinquent  list  will 
subject  him  to  criminal  prosecution. 

Rule  23.  All  drain  and  anti-siphon  pipes  of 
cast  iron  shall  be  sound,  free  from  holes,  and  of  a 
uniform  thickness,  and  shall  conform  to  the  follow- 
ing relative  weights: 


Drain-pipes 
and  traps  to 
be  easily  ac- 
cessible when 
practicable. 

When  drain- 
pipes and 
traps  are  not 
easily  acces- 
sible, heavy 
pipe  to  be 
used. 


Drainage 
work  not  to 
be  covered  or 
concealed  un- 
til inspected. 

Notice  to 
Board  of 
Health. 

Final  inspec- 
tion. 

Name  of  mas- 
ter plumber 
to  be  placed 
on  delinquent 
list  for  viola- 
tion of  rules 
of  Board  of 
Health. 


Criminal 
prosecution 
in  case  a  de- 
linquent shall 
do  any  drain- 
age work. 

Quality  and 
weight  of 
drain-  and 
soil-pipes. 


Standard. 

In. 

Lbs. 

ip 

pe,     4  per  foot. 

o 

6         " 

4 

9 

5 

12         " 

6 

15 

7 

20         " 

8 

25        " 

10 

35         " 

12 

45        " 

Extra  Heavy. 

In.             Lbs. 

2p 
3 

pe,     5J  per  foot. 

'             Ql               (  t 

4 

13*         " 

5 

17 

f 

6 

20 

t 

7 

27 

t 

8 

334- 

( 

10 

45 

t 

12 

54 

< 

REGARDING   PLUMBING.  359 

Rule  24.     All  drain    and    anti-siphon    cast-iron  Nameofman- 

,     ,,  ,  ,  ,  ...  -  ,   ,  ,  ufacturer  and 

pipes  shall  have  the  weight  per  foot  and  the  name  weight  per 

of  the  manufacturer  cast  on  the  exterior  surface,  ^Tdrain-  Sfd 
directly  back  of  the  hub  of  each  section,  in  char-  soil-pipes. 
acters  not  less  than  one-half  ($)  inch  in  length. 

Rule  25.     Lead   waste-p'ipes   may   be   used  for  When  lead 

i       •        j_   i   v          xi     j  /<-»\          i  i         •       waste-pipes 

horizontal  lines  that  are  two  (2)  inches  or  less  in  may  be  used. 

diameter,  and  shall  have  not  less  than  the  follow- 
ing prescribed  weights: 

1  inch  pipe,  2  Ibs.   0  oz.  Weight  of 
j£    tt       <t       2    "      8  "                            lead  pipes. 

1£    "      "      3   "     8  " 

2  "      "      4   "     0  " 

Rule  26.     Lead  bends  or  traps  for  water-closets  Thickness  of 

.     „  ,      ,         ,.  .    ,  .,     /1N      ,.  ...      lead  bends 

shall  not  be  less  than  one-eighth  (£)  of  an  inch  in  Or  traps  for 
thickness. 

Rule  27.     Waste-pipes  from  wash-basins,  sinks,  Diameter  of 

111         i         11111         j  i  i  water-pipes 

and  bath-tubs  shall  not  be  less  than  one  and  one-  from  wash- 

quarter    (14)    inches   in   diameter,    and   wash-tray  bJthXuba,ks> 
waste-pipes  not  less  than  one  and  one-half   (H)  and  wash-' 

.      ,         .v  trays. 

inches  in  diameter. 

Rule  28.     All  joints  in  cast-iron  drain-,  soil-,  and  Joints  in  cast- 

waste-pipes  shall    be    so  calked  with    oakum  and  pipes  to  be 

lead,   or  with   cement   made   of   iron   filings   and  calked- 
salammoniac,  as  to  make  them  gas-tight. 

Rule  29.     All  connections  of  lead  with  iron  pipe  Connections 

,     ,,    .  ,          .  ,          ,  •'       -i  j    i          ^1          of  lead  with 

shall  be  made  with  a  brass  ferrule  not  less  than  iron  pipe  to 


one-eighth  (£)  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  put  in  the 

hub  of  the    iron    pipe  and    calked  in  with  lead,  rule;  IK>W 

.  .  .    connection  to 

except  in  cases  of  iron  water-closet  traps  or  old  be  made. 

work,  when  drilling  and  tapping  is  permitted.  The 
lead  pipe  shall  be  attached  to  the  ferrule  by  a 
wiped  solder  joint. 

Rule  30.     All  connections  of  lead  pipe  shall  be  Connections 

of  lead  pipe 

by  wiped  solder  joints.  to  be  by  sol- 

Rule  31.     Every  water-closet,  sink,  basin,  wash-  der  joints. 

J  ,     n   ,       Water-clos- 

tray,  bath,  and  every  tub  or  set  of  tubs,  shall  be  ets,  sinks, 

separately  and  effectually  trapped.  SepaiSeiy 

Rule  32.     The  trap  must  be  placed  as  near  the  trapped. 
fixture  as  practicable.      All   waste-pipes  shall   be  Jrap^10n°f 
provided     with     strong     metallic     strainers.     All  gt;ramerg. 


360      PHILADELPHIA  BUILDING  CODE  RULES. 

drains  from   hydrants  shall  be  trapped  and   in  a  Drains  from 
manner  accessible  for  cleaning  out. 

Rule  33.     Traps  of  fixtures  shall  be  protected  prrjtpesetedbe 
from    siphonage.     All  anti-siphon  pipes    shall  be  from  siphon- 
carried   up   and   through   the   roof   or   connected  &{ 
with    the    main   soil-pipes    above    the    highest 
fixture. 

Rule  34.     Every  anti-siphon    pipe   shall  be  of  Construction 
lead,  of   galvanized  gas-pipe,  or  of  plain  cast-iron 
pipe.     Where    these    pipes    go    through    the    roof 
they  shall  extend  two  (2)  feet  above  the  highest 
part  of  the  building  or  contiguous  property;   they  81Phon  P^8- 
may   be   combined   by   branching   together  those 
which  serve  several  traps.     These  pipes  where  not 
vertical  must  always  be  a   continuous  slope,   to 
avoid  collecting  water  by  condensation. 

Rule  35.     All  drip-  or  overflow-pipes  from  safes  Construction 
under  wash-basins,  baths,  urinals,  water-closets,  or  overflow^ 
other  fixtures  shall  be  by  a  special  pipe  run  to  an  PiPes- 
open  sink  outside   the  house  or  some  conspicuous 
point;   and  in  no  case  shall  any  such  pipe  be  con- 
nected with  a  soil-,  drain-,  or  waste-pipe. 

Rule  36.     No  waste-pipe  from  a  refrigerator  or  Waste-pipe 
other   receptacle   in   which    provisions    are   stored  Ito^etc^ 

shall  be  connected  with  any  drain-,  soil-,  or  other  to  be  con- 

/         ,     .,  '.  ,    nected  with 

waste-pipe.     Such  waste-pipes  shall  be  so  arranged  any  drain- 

as  to  admit  of  frequent  flushing,  and  shall  be  as  plpe' 
short  as  possible. 

Rule  37.  The  overflow-pipes  from  tanks  and  Discharge  of 
the  waste-pipes  from  refrigerators  shall  discharge  tankf  andTe 
into  an  open  fixture  properly  trapped.  frigerat9r 

Rule  38.     All  water-closets  within  buildings  shall 


be  supplied  with  water  from  special  tanks  or  cistern  J^Jh  wRteJied 
which  shall  hold  not  less  than  eight  (8)  gallons  of  from  flushing- 
water  when  up  to  the  level  of  the  overflow-pipe  taaks> 


for  each  closet  supplied,   excepting  automatic  or 

siphon  tanks,  which  shall  hold  not  less  than  five  (5) 

gallons    of    water  for    each    closet    supplied;    the 

water  in  said  tanks  shall  not  be  used  for  any  other 

purpose.     The  flushing-pipe  of  all  tanks  shall  not  Size  of  flush- 

be  less  than  one  and  one-quarter  (1£)  inches  in  mg"plpe- 

diameter. 


REGARDING  PLUMBING.  361 

Rule  39.  No  closet,  except  those  placed  in  the  Water-closets 
yard,  shall  be  supplied  directly  from  the  supply  pTied°directiy~ 
pipes.  from  ma»n- 

Rule  40.     A  group  of  closets  may  be  supplied  Supplying 
from  one  tank,  but  water-closets  on  different  floors  cloStefrom 
shall  not  be  flushed  from  one  tank.  same  tank. 

Rule  41.     Water-closets,    when    placed    in    the  Yard  water- 
yard,  shall  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  conveniently  S?quately)e 
and   adequately   flushed,   and    their    water-supply  flushed- 
pipes  and  traps  shall  be  protected  from  freezing  Protection  of 
by  placing  them  in  a  hopper-pit,   at  least  three  tosameTom 
and  one-half    (3£)   feet  below  the   surface  of  the  freezing- 
ground,  the  walls  of  which  shall  be  of  brick  or 
stone  laid  in  cement  mortar.     The  water-pipe  from 
the   hopper    stopcock    shall    be    conveyed   to  -the 
drain  through  a  three-eighths  (f)  inch  pipe,  prop- 
erly connected. 

Rule  42.     The    inclosure    of     the    yard    water- 
closet    shall    be    ventilated    by    slatted    openings* 
and  there  shall  be  a  trap-door  in  the  floor  of  suffi-  and  have 
cient  size  for  access  to  the  hopper-pit.  fkx>r~ 

Rule  43.     Water-closets    must    not    be    located  Water-closets 
in  the  sleeping-apartments    of  any  building,  nor  rated  in  sleep? 
in  any  room  or  apartment  which  has  not  direct  mfiJJgn^in 
communication  with  the  external  air  either  by  a  apartment 

.     ,  ,     .,     ,  ,,        without  corn- 

Window   or   an    air-shait    having    an   area   to   the  munication 

open  air  of  at  least  four   (4)  square  feet.  ^th  external 

Rule  44.     The    containers    of    all    water-closets  Containers  of 


shall    be    supplied    with*  fresh    air     and    properly 
ventilated,  as  approved  by  the  Board  of  Health,   lated. 

Rule  45.     All    water-closets  within    a    building  Lead  con- 
using   lead    connections     shall    have    a    cast-brass  ^IftSlosets 
flange   not  less  than    three-sixteenths    (^)   of    an  within  a 
inch  in  thickness  (fitted  with  a  pure-rubber  gasket 
of    sufficient    thickness    to    insure    a    tight   joint) 
bolted  to  the  closet. 

Rule  46.     Where  latrines  are  used  for  schools  Construction 
,1  i     11  i         e  •  v     i       -j-i-  of  latrines  for 

they  shall  be  of  iron,  properly  supplied  with  water,  schools. 

and  located  in  the  yard  at  least  twenty  (20)  feet 
from  the  building  when  practicable. 

Rule  47.     Rain-water  conductors  shall  be  con-  Rain-water 

,         .j.        .        .  .      .  .     .        conductors  to 

nected   with    the    house-dram    or    sewer    and    be  be  connected 


362      PHILADELPHIA  BUILDING  CODE  RULES. 

provided  with  a  trap  the  seal  of  which  shall  be  not  with  house- 
less than  five  (5)  inches.     Said  trap  shall  have  a 
hand-hole  for  convenience  in  cleaning,  the  cover  to 

of  which  shall  be  made  air-tight.  have'  hand- 

Rain  conductors  shall  not  be  connected  outside  Rain  conduc- 
of  the  main  trap,  nor  used  as  soil-,  waste-,  or  vent-  cormected0  be 
pipes;  nor  shall  any  soil-,  waste-,  or  air-pipe  be  outside  of 

,  .  ,  i     •<•      i         i        -ji  •       main  traps, 

used    as    a    rain  conductor,  and   if  placed  within  nor  used  as 

a    building   shall   be    of    cast    iron   with   leaded 
joints. 

Rule  48.     No    steam    exhaust    or    waste    from  Steam-ex- 

i    11    i  ,     i       .,1  i  haust  pipes 

steam-pipes  shall  be  connected  with  any  house-  not  to  be  con- 

drain  or  soil-pipe. 


Rule  49.     No  privy  vault  or  cesspool  for  sewage  Privy-vault 
shall  hereafter  be  constructed  in  any  part  of  the  ™tCtoT£  con- 


city  where  a  sewer  is  at  all  accessible.  stmcted 

„._-.,,.  .         ,  ,  where  a  sewer 

Rule  50.     JNo  connection  irom  any  cesspool  or  is  accessible. 

privy-well  shall  be  made  with  any  sewer,  nor  shall  Connection  of 

.     .     '  cesspool  or 

any  water-closet  or  house-drainage  empty  into  a  privy-well 


cesspool  or  privy-well. 

Rule  51.     In    rural    districts    waste-pipes    from  sewer. 
buildings  may  be  connected  with  cesspools  con- 


structed  for  that  special  purpose,  properlv  flagged  drainage  not 

A  •    i  f    i  -   i  to  empty  into 

or  arched   over,   and  not  water-tight,   by  special  cesspool  or 

permission  of  the  Board  of  Health.  privy-well. 

Rule  52.     Privy-vaults  must  be  constructed  as  Waste-pipes 

(.11  -nii     MT  •,  •,  may  be  con- 

follows:    Each   building  situate  on  an  unsewered  nected  with 

street  must  have  a  privy-vault  not  less  than  four  £3  dis-  m 

(4)  feet  in  diameter  and  ten  (10)  feet*  deep  in  the  tricts. 

clear,   lined  with   hard   brick   nine    (9)    inches   in  Construction 

thickness,  laid  in  cement  mortar,  and  proved  to  be  ?aults?r~ 
water-tight. 

Rule  53.     Privy-vaults    shall    not    be    located  Privy-vaults 

within  two  (2)  feet  of  party  lines,  or  within  twenty  cated  within 


(20)    feet    of  a    building  when    practicable;    and 

before  any  privy-vault  shall  be  constructed,  appli-  of  a  building. 

cation  shall  be  made  and  a  permit  for  same  issued 

by  the  Board  of  Health. 

Rule  54.     No  opening  will  be  permitted  in  the  NO  opening 
drain-pipe  of  any  building  for  the  purpose  of  drain-  *°l^fj)1J|}ja-n 
ing  a  cellar,  unless  by  special  permission  by  the  ing  cellar  un- 
Board  of  Health. 


REGARDING  PLUMBING. 


363 


Rule  55.  Cellar-drains  shall  be  constructed  as 
follows:  By  a  system  of  French  drains,  or  field 
tile,  to  a  catch-basin,  flagged  over;  the  outlet  pipe  Construction 
shall  be  properly  trapped  and  connected  with  the 
house-drain,  and  shall  also  be  provided  with  a 
back-pressure  valve  or  stopcock  the  required  size. 


FLOW  OF  WATER  IN  HOUSE-SERVICE  PIPES. 
(Thomson  Meter  Co.) 


Condition 
of  Dis- 
charge. 

Pressure  in  Main, 
Lbs.  per  Sq.  In. 

Discharge  in  Cubic  Feet  per  Minute  from  the  Pipe. 

Nominal  Diameters  of  Iron  or  Lead  Service-pipe  in 
Inches. 

| 

f 

f 

1 

1* 

2 

3 

4 

6 

Through  35 
feet  of 
service- 
Eipe,  no 
ack 
pressure. 

30 
40 
50 
60 
75 
100 
130 

1.10  1.92 
1.27;2.22 
1  .  42  2  .  48 
1.56,2.71 
1.743.03 
2.01  3.50 
2  .  29  3  .  99 

3.01 
3.48 
3.89 
4.26 
4.77 
5.50 
6.28 

6.13  16.58 
7.08  19.14 
7.9221.40 
8  .  67  23  .  44 
9.7026.21 
11.2030.27 
12.7734.51 

33.34 
38.50 
43.04 
47.15 
52.71 
60.87 
69.40 

88.16 
101.80 
113.82 
124  .  68 
139.39 
160.96 
183.52 

173.85 
200.75 
224.44 
245.87 
274  .  89 
317.41 
361.91 

444  .  63 
513.42 
574  .  02 
628.81 
703  .  03 
811.79 
925.58 

Through 
100  feet  of 
service- 
Eipe,  no 
ack 
pressure. 

30 
40 
50 
60 
75 
100 
130 

30 
40 
50 
60 
75 
100 
130 

0.66 
0.77 
0.86 
0.94 
1.05 
1.22 
1.39 

1.16 
1.34 
1.50 
1.65 
1.84 
2.13 
2.42 

1.84 
2.12 
2.37 
2.60 
2.91 
3.36 
3.83 

3.78 
4.36 
4.88 
5.34 
5.97 
6.90 
7.86 

10.40 
12.01 
13.43 
14.71 
16.45 
18.99 
21.66 

21.30 
24.59 
27.50 
30.12 
33  .  68 
38.89 
44.34 

58.19 
67.19 
75.13 
82.30 
92.01 
106.24 
121.14 

118.13 
136.41 
152.51 
167.06 
186.78 
215.68 
245.91 

317.23 
366.30 
409.54 
448  .  63 
501  .  58 
579.18 
660.36 

Through 
100  feet  of 
service- 
pipe  and 
15  feet 
vertical 
rise. 

0.55 
0.66 
0.75 
0.83 
0.94 
1.10 
1.26 

0.961.52 
1.15  1.81 
1.312.06 
1.452.29 
1.642.59 
1  .  92  3  .  02 
2.203.48 

3.11 
3.72 
4.24 
4.70 
5.32 
6.21 
7.14 

8.57 
10.24 
11.67 
12.94 
14.64 
17.10 
19.66 

17.55 
20.95 
23.87 
26.48 
29.96 
35.00 
40.23 

47.90 
57.20 
65.18 
72.28 
81.79 
95.55 
109.82 

97.17 
116.01 
132.20 
146.61 
165.90 
193.82 
222.75 

260  .  56 
311.09 
354.49 
393.13 
444.85 
519.72 
597.31 

Through 
100  feet  of 
service- 
pipe  and 
30  feet 
vertical 
rise. 

30 
40 
50 
60 
75 
100 
130 

0.44 
0.55 
0.65 
0.73 
0.84 
1.00 
1.15 

0.771.22 
Oi.971  63 

1.14  1.79 
1.282.02 
1.4712.32 
1.742.75 
2.02J3.19 

2.50 
3.15 
3.69 
4.15 
4.77 
5.65 
6.55 

6.80 
8.68 
10.16 
11.45 
13.15 
15.58 
18.07 

14.11 
17.79 
20.82 
23.47 
26.95 
31.93 
37.02 

38.63 
48.68 
56.98 
64.22 
73.76 
87.38 
101.33 

78.54 
98.98 
115.87 
130.59 
149.99 
177.67 
206.04 

211.54 
266.59 
312.08 
351.73 
403.98 
478  .  55 
554.96 

SAFE  PRESSURES  AND    HEADS  OF  WATER 


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366 


PIPE  TABLES. 


FORMULA   FOR   THICKNESS   OF   CAST-IRON   WATER-PIPE. 


t=  .00008M+  .Old+  .36  ..................  Shedd; 

t=  .00006M+  .0133d+  .296  ...............  Warren  Foundry; 

<=  .000058M  +  .0152+  .312  ...............  Francis; 

<=  .000048W  +  .013d  +  .32  ................  Dupuit; 

t  =  .00004M  +  .  lVd+  .15  .................  Box; 

<=  .000135W+  .4-  .OOlld  ................  Whitman; 

t  =  .  00006(/i  +  230d)  +  .  333  -  .  0033d  .........  Fanning; 

<=.00015/id+.25-  .0052d  ................  Meggs; 

in  which  f  =  thickness  in  inches,  h  =  head  in  feet,  d  =  diameter. 


SIZE  AND   WEIGHT   OF  LEAD   PIPE. 


Calibre. 


inch  tubing .... 

'     extra-light  tubing 

'     light  tubing. .... 

'     medium  tubing .... 

'     strong  tubing .... 

1     extra  strong .... 

14     aqueduct 1187 

"     light 1342 

'     medium 1381 

'     strong 1627 

4     extra  strong 1968 

4     aqueduct 782 

'     extra  light 980 

'     light 1285 

'     medium 1393 

4     strong 1655 

'     extra  strong 1787 

'     aqueduct 708 

4     extra  light 795 

'     light 987 

'     medium 1152 

strong 1380 

extra  strong 1548 

aqueduct 505 

extra  light 782 

light 865 

medium 1072 

strong 1225 

extra  strong 1462 

aqueduct 518 

extra  light 562 

light 745 

medium 857 

strong 910 

extra  strong 1230 

aqueduct .  350 

extra  light 420 

light 546 

medium 685 

strong 823 

extra  strong 962 

aqueduct 315 


Ultimate 
Strength. 


Working 
Strength. 


296 
335 
347 
406 
492 
195 
245 
321 
343 
413 
446 
177 
198 
246 
288 
345 
387 
126 
195 
216 
268 
306 
365 
129 
140 
186 
214 
227 
307 
87 
105 
136 
171 
205 
240 
78 


Weight  per 

Foot. 
Lbs.    Oz. 


6 

8 

10 

1       2 
0       8 

0  12 

1  0 

1  8 

2  0 
0     10 

0  12 

1  0 
1       4 

12 
8 
12 


-  2 
3 
1 
1 


1 
2 
0 
1  4 

1  12 

2  0 
8 
0 
0 
8 


2  0 

2  8 

3  0 

3  12 

4  12 


PIPE  TABLES.  367 

SIZE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  LEAD  PIPE—  (Continued). 


Calibre. 

Ultimate 
Strength. 

Working 
Strength. 

Weight  per 
Foot. 
Lbs.    Oz. 

rin 

| 

1 
',. 

ch  extra 
light 
medi 
stron 
extra 
extra 
light 
medi 
stron 
extra 
wast 
extra 
light 
medi 
stron 
extra 
Ath 

A  th 

wast* 
A  th 

I 
I 

wast 

t" 
I 

wastt 

light  

430 
506 
628 
700 
742 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

I 

1 

*• 

! 
1 
1 
1 

07 
26 
57 
75 
B5 

79 
93 
16 
50 
55 
90 
31 
27 
52 

3       8 
4       0 
5       0 
6       0 
7       8 
3     12 
4       8 
5       8 
6       8 
8       0 
3       0 
4       0 
5       0 
7       0 
8       0 
9       0 
8       0 
11       0 
14       0 
17       0 
5       0 
9       0 
12       0 
16       0 
20       0 
15       0 
18       0 
21       0 
5       0 
7       0 
16       0 
21       0 
25       0 
30       0 
6       0 
8       0 

um.  . 

g  

strong    . 

light  .  .  . 

'sis 

um. 

g  

strong 

'266 
260 
360 
405 
511 
611 

i 

light.  .  .  . 

um  

g 

strong  

ck 

ck.  .                     

».  .                    

ck 

ok  

>  

PURE  BLOCK-TIN  PIPE. 


Calibre. 

Wei'ht 

Weight 

F*oot. 

Calibre. 

per 
Foot. 

Oz. 

Lbs.  Oz. 

J     inch  strong  

2* 

|  inch  double  extra  strong 

15 

? 

extra  strong.  .  .  . 

1C  CO  CO  CO  00 

f           extra  strong  
double  extra  strong, 
extra  strong  
£           double  extra  strong 
extra  strong  

9 
14 
11 
1       0 
14 

double  extra  strong.  . 
double  extra  strong.  . 
extra  strong  
double  extra  strong.  . 

£ 

strong  

67 

1             double  extra  strong 

1       4 

* 

extra  strong  

10 

368  PIPE  TABLES. 

WEIGHTS  AND  SIZES  OF  SHEET  LEAD. 


Pounds  per  square  foot 
Wire-gauge  number.  .  . 

aj 

19 

3 

18 

3* 
17         K 

I 
J 

4< 
15 

t 

5 

14 

6 
13 

Pounds  per  square  foot 
Wire-gauge  number.  .  . 

7 
12 

!•- 

9 
10 

10 
9 

11 

8 

12 

7 

(A  square  foot  of  sheet  lead  &  of  an  inch  thick  weighs  4  pounds.) 


APPROXIMATE  WEIGHTS  OF  CAST-IRON  SOIL-PIPE 
AND   FITTINGS. 

STANDARD. 


Size,  inches  

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 

12 

Pipe                     pounds  per  foot 

3* 
5 
8 
3 
3 

f 

"3" 
2t 

? 

4* 
10 
11 
4 
4* 
6i 
5* 
3 

J* 

8 
10 
9 

6* 
12 
18 
6 
6 
10 
8 

6 
5 
10 
19 
13 

8* 
16 
26 
8 
8 
14 
10 
6 
8 
6 
15 
26 
18 

10 
24 
37 
10 
11 
16 

'I1 

11 

7 
20 
35 
25 

17 

23 
45 

33 

Crosses  pounds  each 
Double  Y  branch 
Double  hubs  
Eighth  bends.  .  .  . 
Half  Y  branches  . 
Quarter  bends.  .  . 

16 
24 

34  ' 
9 
24 

'  38  ' 
'  42  ' 
4X12 
15 

26 
32* 

'  41  ' 
32* 
'  55  ' 
70  ' 

Sixth  bends  

T  branches  
Traps 

Y  branches  

Size,  inches    

2X8 

3X8 
8 

5X12 
20 

6X8 
22 



Offsets  pounds  each 

5 

EXTRA  HEAVY. 


2 

3 

4 

IT 
24 
32 
8 
9* 
18 
12 
6 
9* 

20 
28 
25 

5 

6 

8 

10 

12 

Pipe  pounds  per  foot  . 

5* 
10 
12 

? 

6 
"4| 

7 
9 
10 

9* 
20 
20 
7 
6i 
13 
8 
4 

? 

13 
18 
15 

17 
32 
42 
11 
12 
24 
15 
8 
12 
9 
25 
45 
32 

20 
48 
60 
14 
16 
30 
20 
11 
16 
10 
34 
68 
45 

3X8 
15 

34 

85 

'  28  " 
35* 

'  44  ' 
16 
35i 

50  ' 
'  85  ' 

45 

'  '47' 
59* 

"74" 
"59* 

i64 
'isi' 

54 

6X8 

Crosses  pounds  each 
Double  Y  branch. 
Double  hubs  
Eighth  bends  .... 
Half  Y  branches 
Quarter  bends.  . 
Reducers  

Sixth  bends  
Sleeves  
T  branches  
Traps  . 

Y  branches  

Size  inches 

2X8 

4X12 
23 

5X12 
30 

Offsets,  pounds  each 

9 

38 

BOILERS  AND  TUBING. 


369 


CAPACITY   AND   SIZE   OF   GALVANIZED    BOILERS. 


Capacity. 

Size. 

Weight  of 
Boiler. 

Total 
Weight 
Filled  with 
Water. 

18  gall 
21 
24 
24 
27 
28 
30 
32 
35 
36 
36 
40 
42 
47 
48 
52 
53 
63 
66 
79 
82 
98 
100 
120 
120 
144 
168 
192 

ons 

3  feet  b 
3*  !! 

3   " 

a  - 

5 
4 
5 
6 

I  : 
?  •'•' 

5   " 
4   " 
6   " 
5   " 
6   ' 
5 
6 
5 
6 
5 
6 
7 
8 

y  12  inc 
*  12 
12 
14 
12 
14 
12 
14 
13 
12 
14 
14 
16 
16 
14 
16 
18 
16 
18 
18 
20 
20 
22 
22 
24 
24 
24 
24 

hes 

47 
49 
57 
52 
66 
66   i 
72 
72 
76 
85 
78 
85 
95 
102 
102 
119 
119 
146 
150 
171 
192 
210 
220 
265 
260 
332 
348 
391 

196 
224 
257 
255 
291 
299 
322 
339 
867 
384 
377 
418 
444 
493 
503 
551 
562 
670 
699 
829 
875 
1026 
1053 
1264 
1259 
1531 
1747 
1990 





TABLE  OF  WEIGHTS  PER  LINEAL  FOOT  OF  SEAMLESS  BRASS 
AND  COPPER  TUBING. 

IRON  PIPE  SIZES. 
Made  to  correspond  with  iron  tubes  and  to  fit  iron  tube  fittings. 


Same  as 

Exact 
Outside 

Exact 
Inside 

About 
Inside 

Weight  per  Foot. 

Iron 

Diameter. 

Diameter. 

Diameter. 

Size. 

Decimals. 

Decimals. 

Fractions. 

Brass. 

Copper. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

.405 

.281 

.25 

.26 

1 

.540 

.375 

n 

.43 

.45 

I 

.675 

.484 

n 

.62 

.65 

X 

.840 

.625   * 

I 

.90 

.95 

I 

1.04 

.822 

21 

1.25 

1.31 

1 

1.315 

1.062 

l^jf 

1.70 

1.79 

If 

1.66 

1.368 

1M 

2.50 

2.63 

If 

1.90 

1.600 

Ijf 

3.00 

3.15 

2 

2  .  375 

2.062 

2Jj 

4.00 

4.20 

21 

2.875 

2.500 

2-^- 

5.75 

6.04 

3 

3.50 

3.062 

3iV 

8.30 

8.72 

3* 

4.00 

3.5000 

31 

10.90 

11.45 

4 

4.50 

4.000 

4-j^. 

12.70 

13.33 

4* 

5.00 

4  .  5000 

41  7 
:3~2 

13.90 

14.60 

5 

5.563 

5.062 

5jfe 

15.75 

16.54 

6 

6.625 

6.125 

6^5 

18.31 

19.23 

370 


PIPE  TABLES. 


SEAMLESS   BRASS  AND    COPPER  TUBING— (Continued). 
EXTRA-HEAVY  IRON  PIPE  SIZES. 


Approximate  Weight  in 

Same  as 

Exact 

Exact 

Pounds  per  Foot. 

Extra-heavy 
Iron  Pipe. 

Outside 
Diameter. 

Inside 
Diameter. 

Brass. 

Copper. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

.405 

.205 

.370 

.389 

.j. 

.504 

.294 

.625 

.651 

3 

.675 

.421 

.830 

.872 

i 

.840 

.542 

1.200 

1.260 

§ 

1.050 

.736 

1.660 

1.743 

1 

1.315 

.951 

2.360 

2.478 

1J 

1.660 

1.272 

3.300 

3.465 

8 

1.900 

1.494 

4.250 

4.462 

2 

2.375 

1.933 

5.460 

5.733 

2* 

2.875 

2.315 

8.300 

8.715 

3 

3.500 

2.892 

11.200 

11.760 

3* 

4.00 

3.358 

13.700 

14.385 

4 

4.50 

3.818 

16.500 

17.325 

5 

5  .  563 

4.813 

22.800 

23.940 

6 

6.625 

5.750 

32  .  000 

33.600 

SIZE,    WEIGHTS,    ETC.,   OF   VITRIFIED   SALT-GLAZED 
SEWER-PIPE. 


Calibre  of 
Pipe. 

Thickness  of 
Pipe. 

Weight  per 
Foot. 

Feet  to  15-ton 
Car  Load. 

3  inches 

inch 

6  pounds 

5000 

4 

7* 

4000 

5 

11* 

2610 

6 

16 

1880 

8 

22 

1366 

10 

31 

970 

12 

41 

734 

14 

1 

50 

600 

16 

1 

in 

hes 

66 

456 

18 

1 

80 

376 

20 

1 

90 

334 

22 

1 

100 

300 

24 

1 

120 

250 

30 

j 

190 

158 

DOUBLE-STRENGTH    PIPE. 


Calibre  of 
Pipe. 

Thickness  of 
Pipe. 

Weight  per 
Foot. 

Feet  to  15-ton 
Car  Load. 

15  inches 
18      " 
.    21       " 
24      " 
30      " 

H  inches 

?  ;: 

2*      " 

65  pounds 
100 
132       " 
175 

260       " 

462 
300 
228 
172 
116 

GAS-PIPING,  ETC. 


371 


TERRACOTTA   FLUE-LININGS. 


Inside 
Measure. 

Outside 
Measure. 

Form. 

Weight  per 
Foot. 

Feet  to  Car 
Load  of  15 
Tons. 

5    inches 

7  inches 

Round 

14  pounds 

2144 

6 

8 

19 

1580 

8 

10 

22 

1364 

10 

12J 

30 

1000 

Sq 

are 

10 

3000 

7X7 

gi  v  gi 

20 

1500 

Six  13 

30 

1000 

7   X  15' 

Six  17 

33 

910 

IliX  Hi 

13    X13 

37 

810 

Hi  X  15' 

13    X17 

40 

750 

15i  X  15^ 

17   X17 

50 

600 

Gas-piping,  etc. — The  gas-pipes  in  a  building  should  be 
wrought  iron  or  soft  steel  of  standard  make.  The  fittings 
should  be  galvanized,  as  the  zinc  coating  makes  the  fittings 
more  solid  and  durable.  Each  piece  of  pipe  before  being  put 
in  place  should  be  looked  or  blown  through  to  see  if  it  is  clear 
of  any  stoppage.  No  gas-fitters'  cement  should  be  permitted 
to  be  used  in  any  joints  except  the  caps  on  the  outlets.  In 
running  a  line  of  pipe  it  should  run  in  as  direct  a  line  and  with 
as  few  turns  as  possible.  All  pipes  should  be  run  with  a  uni- 
form fall  to  the  riser  or  starting-point,  so  that  any  water  which 
may  gather  will  run  back  to  the  main.  In  taking  off  branches 
or  outlets  from  any  run  of  pipe  they  should  always  be  taken 
out  at  the  side  and  all  drop  lights  should  be  taken  from  a  tee 
fitting  in  a  short  branch  and  the  branch  extended  about  a 
foot  beyond  the  tee  and  capped;  this  insures  the  drop  to 
hang  plumb. 

Bracket  lights  should  always  be  brought  from  the  floor 
below,  as  gas  should  never  be  made  to  run  down  a  pipe  where 
it  is  possible  to  do  otherwise,  where  convenient  separate 
risers  should  be  run  to  each  floor  and  controlled  by  stopcocks 
in  the  cellar  where  they  can  be  got  at.  When  pipes  cross 
wooden  beams  or  joists,  the  pipes  should  be  run  across  the  top 
of  the  beams  and  the  beams  notched  as  little  as  possible,  and 
not  more  than  two  feet  from  a  bearing. 

When  the  pipes  are  all  in  place  the  superintendent  should 
go  over  them  and  see  that  all  outlets  are  provided  for,  and 
that  all  pipe  are  laid  in  the  best  possible  manner.  He  should 
then  have  them  tested  to  8  or  10  pounds  pressure,  which  should 
be  left  on  for  about  twenty-five  minutes,  After  the  test  is 


372 


GAS-PIPING,  ETC. 


made,  a  good  scheme  is  to  leave  the  pressure  on  and  loosen 
the  cap  on  each  outlet  separately  and  notice  if  the  pressure 
goes  down  as  each  one  is  loosened;  this  will  show  if  the  pipes 
are  all  clear,  or  if  any  of  them  contains  any  obstruction.  The 
test  on  the  pipes  should  be  repeated  just  before  the  plastering 
is  commenced,  and  again  when  it  is  finished. 

The  following  table  shows  the  size  of  pipes  and  number  of 
burners  which  they  will  supply: 


Greatest 
Number  of 
Feet  to  be 
Run. 

Size  of 
Pipe. 

|  inch 

1 
li  inches 

Greatest 
Number  of 
Burners  to 
be  Sup- 
plied. 

Greatest 
Number  of 
Feet  to  be 
Run. 

Size  of 
Pipe. 

Greatest 
Number  of 
Burners  to 
be  Sup- 
plied. 

70 
140 
225 
300 
500 

20  feet 
30    " 
50    " 
70    " 
100    " 

2 
4 
15 
25 
40 

150  feet 
200     " 
300    " 
400     " 
500     " 

1$  inches 
2 

?   '•'' 

4 

Computing  the  Pressure. — Pressures  which  have  been  meas- 
ured in  inches  of  water  or  mercury  may  be  translated  in 
pounds  per  square  inch  or  foot  by  multiplying  the  reading 
by  the  following  figures: 

One  inch  of  water  at  62°  equals  5.2  pounds  per  square  foot. 

One  inch  of  water  at  62°  equals  0.0361  pound  per  square  inch. 

One  inch  of  mercury  at  62°  equals  0.4897  pound  per  square 
inch. 

Pressures  per  square  inch  or  square  foot  may  be  converted 
into  inches  or  feet  of  water,  or  inches  of  mercury,  by  multiply- 
ing the  pressure  by  the  following  figures : 

One  pound  per  square  foot  equals  0.1923  inch  of  water. 

One  pound  per  square  inch  equals  27.7  inches  of  water  at  62°. 

One  pound  per  square  inch  equals  2.042  inches  of  mercury 
at  62°. 

Increase  of  Pressure. — The  increase  of  pressure  in  each  10  feet 
of  rise  in  pipes  with  gas  of  various  densities  is  as  follows: 


Rise  in  pressure  (ins. 
of  water)  

0 

.0147 

.0293 

.044 

.058 

.073 

.088 

.102 

Density  of  gas  

1 

.9 

.8 

.7 

.6 

.5 

.4 

.3 

Example. — The  pressure  in  the  basement  at  the  meter  is 
1.2  of  water;  what  will  be  the  pressure  at  the  sixth  story, 
70  feet  above,  the  density  of  the  gas  being  .4? 


GAS  PIPING,  ETC. 


373 


Solution. — The  table  shows  that  the  increase  will  be  0.088 
inch  for  each  10  feet  of  rise,  therefore  0.088X7  equals  0.616  inch 
increase.  Then  the  pressure  at  the  sixth  story  equals 
1.2+0.616  =  1.816. 

CAPACITY  OF  GAS-PIPES   UNDER  A  PRESSURE  OF   10.4  LBS. 
PER  SQUARE   FOOT. 


Capacity  per  Hour. 

Diameter  of  Pipe 

Maximum  Length 

in  Inches. 

in  Feet. 

Coal  Gas, 

Gasoline  Gas, 

Cubic  Feet. 

Cubic  Feet. 

i 

6 

10 

1 

20 

15 

"16 

i 

30 

30 

20 

I 

50 

100 

75 

1 

70 

175 

125 

H 

100 

300 

200 

lj 

150 

500 

350 

2 

200 

1000 

700 

2* 

300 

1500 

1100 

3 

450 

2250 

1500 

4 

600 

3750 

2500 

Flow  of  Gas  in  Pipes. — If  d  =  diameter  of  pipe  in  inches; 
Q=  quantity  of  gas  delivered  in  cubic  feet  per  hour;  1=  length 
of  pipe  in  yards;  h  =  pressure  in  inches  of  water-column;  s=spe- 
cific  gravity  of  the  gas,  air  being  one;  then 


Q-iooo, 


te 

Nj   8l' 


(Molesworth) ; 


—  (King's  Treatise  on  Coal-gas); 
si 


(J.  P.  Gill,  Am.  Gas-light  Jour.,  1894). 


Mr.  Gill's  formula  is  said  to  be  based  on  experimental  data, 
and  to  make  allowance  for  obstructions  by  tar,  etc.,  that  tend 
to  check  the  flow  of  gas  through  the  pipe. 

An  experiment  made  by  Mr.  Klegg,  in  London,  on  a  4-inch 
pipe  6  miles  long  gave  a  discharge  that  corresponds  very 
closely  with  that  computed  by  the  use  of  Moles  worth's  formula. 


374 


SUPPLY  OF  GAS  THROUGH  PIPES. 


MAXIMUM  SUPPLY  OF  GAS  THROUGH  PIPES  IN  CUBIC  FEET 
PER   HOUR,    SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    BEING   0.45. 


Formula,  Q  =  10QQ^d5h+sL     (Molesworth.) 
LENGTH  OF  PIPE  =  10  YARDS. 


Diameter 
of  Pipe  in 
Inches. 

[Pressure  by  the  Water-gauge  in  Inches. 

0.1 

13 
26 
73 
149 
260 
411 
843 

0.2 

0.3 

0.4 

0.5 

29 
59 
162 
333 

582 
918 
1886 

0.6 

31 

64 
187 
365 
638 
1006 
2066 

0.7 

0.8 

0.9 

38 
79 

218 
447 
781 
1232 
2530 

1.0 

41 

83 
230 
471 

823 
1299 
2667 

18 
37 
103 
211 
368 
581 
112 

22 

46 
126 
258 
451 
711 
1460 

26 
53 
145 
298 
521 
821 
1686 

34 
70 
192 
394 
689 
1082 
2231 

36 
74 
205 
422 
737 
1162 
2385 

1  

IE:  ;:: 

2  

LENGTH  OF  PIPE  =  100  YARDS. 


Pressure  by  the  Water-gauge  in  Inches. 


£•8.3 

0.1 

0.2 

0.3 

0.4 

0.5 

0.75 

1.0 

1.25 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

^ 

8 

12 

14 

17 

19 

23 

26 

29 

32 

36 

42 

a 

23 

32 

42 

46 

51 

63 

73 

81 

89 

103 

115 

1 

47 

67 

82 

94 

105 

129 

149 

167 

183 

211 

236 

if 

82 

116 

143 

165 

184 

225 

260 

291 

319 

368 

412 

u 

130 

184 

225 

260 

290 

356 

411 

459 

503 

581 

649 

2 

267 

377 

462 

533 

596 

730 

843 

943 

1033 

1193 

1333 

2* 

466 

659 

807 

932 

1042 

1276 

1473 

1647 

1804 

2083 

2329 

3 

735 

1039 

1270 

1470 

1643 

2012 

2323 

2598 

2846 

3286 

3674 

3* 

1080 

1528 

1871 

2161 

2416 

2958 

3416 

3820 

4184 

4831 

5402 

4 

1508 

2133 

2613 

3017 

3373 

4131 

4770 

5333 

5842 

6746 

7542 

LENGTH  OF  PIPE  =  1000  YARDS. 


JJ 

Us 

.*o.S 

Pressure  by  the  Water-gauge  in  Inches. 

0.5 

0.75 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

i» 

f 

5 
6 

33 
92 
189 
329 
520 
1067 
1863 
2939 

41 
113 
231 
403 
636 
1306 
2282 
3600 

47 
130 
267 
466 
735 
1508  : 
2635 
4157 

58 
159 
327 
571 
900 
1847 
3227 
5091 

67 
184 
377 
659 
1039 
2133 
3727 
5879 

75 
205 
422 
737 
1162 
2385 
4167 
6573 

82 
226 
462 
807 
1273 
2613 
4564 
7200 

AQUEOUS  VAPOR  IN  GAS. 


375 


MAXIMUM  SUPPLY  OF  GAS  THROUGH  PIPES,  ETC.— (Continued). 
LENGTH  OF  PIPE  =  5000  YARDS. 


Igj 

Pressure  by  the  Water-gauge  in  Inches. 

gus 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

2 

119 

146 

169 

189 

207 

3 

329 

402 

—*"  465 

520 

569 

4 

675 

826 

955 

1067 

1168 

5 

1179 

1443 

1667 

1863 

2041 

6 

1859 

2277 

2629 

2939 

3220 

7 

2733 

3347 

3865 

4321 

4734 

8 

3816 

4674 

5397 

6034 

6610 

9 

5123 

6274 

7245 

8100 

8873 

10 

6667 

8165 

9428 

10541 

11547 

12 

10516 

12880 

14872 

16628 

18215 

Where  there  is  apt  to  be  trouble  from  frost  no  pipe  less  than  f  inch 
should  be  used,  and  in  extremely  cold  climates  the  smallest  size  should 
not  be  less  than  1  inch. 

To  provide  for  the  resistance  due  to  bends,  one  rule  is  to  allow  a  pres- 
sure of  0.204  inch  of  water-column  for  each  right-angled  elbow. 


AQUEOUS  VAPOR  CONTAINED  IN  1000  CUBIC  FEET  OF  GAS 
AT  INDICATED  TEMPERATURE. 


Temp. 
Degrees. 

Volume 
A  queous 
Vapor. 

Temp. 
Degrees. 

Volume 
Aqueous 
Vapor. 

Temp. 
Degrees. 

Volume 
Aqueous 
Vapor. 

40 

9.33 

54 

15.33 

68 

24.06 

41 

9.73 

55 

15.86 

69 

24.83 

42 

10.13 

56 

16.40 

70 

25.66 

43 

10.53 

57 

16.93 

71 

26.53 

44 

10.93 

58 

17.53 

72 

27.40 

45 

11.33 

59 

18.10 

73 

28.30 

46 

11.73 

60 

18.66 

74 

29.23 

47 

12.13 

61 

19.23 

75 

30.20 

48 

12.53 

62 

19.80 

76 

31.20 

49 

12.93 

63 

20.50 

77 

32.20 

50 

13.33 

64 

21.20 

78 

33.23 

51 

13.80 

65 

21.90 

79 

34.23 

52 

14.26 

66 

22.60 

80 

35.33 

53 

14.80 

67 

23.30 

81 

36.43 

376 


SIZES,  ETC.,  OP  GAS-PIPE. 


t- 

fc 


s 


ei 


t»  oo  oo  ••*  •*  I-H  ; 

N  i-H  l-t  iH  l-l  iH 


•al..*  \ 


I-H       O5  t^  1C  CO  ^  00  C 
P      I      •     •     •     •'H-' 


)COC 

>coc 


138888988 


. 

»O' 
O5( 


rH  Is*  ^  00  Oi  O  (N  t^-  Oi 


5r!<COeqTt<t~ 
CD  CSi  (M  <N  ^ 
fO^J<  CCGOO 


T-H  i-l  rH  N  C<l  00  CO  •*  ^  >O  CD  t-  1>  00  O  i-l  C<l 


O  CO  CO  O  CO  00  LQ  O  iO  O  1C  O  CD  O  CO  t^-  Is-  r~ 

'  ,_;  ^  ,-i  ^H'  c<i  w  co  •*'  •*'  10  10"  <r>  i>  06  os  q  rH  ocj 


II 

.3  § 
II 


>    _§ 

ll 

:<  S 
n 


SIZES,  ETC.,  OF  GAS-PIPE. 


377 


<WCMCC^CDl>C>Ci-HC«5lOCOC:COr^C>CO 


16      -g 

•sll 


- 

t^fOOOO 


•«    ® 
5    2" 


378 


SIZES,  ETC.,  OF  GAS-PIPE. 


I! 

PS 


^ON.O5iOCOCO-*<NOOlrHl^»O- 
OWQO'*OOOt>.C<lt>.00>O'«*lOiO< 
iOt>«O'OClCOOiOl^.'-iCOOOOOiO< 


rH  fr   ff    rj  CO  O5  £Cj  JO  OS  •*  •*  1C  00 


I! 


1 


1-H  r-   r*  (N  (N  CO  CO  •*  -#  «5  CO 


O  O^O  O  O  *O  *O  C 
rt<  iO  T-<  CO  O  l>  l>  C 

OOOfOOOSMOOi 


,H  r*  T-  TH  (N  <N  CO  •*  ^  iO  iO  <O  l>  00 


iO    ^ 

§1 

5 


STEEL  AND  WROUGHT-IRON  PIPES.  379 

How  Steel  and  Wroiight-iron  Pipes  are  Made.1— 

LAP-WELDING. — The  plate  for  the  larger  sizes  of  pipe  is  first 
laid  upon  a  travelling-table  and  the  edges  scarfed  or  bevelled. 
It  is  then  heated  in  a  bending  furnace  and  rolled  up  into  pipe 
form  with  the  scarfed  edges  overlapping.  The  plates  for  the 
smaller  sizes  are  formed  up  by  being  drawn  through  the  die 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  This  consists  of  a 
stout  cast-iron  bending  die  the  front  half  of  which  next  the 
furnace  door  is  flared  out  to  receive  the  plate.  Inside  the 
die  is  a  mandrel  of  the  shape  shown  in  the  smaller  engraving, 
whose  rear  portion  is  of  about  the  size  of  the  finished  pipe. 
As  the  plate  is  pushed  out  of  the  furnace  it  is  drawn  by  a  pair 
of  tongs  through  the  die  the  flaring  sides  of  which  curve  the 
plate  until  its  edges  meet  and  lap  as  they  pass  through  the 
tubular  end  of  the  die.  The  plates,  now  bent  up  into  form 
and  known  as  skelp,  are  heated  in  a  gas-fired  welding  furnace, 
and  when  they  have  reached  a  welding  heat  the  skelp  is  pushed 
through  the  door  at  the  back  of  the  furnace  into  the  welding- 
rolls,  which  are  located  just  outside  the  door.  The  rolls,  which 
are  concave,  are  curved  to  the  desired  radius,  and  between 
them,  held  in  position  by  a  long  bar,  is  a  "ball,"  or  mandrel, 
of  the  same  diameter  as  the  inside  of  the  pipe.  As  the  skelp 
passes  through  the  rolls,  its  lapping  edges  are  squeezed  together 
between  the  rolls  and  the  mandrel  and  a  perfect  weld  is  made. 
Each  piece  of  pipe  is  carefully  examined  and  all  doubtful  welds 
are  rejected.  The  rough  pipe  then  goes  through  the  sizing 
rolls,  in  which  it  is  brought  to  the  exact  diameter.  Then  it  passes 
to  the  cross-straightening  rolls  the  axes  of  which  are  inclined 
at  an  angle,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  By 
this  time  it  is  perfectly  true  and  straight,  and  to  prevent  it 
from  warping  as  it  cools,  it  is  rolled  and  conveyed  on  a  cooling - 
tnble  to  a  straightening-machine,  where  it  receives  its  final 
straightening  in  dies  controlled  by  hydraulic  pressure.  The 
ends  are  then  cut  off,  and  after  being  threaded  and  the  coup- 
ling put  on,  the  pipe  is  tested  in  a  hydraulic  testing-machine, 
the  smaller  sizes  at  from  600  to  1500  pounds,  the  larger  at 
from  500  to  750  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  For  oil-well  tub- 
ing the  tests  run  as  high  as  2500  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

BUTT-WELDING. — The  smaller  sizes  of  pipes  are  butt-welded. 
The  plates,  which  are  not  scarfed  as  in  the  larger  pipe,  are 

1  Scientific  American, 


380 


STEEL  AND  WROUGHT-TRON  PIPES. 


heated  in  the  furnace,  and  when  raised  to  a  welding  heat  are 
drawn  through  a  bell-shaped  die  the  diameter  of  which  is  a  little 
less  than  that  of  the  skelp.  The  pressure  thus  induced  is  suffi- 
cient to  squeeze  the  edges  together  and  form  the  plate  into  a 
perfectly  welded  pipe. 


WEIGHTS  OF  CAST-IRON  PIPE  IN  POUNDS. 
Standard  Water-pipe. 


Lbs.  Lead 
per  Joint. 

Ounces 
Jute  per 
Joint. 

Size  Pipe. 

Thick- 
ness. 

Weight 
per  Foot 
with  Bell. 

Weight 
per 
Length 
with  Bell. 

Weight 
of  Bell. 

3 

2.8 

3" 

ir 

17 

204 

12 

5.5 

3.5 

4" 

Jr 

22 

264 

12 

8 

5.0 

6" 

34 

408 

24 

11 

7.0 

8" 

17" 

47 

564 

36 

14 

8.5 

10" 

&' 

64 

768 

48 

18 

11.0 

12" 

4' 

82 

984 

60 

21 

13.0 

14" 

H' 

105 

1260 

72 

24 

15.0 

16" 

V 

133 

1596 

108 

27 

16.0 

18" 

H' 

160 

1920 

120 

31 

23.0 

20" 

~k' 

190 

2280 

144 

36 

24.0 

24" 

1' 

2(50 

3120 

180 

50 
76 

33.0 
48.0 

30" 
36" 

!!= 

360 

488 

4320 
5856 

204 
360 

95 
112 
170 

58.0 
70.0 
100.0 

42" 
48" 
60" 

1 

625 
830 
1220 

7500 
9960 
14640 

468 
648 
960 

Standard  Gas-pipe. 


Lbs.  Lead 
per  Joint. 

Ounces 
Jute  per 
Joint. 

Size  Pipe. 

Thick- 
ness. 

Weight 
per  Foot 
with  Bell. 

Weight 
per 
Length 
with  Bell. 

Weight 
of  Bell. 

3 

2.8 

3" 

w 

14 

168 

12 

5.5 

3.5 

4" 

H  ' 

19 

228 

12 

8 

5.0 

6" 

T^  ' 

30.5 

366 

18 

11 

7.0 

8" 

M  ' 

41 

492 

24 

14 

8.5 

10" 

' 

56 

672 

48 

18 

11.0 

12" 

1 

74 

888 

60     - 

21 

13.0 

14" 

' 

92 

1104 

72 

24 

15.0 

16" 

I 

112 

1344 

96 

27 

16.0 

18" 

' 

133 

1596 

108 

31 

20.0 

20" 

' 

159 

1908 

120 

36 

24.0 

24" 

j 

I 

205 

2460 

1.32 

50 
76 

33.0 
48.0 

30" 
36" 

1 

I 

275 
368 

3300 
4416 

168 
304 

The  above  tables  show  the  weights  which  have  been  adopted  by  the 
United  States  Cast  Iron  Pipe  and  Foundry  Company  as  standard  weights 
for  water-  and  gas -pipe  respectively  for  ordinary  service. 


STEEL   AND  WROUGHT-IRON  PIPES. 


381 


LIST    OF    STANDARD    SPECIALS. 
(Approximate   weight.) 


Size  in  In. 

Wt.  in  Lbs. 

Size  in  In. 

Wt.  in  Lbs. 

Size  in  In. 

Wt.  in  Lbs. 

Crosses. 

Tees. 

Tees. 

2 

40 

2 

28 

24X12 

1425 

3 

110 

3 

85 

24X8 

1375 

3X2 

90 

3X2 

76 

24X6 

1450 

4 

140 

4 

110 

30 

3025 

4X3 

114 

4X3 

120 

30X24 

2640 

4X2 

90 

4X2 

87 

30X20 

2380 

6 

200 

6 

170 

30X12 

2035 

6X4 

160 

6X4 

145 

30X10 

2050 

6X3 

160 

6X3 

145 

30X6 

1825 

8 

330 

6X2 

75 

36 

5140 

8X6 

280 

8 

290 

36X30 

4200 

8X4 

265 

8X6 

280 

36X12 

4050 

8X3 

225 

8X4 

220 

10 

595 

8X3 

220 

10X8 

415 

10 

390 

45°  Branch 

10X6 

430 

10X8 

345 

Pipes. 

10X4 

390 

10X6 

370 

10X3 

370 

10X4 

350 

12 

740 

10X3 

330 

3 

90 

12X10 

650 

12 

600 

4 

125 

12X8 

620 

12X10 

555 

6 

205 

12X6 

540 

12X8 

530 

6X6X4 

145 

12X4 

525 

12X6 

525 

8 

330 

12X3 

495 

12X4 

550 

8X6 

330 

14X10 

750 

14X12 

650 

24 

2765 

14X8 

625 

14X10 

650 

24X24X20 

2145 

14X6 

570 

14X8 

575 

30 

4170 

16 

1100 

14X6 

545 

36 

10300 

16X14 

1070 

14X4 

525 

16X12 

1000 

14X3 

490 

16X10 

1010 

16 

790 

Sleeves. 

16X8 

825 

16X14 

850 

16X6 

700 

16X12 

850 

16X4 

690 

16X10 

825 

2 

10 

18 

1560 

16X8 

755 

3 

30 

20 

1790 

16X6 

680 

4 

45 

20X12 

1370 

16X4 

655 

6 

100 

20X10 

1225 

18 

1235 

8 

120 

20X8 

1335 

20 

1475 

10 

140 

20X6 

1000 

20X16 

1115 

12 

190 

20X4 

1000 

20X12 

1025 

14 

208 

24 

2400 

20X10 

1090 

16 

350 

24X20 

2020 

20X8 

1070 

18 

340 

24X6 

1340 

20X'6 

875 

20 

400 

30X20 

2635 

20X4 

845 

24 

710 

30X12 

2250 

24X10 

1465 

30 

965 

30X8 

1995 

24 

2000 

36 

1200 

24X20 

1730 

TIN  AND  SHEET-METAL  WORK, 

LIST  OF  STANDARD  SPECIALS.— (Continued}. 


Size  in  In. 

Wt.  in  Lbs 

Size  in  In. 

Wt.  in  Lbs. 

Size  in  In. 

Wt.  in  Lbs. 

90°  Elbows. 

Reducers. 

Plugs. 

2 
3 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
24 
30 

14 
34 
55 

120 
150 
260 
370 
450 
660 
850 
900 
1400 
3000 

3X2 
4X3 
4X2 
6X4 
6X3 
8X6 
8X4 
8X3 
10X8 
10X6 
10X4 
12X10 
12X8 
12X6 
12X4 
14X12 
14X10 
14X8 
14X6 
16X12 
16X10 
20X16 
20  X  14 
20X12 
20X8 
24X20 
30X24 
30X18 
36X30 

35 

45 
40 
95 
70 
126 
116 
116 
200 
180 
160 
320 
300 
250 
250 
475 
400 
390 
285 
475 
435 
690 
575 
540 
400 
860 
1305 
1385 
1730 

2 
3 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
24 
30 

3 
10 
10 
15 
30 
46 
66 
90 
100 
130 
150 
185 
370 

Caps. 

i  or  45° 
Bends. 

3 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
16 

20 
25 
60 
75 
100 
120 
265 

3 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
16 
18 
20 
24 
30 

30 
70 
95 

150 
200 
290 
510 
580 
780 
1425 
2000 

Drip-boxes. 

4 
6 
8 
10 
20 

295 
330 
375 

875 
1420 

Angle  Reducers 
for  Gas. 

&  or  221° 
Bends. 

6X4 
6X3 

95 
70 

4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
16 
24 
30 

65 
150 
155 
205 
260 
450 
1280 
2000 

S  Pipes. 

4 
6 

105 
190 

TIN    AND    SHEET-METAL    WORK.      PAINTING 

IRONWORK,  ETC.    ELECTRIC  WIRING,  ETC. 

HEATING. 

Tin  and  Sheet-metal  Work. — Tin  for  flat  roofs  is  usu- 
ally put  on  with  the  ordinary  flat  lock  joint,  the  sheets  of  tin 
being  nailed  under  the  lock.  After  the  sheets  are  nailed  and 


TIN  AND  SHEET-METAL  WORK. 


383 


hooked  together  the  hook  joints  are  beaten  down  with  a  wooden 
mallet  and  then  soldered. 

When  it  is  desired  to  make  some  allowance  for  contraction 
and  expansion  the  sheets  should  be  fastened  with  tin  clips  nailed 
to  the  roof  as  shown  by  Fig. 
228;  in  this  way  there  are  no 
nails  through  the  sheets  of 
tin,  but  they  are  held  in  place 
by  the  clips.  Fig.  229  shows 
a  section  of  the  joint. 

Standing  seam  roofs  are  also 

fastened    with    clips    nailed    to  FlG   22g> 

the  sheathing  and  turned  down 

in  the   standing  seam.     Fig.    230,    1,    2,   3,   shows  a   standing 
seam  roof  in  the  different  stages  of  construction. 


FIG.  229. 
Fig.  230,  at  5,  shows  the  joint  turned  down  in  a  flat  lock  joint. 


Fia.  231. 


384 


TIN  AND  SHEET-METAL  WORK. 


In  standing  seam  roofs  or  any  roof  where  the  tin  is  laid  in 
long    lengths    the    cross-joints   should   be   double-locked;   this 


FIG.  232. 

is  shown  in  Fig.  231,  while  Fig.  232  shows  the  ordinary  single 
lock. 

Tin  roofs  are  sometimes  put  on  in  lengths  running  with  the 
slope  of  the  roof,  the  strips  of  tin  being  turned  up  and  laid 

between  strips  of  wood,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  233.  This  method 
is  used  to  make  an  allowance 
for  expansion  and  contraction. 

„,_===_ FiSs-     234    and     235     show 

FIG   233.  another    method    of    putting    a 

cap  over  the  wooden  strip;  this 

makes  a  very  good  roof  and  all  the  tin  is  held  in  place  by  the 


1 


FIG.  234.  FIG.  235. 

clips  under  the  wooden  strips  and  the  lock  joint.     The  different 
stages  of  construction  of  the  joint  are  shown  in  the  two  figures. 

Fig.  236  shows  a  method  used  for  zinc  and  copper,  while 
Fig.  237  shows  how  the  cross-joints  should  be  made  at  the  ends 
of  the  sheet  of  metal. 

A  rise  or  step  should  be  made  in  the  roof  and  the  two  sheets 
of  metal  turned  and  locked  as  shown  in  Fig.  237.  In  working 
zinc  care  must  be  exercised  in  making  the  bends  and  angles, 
for  if  they  are  made  too  sharp  the  metal  is  liable  to  crack. 

Wherever  any  metal  roof  covering  finishes  at  a  wall  or  any 
place  where  flashing  is  necessary  the  roof  metal  should  be  turned 
up  8  or  10  inches  and  securely  fastened;  then  this  metal  should 
be  counter-flashed  and  the  flashing  let  into  the  joint  of  the 
wall  at  least  2  inches  and  well  cemented.  This  is  one  part  of 
the  work  that  the  superintendent  should  pay  particular  atten- 
tion to,  so  as  to  get  everything  water-tight. 


TIN  AND  SHEET-METAL  WORK. 


385 


In  all  metal  roofing  the  main  points  are  to  get  the  roof  water- 
tight and  to  make  provision  for  expansion  and  contraction. 


FIG.  236. 

PAINTING. — As  soon  as  the  roofing  is  in  place  and  the  joints 
all  soldered,  it  should  then  be  painted.     Before  painting  the 


FIG.  237. 

superintendent  should  see  that  all  surplus  resin  and  grease  are 
cleaned  off  so  the  paint  can  take  hold  of  the  metal. 

VENT  AND  HOT-AIR  PIPES. — The  superintendent  must  be 
particular  to  see  that  these  pipes  are  located  right  and  the 
openings  put  at  the  proper  height.  When  the  opening  is  at 
the  bottom  it  should  be  just  above  the  wood  base,  so  the  flange 
of  the  register  plate  will  set  on  top  of  the  wood  base.  In  vent- 
pipes  the  top  opening  should  be  as  near  the  ceiling  or  cornice 
as  possible. 

The  hot-air  openings  are  placed  at  various  heights  according 
to  the  system  of  heating  employed,  and  these  heights  should 
be  indicated  on  the  drawings. 

All  pipes  should  run  as  direct  and  have  as  few  turns  as  possi- 
ble. 

Any  pipe  having  a  width  of  18  inches  or  over  should  be  stiff- 


386  TIN  AND  SHEET-METAL  WORK. 

ened  by  having  ribs  riveted  across  them  about  2  feet  apart. 
Fig.  238  shows  a  section  of  the  rib. 


Fio.  238. 

In  metal-work,  such  as  cornices,  etc.,  the  superintendent 
must  see  that  the  desired  forms  or  brackets  are  fastened  se- 
curely and  the  metal  is  fastened  as  desired  to  the  brackets 
and  made  water-tight. 

GUTTERS. — The  superintendent  must  see  that  all  gutters 
have  sufficient  fall  to  insure  all  water  to  be  carried  to  the  con- 
ductor, or  down  spout.  At  the  intake  the  down  spout  should 
be  enlarged  to  about  twice  its  area  and  covered  with  a  wire 
screen  to  prevent  leaves  or  dirt  from  entering  the  pipe. 

VENTILATORS. — There  are  a  number  of  various  kinds  and 
styles  of  ventilators  on  the  market,  the 
majority  of  which  are  sold  under  patent. 
Nearly  all  of  the  various  ventilators 
give  good  satisfaction,  but  there  is  one, 
known  as  The  Emerson  Ventilator, 
shown  by  Fig.  239,  and  which  is  just 
as  efficient  as  any  on  the  market, 
and  can  be  made  by  any  one,  as  the 
patent  on  it  has  expired.  This  venti- 
lator gives  good  satisfaction  either  for 
FIG.  239.  ventilation  purposes  or  for  smoke,  as  its 

shape  insures  an  upward  draft  no  matter 
which  way  the  wind  is  blowing. 

TIN-PLATE. — Tin-plate  is  sheet  iron,  &*•  steel  coated  with 
tin.  Terne-plate  is  a  plate  of  sheet  iron  coated  with  tin  and 
lead  and  is  inferior  in  quality  to  the  tin-plate.  The  best  plates 
are  those  known  to  be  made  by  the  "charcoal"  or  "old" 
process. 

Plates  coated  with  tin  are  known  as  "bright  tin,"  while  those 
coated  with  a  mixture  of  tin  and  lead  are  known  as  "terne" 
or  "dull"  plates. 

Plates  are  made  in  two  thicknesses,  1C  and  IX.  The  1C  is 
No.  30  gauge  and  weighs  .5  pounds  to  the  square  foot;  the 
IX  is  No.  28  gauge  and  weighs  .625  pounds  per  foot. 

Imperfect  sheets  are  called  "wasters,"  and  the  letter  W 
on  a  box  after  the  1C  or  IX  indicates  that  the  box  contains 
imperfect  sheets. 


TIN  AND  SHEET-METAL  WORK.  387 

COMPOSITION   AND   FUSING-POINTS   OF   SOLDER. 


Hard. 

Soft. 

Kind. 

Zinc. 

Cop- 
per. 

Silver. 

Tin. 

Lead. 

Bis- 
muth. 

ing- 
point. 

Spelter,  hardest  

] 

700° 

hard 

2 

3 

550° 

"        soft 

1 

1 

'  '        fine 

2 

2 

4- 

1 

I 

'  '       medium  .  . 

1 

3 

•  «       soft 

1 

2 

Plumbers',  coarse 

1 

3 

480° 

'  '           ordinary    .  . 

1 

2 

441° 

'  '           fine  

2 

3 

400° 

1 

1 

370° 

For  tin  pipe  

3 

2 

330° 

4 

4 

1 

Solder  may  be  tested  by  melting,  when,  if  a  great  many 
bright  spots  appear  floating  on  the  top,  it  must  be  considered 
too  soft  or  fine,  while  if  the  spots  are  totally  absent,  it  con- 
tains too  much  lead.  Tin  spots  about  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  indicate  good  solder. 

Fluxes  are  used  to  aid  in  the  fusion  of  solder  and  to  clean 
the  surface  of  the  metals  to  be  soldered.  Those  commonly 
used  and  the  metals  to  which  they  are  applied  are  as  follows: 


Flux. 


Rosin 

Tallow. 

Sal  ammoniac 

Muriatic  or  hydro- 
chloric acid 

Chloride  of  zinc.  .  .  . 
Borax 


Metals  to  be  Joined. 


Lead,  tin,  or  tinned  metals. 
Copper,  iron,  and  lead. 
Dirty  zinc,  copper,  and  brass. 

Clean  zinc,  copper,  tin,  or  tinned  metals. 
Lead,  zinc,  tin  tubes,  and  tinned  metals. 
Iron,  steel,  copper,  brass,  gold,  and  platinum. 


SOLDERS  TO   USE   FOR  DIFFERENT  METALS. 


Material  to  be  Soldered. 

Solder  to  Use. 

Tin. 

Soft,  coarse  or  fine. 

Lead.  . 

Soft,  coarse 

Brass,  copper,  iron,  and  zinc.  .  .  .  . 

Pewter  

Pewterers'  or  fusible 

Brass.  .  . 

Spelter   ^oft 

Copper  and  iron 

388 


TIN  AND   SHEET-METAL  WORK. 


To  SOLDER  ALUMINUM. — The  solder  consists  of  aluminum  5 
parts,  antimony  5  parts,  and  zinc  90  parts.  To  make  it  harder, 
use  a  little  more  antimony  and  a  little  less  zinc.  The  following 
is  the  process  of  making  the  solder  and  the  method  of  using  it: 

The  aluminum  is  first  melted  in  a  pot;  the  zinc  is  then 
added,  and  when  this  is  melted,  the  antimony  is  added.  The 
metal  is  then  thoroughly  puddled  with  sal  ammoniac.  When 
the  surface  of  the  metal  is  quite  clear  and  white,  it  should 
be  poured  into  sticks  ready  for  use,  the  cinders  being  first 
removed. 

To  make  joints  in  aluminum  with  this  solder,  the  two  or  more 
surfaces  to  be  joined  should  be  cleaned,  either  by  scraping  or 
by  using  acid;  and  the  surfaces  should  be  well  coated  with  the 
solder,  special  care  being  taken  that  the  solder  penetrates  into 
the  surface  of  the  metal  without  burning  it.  The  parts  to  be 
joined  should  then  be  placed  together  and  kept  in  close  con- 
tact. Heat  should  now  be  applied  till  the  solder  melts,  any 
surplus  that  squeezes  out  being  wiped  off. 

Table  showing  quantity  of  14//X20//  tin  required  to  cover  a 
given  number  of  square  feet  with  flat-seam  tin  roofing.  A 
sheet  of  14"X20"  with  \"  edges  measures,  when  edged  or  folded, 
13" 'X19",  or  247  square  inches.  In  the  following  all  fractional 
parts  of  a  sheet  are  counted  a  full  sheet. 


Num- 

Sheets 

Num- 

Sheets 

Num- 

Sheets 

Num- 

Sheets 

ber  of 

Re- 

ber of 

Re- 

ber of 

Re- 

ber of 

Re- 

Sq. Ft. 

quired. 

Sq.  Ft. 

quired. 

Sq.  Ft. 

quired. 

Sq.  Ft. 

quired. 

100 

59 

330 

193 

560 

327 

780 

455 

110 

65 

340 

199 

570 

333 

790 

461 

120 

70 

350 

205 

580 

339 

800 

467 

130 

76 

360 

210 

590 

344 

810 

473 

140 

82 

370 

216 

600 

350 

820 

479 

150 

88 

380 

222 

610 

356 

830 

484 

160 

94 

390 

228 

620 

362 

840 

490 

170 

100 

400 

234 

630 

368 

850 

496 

180 

105 

410 

240 

640 

374 

860 

502 

190 

111 

420 

245 

650 

379 

870 

508 

200 

117 

430 

251 

660 

385 

880 

514 

210 

123 

440 

257 

670 

391 

890 

519 

220 

129 

450 

263 

680 

397 

900 

525 

230 

135 

460 

269 

690 

403 

910 

531 

240 

140 

470 

275 

700 

409 

920 

537 

250 

146 

480 

280 

710 

414 

930 

543 

260 

152 

490 

286 

720 

420 

940 

549 

270 

158 

500 

292 

730 

426 

950 

554 

280 

164 

510 

298 

740 

432 

960 

560 

290 

170 

520 

304 

750 

438 

970 

566 

300 

175 

530 

309 

760 

444 

980 

572 

310 

181 

540 

315 

770 

449 

990 

578 

320 

187 

550 

321 

1000  square  feet,  583  sheets.     A  box  of  112  sheets  14"X20"  will  cover 
approximately  192  square  feet. 


TIN  AND  SHEET-METAL  WORK. 


U.  S.  STANDARD  GAUGE.  (Fon  SHEET  AND  PLATE  IRON  AND  STEEL.) 
(Copy.)  (Public— Number  137.) 

An  act  establishing  a  standard  gauge  for  sheet  and  plate  iron  and  steel. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  flouse  of  Re^rresentatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
uniformity  the  following  is  established  as  the  only  standard  gauge  for  sheet 
and  plate  iron  and  steel  in  the  United  States  of  America,  namely: 


Number 
of 
Gauge. 

Thickness. 

Weight. 

Number 
of 
Gauge. 

Approximate 
Thickness  in 
Fractions  of 
an  Inch. 

Approximate 
Thickness  in 
)ecimal  Parts 
of  an  Inch. 

Weight  per 
Square  Foot 
in  Ounces 
Avoirdupois. 

Weight  per 
Square  Foot 
in  Pounds 
Avoirdupois. 

0000000 

1/2 

.5 

320 

20 

0000000 

000000 

15/32 

.46875 

300 

18.75 

000000 

00000 

7/16 

.4375 

280 

17.5 

00000 

0000 

13/32 

.40625 

260 

16.25 

0000 

000 

3/8 

.375 

240 

15 

000 

00 

11/32 

.34375 

220 

13.75 

00 

0 

5/16 

.3125 

200 

12.5 

0 

1 

9/32 

.28125 

180 

11.25 

1 

2 

17/64 

.265625 

170 

10.625 

2 

3 

1/4 

.25 

160 

10 

3 

4 

15/64 

.234375 

150 

9.375 

4 

5 

7/32 

.21875 

140 

8.75 

5 

6 

13/64 

.203125 

130 

8.125 

6 

7 

3/16 

.1875 

120 

7.5 

7 

8 

11/64 

.171875 

110 

6.875 

8 

9 

5/32 

.  15625 

100 

6.25 

9 

10 

9/64 

.  140625 

90 

5.625 

10 

11 

1/8 

.125 

80 

5 

11 

12 

7/64 

.  109375 

70 

4.375 

12 

13 

3/32 

.09375 

60 

3.75 

13 

14 

5/64 

.078125 

50 

3.125 

14 

15 

9/128 

.0703125 

45 

2.8125 

15 

16 

1/16 

.0625 

40 

2.5 

16 

17 

9/160 

.05625 

36 

2.25 

17 

18 

1/20 

.05 

32 

2 

18 

19 

7/160 

.04375 

28 

.75 

19 

20 

3/80 

.0375 

24 

.5 

20 

21 

11/320 

.034375 

22 

.375 

21 

22 

1/32 

.03125 

20 

.25 

22 

23 

9/320 

.028125 

18 

.125 

23 

24 

1/40 

.025 

16 

24 

25 

7/320 

.021875 

14 

.875 

25 

26 

3/160 

.01875 

12 

.75 

26 

27 

11/640 

.0171875 

11 

.6875 

27 

28 

1/64 

.015625 

10 

.625 

28 

29 

9/640 

.0140625 

9 

.5625 

29 

30 

1/80 

.0125 

8 

.5 

30 

31 

7/640 

.0109375 

7 

.4375 

31 

32 

13/1280 

.01015625 

6* 

.40625 

32 

33 

3/320 

.009375 

6 

.375 

33 

34 

11/1280 

.  00859375 

5* 

.34375 

34 

35 

5/640 

.0078125 

5 

.3125 

35 

36 

9/1280 

.00703125 

4* 

.28125 

36 

37 

17/2560 

.006640625 

4i 

.265625 

37 

38 

1/160 

.00625 

4 

.25 

38 

And  on  and  after  July  first,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-three,  the  same  and 
no  other  shall  be  used  in  determining  duties  and  taxes  levied  by  the  United 
States  of  America  on  sheet  and  plate  iron  and  steel.  But  this  act  shall  not 
be  construed  to  increase  duties  upon  any  articles  which  may  be  imported. 

SEC.  2.  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  authorized  and  required 
to  prepare  ;?uitable  standards  in  accordance  herewith. 

SEC.  3.  That  in  the  practical  use  and  application  of  the  standard  gauge 
hereby  established  a  variation  of  two  and  one-half  per  cent  either  way  may 
be  allowed.  Approved  March  3,  1893. 


TIN  AND  SHEET-METAL  WORK. 


TABLE  OF  WEIGHTS  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  SHEETING 
PER  SQUARE  FOOT.     (Kent.) 


Thickness  by  Stubs'  or 
Birmingham  Gauge. 

Thickness  by  American 
(Brown  &  Sharpe's)  Gauge. 

No.  of 
Gauge. 

Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

No.  of 
Gauge. 

Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

0000 

.454 

18.16 

18.52 

0000 

.46 

18.40 

18.77 

000 

.425 

17.00 

17.34 

000 

.4096 

16.38 

16.71 

00 

.38 

15.20 

15.30 

00 

.3648 

14.59 

14.88 

0 

.34 

13.60 

13.87 

0 

.3249 

13.00 

13.26 

1 

.3 

12.00 

12.24 

1 

.2893 

11.57 

11.80 

2 

.284 

11.36 

11.59 

2 

.  2576 

10.30 

10.51 

3 

.259 

10.36 

10.57 

3 

.2294 

9.18 

9.36 

4 

.238 

9.52 

9.71 

4 

.2043 

8.17 

8.34 

5 

.22 

8.80 

8.98 

5 

.1819 

7.28 

7.42 

6 

.203 

8.12 

8.28 

6 

.1620 

6.48 

6.61 

7 

.18 

7.20 

7.34 

7 

.  1443 

5.77 

5.89 

8 

.165 

6.60 

6.73 

8 

.1285 

5.14 

5.24 

9 

.148 

5.92 

6.04 

9 

.1144 

4.58 

4.67 

10 

.134 

5.36 

5.47 

10 

.1019 

4.08 

4.16 

11 

.12 

4.80 

4.90 

11 

.0907 

3.63 

3.70 

12 

.109 

4.36 

4.45 

12 

.0808 

3.23 

3.30 

13 

.095 

3.80 

3.88 

13 

.0720 

2.88 

2.94 

14 

.083 

3.32 

3.39 

14 

.0641 

2.56 

2.62 

15 

.072 

2.88 

2.94 

15 

.0571 

2.28 

2.33 

16 

.065 

2.60 

2.65 

16 

.0508 

2.03 

2.07 

17 

.058  , 

2.32 

2.37 

17 

.0453 

1.81 

1.85 

18 

.049 

1.96 

2.00 

18 

.0403 

1.61 

1.64 

19 

.042 

.68 

1.71 

19 

.0359 

1.44 

1.46 

20 

.035 

1.40 

1.43 

20 

.0320 

1.28 

1.31 

21 

.032 

.28 

1.31 

21 

.0285 

1.14 

1.16 

22 

.028 

.12 

1.14 

22 

.0253 

1.01 

1.03 

23 

.025 

.00 

1.02 

23 

.0226 

.904 

.922 

24 

.022 

.88 

.898 

24 

.0201 

.804 

.820 

25 

.02 

.80 

.816 

25 

.0179 

.716 

.730 

26 

.018 

.72 

.734 

26 

.0159 

.636 

.649 

27 

.016 

.64 

.653 

27 

.0142 

.568 

.579 

28 

.014 

.56 

.571 

28 

.0126 

.504 

.514 

29 

.013 

.52 

.530 

29 

.0113 

.452 

.461 

30 

.012 

.48 

.490 

30 

.0100 

.400 

.408 

31 

.01 

.40 

.408 

31 

.0089 

.356 

.363 

32 

.009 

.36 

.367 

32 

.0080 

.320 

.326 

33 

.008 

.32 

.326 

33 

.0071 

.284 

.290 

34 

.007 

.28 

.286 

34 

.0063 

.252 

.257 

35 

.005 

.20 

.204 

35 

.0056 

.224 

.228 

Iron.  Steel. 

Specific  gravity 7.7  7.854 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 480  489.6 

"       "      inch.  .                                                              .2778  .2833 


As  there  are  many  gauges  in  use  differing  from  each  other,  and  even  the 
thicknesses  of  a  certain  specified  gauge,  as  the  Birmingham,  are  not  assumed 
the  same  by  all  manufacturers,  orders  for  sheets  and  wires  should  always 
state  the  weight  per  square  foot  or  the  thickness  in  thousandths  of  an  inch. 


TIN  AND  SHEET-METAL  WORK. 


391 


STANDING  SEAM  TIN  ROOFING. — Table  showing  quantity  of 
20"X28"  tin  required  to  cover  a  given  number  of  square  feet 
with  standing  seam  roofing.  The  standing  seams  and  the  locks 
on  a  steep  roof  require  2f "  off  the  width  and  I"  off  the  length 
of  the  sheet;  fractional  parts  are  counted  as  a  full  sheet.  A 
sheet  will  cover  475  square  inches. 


Num- 
ber of 

Sq.  Ft. 

Sheets 
Re- 
quired. 

Num- 
ber of 
Sq.  Ft. 

Sheets 
Re- 
quired. 

Num- 
ber of 

Sq.  Ft. 

Sheets 
Re- 
quired. 

Num- 
ber of 
Sq.  Ft 

Sheets 
Re- 
quired. 

100 

31 

330 

100 

560 

173 

780 

237 

110 

34 

340 

103 

570 

176 

790 

240 

120 

37 

350 

106 

580 

182 

800 

243 

130 

40 

360 

109 

590 

185 

810 

246 

140 

43 

370 

112 

600 

184 

820 

249 

150 

46 

380 

115 

610 

135 

830 

252 

160 

49 

390 

118 

620 

188 

840 

255 

170 

52 

400 

122 

630 

191 

850 

258 

180 

55 

410 

125 

640 

194 

860 

261 

190 

58 

420 

128 

650 

197 

870 

264 

200 

61 

430 

131 

660 

200 

880 

267 

210 

64 

440 

134 

670 

203 

890 

270 

220 

67 

450 

137 

680 

206 

900 

273 

230 

70 

460 

140 

690 

207 

910 

276 

240 

73 

470 

143 

700 

212 

920 

279 

250 

76 

480 

147 

710 

215 

930 

282 

260 

79 

490 

149 

720 

218 

940 

285 

270 

82 

500 

152 

730 

221 

950 

288 

280 

85 

510 

158 

740 

224 

960 

291 

290 

88 

520 

161 

750 

228 

970 

294 

300 

91 

530 

164 

760 

231 

980 

297 

310 

94 

540 

167 

770 

234 

990 

300 

320 

97 

550 

170 

1000  square  feet  303  sheets. 
approximately  370  square  feet. 


A  full  box  112  sheets  20"X28"  will  cover 


The  common  sizes  of  tin  plates  are  10X14"  and  multiples 
of  that  measure.  The  sizes  most  generally  used  are  14X20" 
and  20X28". 

WEIGHT  OF  SHEETS  PER  SQUARE  FOOT. 


Black. 

United  States  Standard  Weights. 

Galvanized. 
National  Association  of  Galvanized 
Sheet-iron  Manufacturers'  Weights. 

Num- 
ber. 

Pounds. 

Num- 
ber. 

Pounds. 

Num- 
ber. 

Ounces. 

Num- 
ber. 

Ounces. 

10 

5  .  625 

21 

1  .  375 

10 

.    92* 

21 

24^ 

11 

5 

22 

1.25 

11 

82* 

22 

22^ 

12 

4.375 

23 

1.125 

12 

72* 

23 

20J 

13 

3.75 

24 

1 

13 

62* 

24 

18J 

14 
15 
16 

3.125 
2.8125 
2.5 

25 
26 
27 

.875 
.75 
.6875 

14 
15 
16 

52* 
47* 
42* 

25 
26 
27 

16J 
14, 

17 

18 

2.25 
2 

28 
29 

.625 
.5625 

17 
18 

1 

28 
29 

12; 

19 
20 

1.75 
1.50 

30 

.5 

19 
20 

I 

30 

10J 

392  TIN  PLATES. 

WEIGHT  OF  BLACK  PLATES  BEFORE  BEING  COATED. 


Black  plates  before  coating 
weigh  per  112  sheets.  .  .  . 

1C  14X20 

1C  20X28 

1X14X20 

1X20X28 

Lbs. 
95  to  100 

Lbs. 

190  to  200 

Lbs. 
125  to  130 

Lbs. 
250  to  260 

NET  WEIGHT  PER   BOX  TIN  PLATES. 
Basis  14X20,  112. 


Trade  term  

80-1 

85-1 

90-1 

95-1 

100-1 

1C 

IX 

IX 

IXX 

IXXX 

IXXXX 

Weight  per  box 

Ibs  

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

107 

12 

13 

155 

175 

195 

Nearest  wire 

gauge  No  

33 

32 

31 

31 

30 

3C 

2 

2 

2 

26 

25 

Size  of 

Sheets 

Sheets. 

Box. 

10  X14 

225 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

107 

128 

135 

15 

175 

195 

14  X20 

112 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

107 

128 

135 

15 

175 

195 

20  X28 

112 

160 

170 

180 

190 

200 

214 

256 

270 

310 

350 

390 

10  X20 

225 

114 

121 

129 

136 

143 

153 

183 

193 

22 

250 

279 

11  X22 

225 

138 

147 

156 

164 

172 

184 

222 

234 

268 

302 

337 

1HX23 

225 

151 

161 

170 

179 

189 

202 

242 

255 

293 

331 

368 

12  X12 

225 

82 

87 

93 

98 

103 

110 

132 

139 

159 

180 

201 

12  X24 

112 

82 

87 

93 

98 

103 

110 

132 

139 

159 

180 

201 

13  X13 

225 

97 

103 

109 

115 

121 

129 

154 

163 

187 

211 

235 

13  X26 

112 

97 

103 

109 

115 

121 

129 

154 

163 

187 

211 

235 

14  X14 

225 

112 

119 

126 

133 

140 

150 

179 

189 

217 

245 

273 

14  X28 

112 

112 

119 

126 

133 

140 

150 

179 

189 

217 

245 

273 

15  X15 

225 

129 

137 

145 

153 

161 

172 

206 

217 

249 

281 

313 

16  X16 

225 

146 

155 

165 

174 

183 

196 

234 

247 

283 

320 

357 

17  X17 

225 

165 

175 

186 

196 

206 

221 

264 

279 

320 

361 

403 

18  X18 

112 

93 

98 

104 

110 

116 

124 

148 

156 

179 

202 

226 

19  X19 

112 

103 

110 

116 

122 

129 

138 

165 

174 

200 

226 

251 

20  X20 

112 

114 

121 

129 

136 

143 

153 

183 

193 

221 

250 

279 

21  X21 

112 

126 

134 

142 

150 

158 

169 

202 

213 

244 

276 

307 

22  X22 

112 

138 

147 

156 

164 

172 

184 

221 

234 

268 

302 

337 

23  X23 

112 

151 

161 

170 

179 

189 

202 

242 

255 

293 

331 

368 

24  X24 

112 

164 

175 

185 

195 

204 

220 

263 

278 

319 

360 

401 

26  X26 

112 

193 

205 

217 

229 

241 

258 

309 

26 

374 

422 

471 

16  X20 

112 

91 

97 

103 

109 

114 

22 

146 

54 

177 

200 

223 

14  X31 

112 

124 

132 

140 

147 

155 

66 

198 

09 

240 

271 

302 

1HX22* 

112 

73 

78 

82 

87 

91 

98 

131  X  17f 

112 

67 

71 

76 

80 

84 

90 

13iX19| 

112 

73 

77 

82 

87 

91 

97 

13*X19* 

112 

75 

80 

85 

89 

94 

00 

13*X19£ 

112 

76 

81 

86 

90 

95 

02 

14  Xl8f 

124 

83 

88 

93 

98 

103 

10 

14  X19J 

120 

83 

88 

93 

98 

103 

10 

14  X21 

112 

84 

89 

95 

100 

105 

12 

14  X22 

112 

88 

94 

99 

105 

110 

18 

14  X22i 

112 

89 

95 

100 

106 

111 

19 

15JX23 

112 

02 

108 

115 

121 

127 

36 

COPPER  AND  BRASS  SHEETS. 


393 


TABLE   OF   WEIGHTS   PER    SQUARE   FOOT   OF   COPPER   AND 

BRASS   SHEETS. 


American  or  B.  &  S.  Gauge. 


Thickness. 


.46  inch,  or  ft  inch  full 20.838 

.40964  inch 18.557 

.3648       "    ,  or  $  inch  scant 16.525 

.32486     "    14.716 

.2893       "    13.105 

.  25763  inch,  or  i  inch  f ull .  .  1 1 . 670 

.22942     "...                     10.392 

.20431     "    9.255 

.18194     "   ,  or  &  inch  scant 8.242 

.16202     "   7.340 

.  14428  inch 6.536 

.12849     "   ,  or  i  inch  full 5.821 

.11443     "   5.183 

.10189     "   4.616 

.090742"   4.110 

.0808     inch...  3.66 

.0720       "    3'.26 

.06408     "    2.90 

.057068  "    2.585 

.05082     "   2.302 

.045257  inch 2.05 

.0403         "    1.825 

.0359         "   1.626 

.0320         "    1.448 

.02846       "    1.289 

.02535  inch 1 . 148 

.02257     "   1.023 

.0211       " 910 

.0179       " 811 

.0159       " 722 

.01419  inch 643 

.01264     " 573 

.01126     " 510 

.01003     " 454 

.0089       "   .404 

.0079  inch 360 

.0071     " 321 

.0063     " 286 

.0056     " 254 

.0050     " 226 

.00445  inch .202 

.00396     " 180 

.00353     " 160 

.00314     "    .142 


Copper. 
Pounds. 


These  weights  are  theoretically  correct,  but  variations  must  be  expected 
in  practice. 


394 


COPPER  AND  BRASS  SHEETS. 


TABLE   OF   WEIGHTS    PER    SQUARE    FOOT    OF   COPPER   AND 
BRASS  SHEETS— (Continued). 


Stub 

s'  Gauge. 

Copper. 

Brass. 

Number. 

Thickness. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

0000 

.464  inch, 

or  TS  inch  full  

20.556 

19.431 

000 

.425     "    . 

19  253 

18.19 

00 

.380     "    , 

or  f    inch  full  

17.214 

16.264 

0 

.340     " 

"  vs     "     scant.  .  , 

15.402 

14  552 

1 

.300 

"  ||     "     full  

13.59 

12.84 

2 

.284  inch, 

or  -£*  inch  full.  ... 

12  865 

12  155 

3 

.259     " 

11.733 

11.09 

4 

.  238     '  ' 

nis       •  i       <  » 

10  781 

10.19 

5 

.220     " 

"  •&     "     " 

9.966 

9.416 

6 

.203     " 

•  <  U    «    tt 

9  20 

8.689 

7 

.180  inch, 

or  Yf  inch  scant.     .    .    . 

8  154 

7.704 

8 

165     " 

7  475 

7  062 

g 

.148     " 

"  <&     "    full  

6.704 

6.334 

10 
11 

.134     " 
120     " 

j|  &     "     scant  

6.070 
5  436 

5.735 
5  137 

8                                                              • 

12 
13 
14 

.109.  inch, 
.095     " 
.083     " 

or  ^  inch  

;;  &   ;;   full  

4.938 
4.303 
3.760 

4.667 
4.066 
3.552 

15 

.072     " 

"A     "     scant.   . 

3  .  262 

3.08 

16 

.065     " 

"  J*     "     full  

2.945 

2.78 

17 

058  inch, 

or  TJT  'inch  scant.   . 

2  627 

2.48 

18 
19 

.049     " 
042     " 

"  &     "     full  
"A     "     scant  

2.220 
1.90 

2.10 
1.80 

20 
21 

.035     " 
.032     ' 

"  A     "     full  
"A     "     scant  

1.59 
1.45 

1.50 
1.37 

22 

.028  inch. 

1.27 

1.20 

23 

025     "    . 

1.13 

1.07 

24 

022     " 

997 

.941 

25 

020     "    . 

.906 

.856 

26 

018     " 

.815 

.770 

27 
28 

.016  inch, 
014     " 

or  fa  inch  

.725 
634 

.685 
.599 

29 

013     "    . 

.589 

.556 

30 

012     " 

.544 

.514 

31 

.010     "    . 

.453 

.428 

32 

009  inch 

408 

.385 

33 

008     '  ' 

362 

342 

34 

007     "    . 

.317 

.2996 

35 

005     " 

.227 

.214 

36 

004     " 

181 

.171 

BRASS  AND  COPPER  RODS. 


395 


TABLE    OF    WEIGHTS    PER    LINEAL    FOOT    OF    BRASS    AND 
COPPER   RODS. 


Inches. 

Brass. 

Copper. 

Round. 

Square. 

Round. 

Square. 

A  

Pounds. 
.011 
.045 
.100 
.175 
.275 

Pounds. 
.014 
.055 
.125 
.225 
.350 

Pounds. 
.01155 
.047 
.106 
.189 
.296 

Pounds. 
.0147 
.060 
.  13497 
.241 
.377 

3 

tv.v::::: 

£  

.395 
.540 
.710 
.90 
1.10 

.510 
.690 
.905 
1.15 
1.40 

.426 
.579 
.757 
.958 
1.182 

.542    • 
.737 
.964 
1.22 
1.51 

i  

$. 

|;;:  ;; 

1.35 
1.66 

1.85 
2.15 
2.48 

Iv72 
2.05 
2.40 
2.75 
3.15 

1.431 
1.703 
1.998 
2.318 
2.660 

1.82 
2.17 
2.54 
2.95 
3.39 

1.  . 

2.85 
3.20 
3.57 
3.97 
4.41 

3.65 
4.08 
4.55 
5.08 
5.65 

3.03 
3.42 
3.831 
4.269 
4.723 

3.86 
4.35 
4.88 
5.44 
6.01 

ITS'. 

it    

if  y:.y.:::: 

Jfr  

4.86 
5.35 
5.85 
6.37 
6.92 

6.22 
6.81 
7.45 
8.13 
8.83 

5.21 
5.723 
6.255 
6.811 
7.39 

6.63 
7.24 
7.97 
8.67 
9.41 

IT?. 

&:::::  :::: 

pli 

7.48 
8.05 
8.65 
9.29 
9.95 

9.55 
10.27 
11.00 
11.82 
12.68 

7.993 
8.45 
9.27 
9.76 
10.642 

10.18 
10.73 
11.80 
12.43 
13.55 

ff 

P  y.y.:::: 

10.58 
11.25 
12.78 
14.32 
15.96 

13.50 
14.35 
16.27 
18.24 
20.32 

11.11 
12.108 
13.668 
15.325 
17.075 

14.15 
15.42 
17.42 
19.51 
21.74 

If-::::::::: 

2!..  

2*  
2£  

2f.  .. 

17.68 
19.50 
21.40 
23.39 
25.47 

22.53 
24.83 
27.25 
29.78 
32.43 

18.916 
20.856 
22.891 
25  .  019 
27.243 

24  09 
26.56 
29.05 
31.86 
34.69 

2!   .. 

3 

8  

30.45 
35.31 
46.124 

38  .  77 
44.96 
58.73 

31.972 
37  .  081 
48.433 

40.71 
47.22 
61.67 

t  :::::::::: 

To  find  the  weight  of  octagon  rod,  take  the  weight  of  round  rod  of  a 
given  size  and  multiply  by  1.084. 

To  find  the  weight  of  hexagon  rod,  take  the  weight  of  round  rod  of  a 
given  size  and  multiply  by  1.12. 

These  tables  are  theoretically  correct,  bitt  variations  must  be  expected  in 
practice. 


396  PAINTING. 

Painting. — MATERIALS. — The  most  common  materials 
used  for  mixing  paints  are  linseed-oil,  turpentine  and  benzine, 
and  zinc  white.  Generally  speaking,  and  with  many  excep- 
tions of  course,  two  or  more  of  these  substances  in  combination, 
with  varying  proportions  of  the  several  colors,  constitute  the 
house-painting  materials  on  the  market. 

Linseed-oil. — Linseed-oil  is  pressed  from  the  seeds  of  the 
flax  plant,  and  after  purification  becomes  the  raw  oil  of 
commerce.  After  being  heated  in  connection  with  certain 
oxidizing  agents  (driers)  such  as  red  lead,  litharge,  man- 
ganese oxide,  manganese  borate,  etc.,  either  by  means  of 
direct  fire  or  in  a  steam-jacketed  kettle,  it  is  known  as  boiled 
oil. 

The  peculiar  quality  of  linseed-oil  to  absorb  oxygen  from 
the  air,  and  in  oxidizing  to  form  a  tough,  elastic  substance, 
known  as  linoxyn  (a  property  which  it  possesses  in  common 
with  a  few  other  so-called  drying  oils — poppy-oil,  nut-oil,  etc.), 
gives  it  special  value  in  paint-  and  varnish-making.  Any  admix- 
ture with  mineral  oils  or  non-drying  vegetable  oils  greatly 
impairs  or  wholly  destroys  this  value,  so  that  for  painting 
purposes  it  is  most  essential  to  know  that  the  oil  employed  is 
absolutely  pure. 

Good  raw  linseed-oil  is  pale  in  color  and  transparent,  has 
very  little  odor  and  is  sweet  to  the  taste.  If  it  is  dark  in  color 
and  dries  very  slowly  it  indicates  an  inferior  oil.  Linseed-oil 
should  have  an  age  of  six  months  before  being  used,  and  more 
age  improves  it.  Raw  oil  spread  on  a  glass  should  dry  in 
from  two  to  three  days,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
weather. 

Boiled  Oil. — Boiled  linseed-oil,  commonly  called  boiled  oil, 
is  prepared  by  heating  the  raw  oil  with  certain  driers.  By 
this  process  the  drying  qualities  of  the  oil  are  greatly  improved ; 
the  drying  qualities  of  raw  oil  are  also  improved  by  simply  boil- 
ing it,  but  when  such  substances  are  added  as  mentioned 
below,  this  improvement  is  greatly  enhanced.  Dark  drying 
oil  may  be  made  of  these  ingredients :  To  1  gallon  of  raw  oil 
add  1  pound  of  red  lead,  1  pound  of  umber,  and  1  pound  of 
litharge. 

The  oil  is  heated  to  about  200°  F.  When  it  looks  brown 
and  the  scum  is  burned  off,  the  substances  mentioned  are  added ; 
the  whole  is  then  brought  up  to  about  400°  F.,  and  for  two  or 
three  hours  kept  at  that  temperature.  The  oil  is  then  drawn 


PAINTING.  397 

off  and  the  albuminous  matter  allowed  to  deposit,  after  which 
it  is  ready  for  use.  The  umber  is  added  simply  to  give  the 
oil  a  dark  color. 

Pale  drying  oil  may  be  made  by  mixing  7  pounds  of  litharge 
or  acetate  of  lead  to  each  gallon  of  oil  and  raising  to  a  moder- 
ate temperature. 

For  common  work,  drying  oil  can  be  made  by  adding  1| 
pounds  of  red  lead  to  a  gallon  of  oil  and  allowing  the  mixture 
to  settle  after  having  been  boiled. 

Boiled  oil  is  much  thicker  and  darker  in  color  that  the  raw 
oil.  When  spread  on  a  glass  in  a  thin  film  it  should  dry  in 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  depending  on  the  condition  of 
the  weather. 

Raw  oil  is  used  for  interior  work  and  for  grinding  colors;  the 
boiled  oil  is  used  for  outside  work  and  is  not  suited  for  grinding. 
For  outside  work  the  boiled  oil  gives  the  paint  a  much  more 
glossy  finish  than  the  raw  oil,  for  when  the  raw  oil  is  used,  a 
liquid  or  other  drier  must  be  added,  and  this  takes  away  the 
lustre  from  the  oil. 

The  bung-hole  process,  so-called,  is  the  simple  injection  of 
manganese  drier  into  a  barrel  of  raw  linseed  at  proper  tem- 
perature. 

Raw  oil  in  which  a  certain  percentage  of  liquid  japan  drier 
has  been  mixed  is  often  sold  as  boiled  oil. 

Fish-oil,  cottonseed-oil,  and  vegetable  oils  are  often  substi- 
tuted for  boiled  oils. 

Linseed-oil  to  which  turpentine  has  been  added  (in  small 
quantity)  dries  more  rapidly  than  without  the  turpentine 
because  it  spreads  over  more  surface,  being  thinner,  and  so 
comes  in  contact  with  a  larger  body  of  air,  which  dries  it  in 
the  diluted  state  faster. 

Turpentine  is  not  a  drier,  simply  a  thinner. 

Linseed-oil  is  often  adulterated  by  adding  fish,  hemp,  cotton- 
seed, resin,  and  mineral  oils.  These  adulterations  are  hard  to 
detect  except  by  chemical  analysis;  they  change  the  odor 
somewhat  and  the  specific  gravity. 

The  superintendent  should  always  keep  himself  in  possession 
of  a  sample  of  both  the  raw  and  boiled  oils  which  he  knows 
to  be  pure,  and  with  which  he  can  compare  any  oils  which 
may  be  used  under  his  supervision. 

Good  linseed-oil  should  be  of  a  light  straw  color,  weigh  7£ 
pounds  to  the  gallon,  boil  at  130°  C.  (200°  F.),  solidify  at  27°  C. 


398  PAINTING, 

(17°  F.),  and  have  a  specific  gravity  at  15°  C.  (60°  F.)  of  20° 
Baume  (0.932). 

To  test  for  th3  presence  of  fish-oil,  shake  equal  parts  of  oil 
and  strong  nitric  acid  in  a  small  glass  vial  and  let  it  stand  fifteen 
to  thirty  minutes.  In  pure  linseed-oil  the  upper  stratum  will 
be  olive-green,  which  gradually  changes  to  a  brown,  and  the 
lower  stratum  will  be  almost  colorless;  if  fish-oil  is  present, 
the  upper  stratum  will  be  of  a  deep  red  brown  and  the  lower 
stratum  will  be  deep  red  or  cherry-red.  If  only  a  small  amount 
of  fish-oil  is  present,  the  color  of  the  lower  stratum  may  gradually 
disappear  until  it  becomes  almost  colorless. 

To  test  for  petroleum,  shake  the  oil  with  concentrated  solu- 
tion of  potash  or  soda  containing  a  little  grain  alcohol  and 
then  add  a  little  warm  water  and  shake  again.  Let  it  stand 
for  about  thirty  minutes,  and  if  any  petroleum  is  present  it 
will  separate  and  float  on  top. 

To  test  for  cottonseed-oil,  put  samples  of  the  oil  in  tubes 
and  place  them  in  a  freezing  mixturesuch  as  ice  or  snow 
and  salt.  If  the  mixture  solidifies  at  0°  or  10°  to  13°  F.,  then 
cottonseed-oil  is  probably  present,  as  pure  linseed-oil  solidifies 
at  17°  F. 

HYDROMETER  TESTS. — First  test  the  specific  gravity  of  an 
oil  known  to  be  pure,  and  then  test  the  doubtful  oil  at  the  same 
temperature. 

Twenty-five  per  cent  of  cottonseed-oil  will  make  a  differ- 
ence of  1°  Baume  less  than  pure  linseed-oil  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture. 

Ten  per  cent  of  petroleum  will  make  a  difference  of  f °  less 
and  20  per  cent  will  make  a  difference  of  1  J°  less  at  the  same 
temperature. 

The  quality  of  linseed-oil  may  be  determined  by  looking 
through  a  vial  filled  with  it  and  turned  towards  the  light.  If 
poor  in  quality,  the  oil  tends  towards  opacity,  appears  turbid 
or  milky,  while  its  taste  is  strong  and  rancid. 

Turpentine. — Spirits  of  turpentine  is  a  volatile  oil,  obtained 
by  distilling  with  water,  in  an  ordinary  copper  still,  turpentine 
previously  melted  and  strained.  The  distilled  product  is 
colorless,  limpid,  very  fluid,  and  has  a  peculiar  smell.  The 
residuum  left  after  distillation  is  called  resin. 

The  ordinary  use  of  spirits  of  turpentine  is  to  thin  oil  paints, 
to  flatten  white  .and  other  colors,  or  to  remove  superfluous 
color  in  graining.  It  prevents  paint,  however,  from  bearing 


PAINTING.  399 

out,  and  when  used  alone  will  not  fix  the  paint  on  the  surface 
to  which  it  is  applied. 

Good  turpentine  is  colorless  and  has  a  pleasant  pungent 
odor;  if  adulterated  or  of  an  inferior  quality  it  will  have  a 
disagreeable  odor. 

When  evaporated,  good  turpentine  should  have  a  very  slight 
residue,  and  when  spread  on  a  glass  in  a  thin  film  should  dry 
in  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours. 

Turpentine  is  often  adulterated  with  mineral  oils.  The 
pure  turpentine  loses  bulk  by  evaporation  and  gains  weight 
upon  exposure  to  the  air.  Adulterated  with  mineral  oils,  the 
spirit  evaporates,  leaving  the  oil  without  any  assistance  in  har- 
dening. 

Turpentine  containing  such  oils  will  usually  leave  a  greasy 
stain  on  white  paper,  a  drop  of  it  on  a  watch-crystal  will  reflect 
prismatic  colors  in  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  hydrom- 
eter will  stand  in  such  a  mixture  above  32°. 

But  little  if  any  turpentine  should  be  used  on  good  work. 
The  result  of  the  use  of  turpentine  is  that  the  proportion  of 
oil  is  reduced.  This  enables  the  painter  to  conceal  the  painted 
surface  with  fewer  coats  than  would  otherwise  suffice.  Tur- 
pentine also  hastens  the  drying  of  the  paint  by  reducing  the 
quantity  of  the  oil,  and  the  turpentine  itself  possessing  some 
oxidizing  or  drying  properties. 

Good  turpentine  should  be  crystal-clear  and  water-white, 
weigh  7  pounds  to  the  gallon,  boil  at  160°  to  165°  C.  (320°  to 
340°  F.),  and  have  a  specific  gravity  at  15°  C.  (59°  F.)  of  31° 
Baume  hydrometer  (0.870). 

The  presence  of  benzine  or  naphtha  in  turpentine  can 
usually  be  detected  by  the  odor;  with  the  hydrometer  test  5 
per  cent  of  this  adulterant  will  make  a  difference  of  1£° 
Baum6. 

The  presence  of  petroleum  can  usually  be  detected  by  the 
delicate  "bluish  bloom"  or  smoky  bluish-yellow  cloud  it  im- 
parts to  the  turpentine. 

To  detect  small  quantities  of  petroleum,  fill  two  white  glass 
vials,  one  with  the  doubtful  article  and  one  with  turpentine 
known  to  be  pure;  hold  both  over  a  piece  of  black  paper  and 
look  directly  down  into  the  liquid;  3  to  5  per  cent  of  petroleum 
will  impart  a  decided  bloom  or  cloud  to  the  "turps."  With 
the  hydrometer  test  5  per  cent  of  petroleum  will  make  a  differ- 
ence of  ^°  Baum6. 


400  PAINTING. 

Pure  turpentine  at  15°  C.  (59°  F.)  is  31°  Baume*  hydrometer. 

5%  benzine  "•  "  "         "  32^°  "  " 

15%         "  «  «  ^         tt  34o  tt  tt 

25%         "  "  "  "         "  38°  "  " 

5%  petroleum  "  "  "         "  31J°  "  " 

JQC/                ft  II  tt  tt               tt    02°  tt  tt 

25%         "  "  <<  "         tt  340  (t  tt 

33J%       "  "  "  "         "  35|°  "  " 


White  Lead. — The  discovery  of  white  lead  is  lost  in  the  mists 
of  antiquity.  It  has  been  a  familiar  painting  material  for 
many  centuries,  and  the  earliest  recorded  method  of  production 
differed  only  in  detail  from  that  generally  practised  at  the 
present  day.  In  most  European  and  American  factories  the 
method  used  is  that  known  as  the  "Old  Dutch"  process  of 
corrosion.  The  chief  exceptions  are  the  single  plant  in  France 
producing  the  celebrated  Ceruse  de  Clichy;  the  few  German 
factories  producing  "Kremnitz  white"  by  dry  precipitation; 
the  one  plant  in  England  producing  the  celebrated  Pattison 
white  lead  by  wet  precipitation;  and  the  two  equally  famous 
plants  of  the  Carter  White  Lead  Company  in  this  country, 
practising  corrosion  by  a  controllable  chemical  process  acting 
on  the  lead  in  a  finely  comminuted  form,  the  last  named  being 
merely  a  technical  modification  of  the  older  process,  shortening 
the  time  required  for  completion. 

The  old  Dutch  process  of  corrosion  is  in  outline  as  follows: 
The  pig  or  metallic  lead  is  melted  and  cast  into  perforated 
disks,  called  buckles,  about  6  inches  in  diameter,  which  are 
put  into  pots  containing  each  about  one  pint  of  dilute  vinegar. 
These  are  placed  in  rooms  holding  several  layers,  or  tiers,  600 
to  1000  pots  each.  The  pots  are  covered  with  boards  and 
layers  of  tanbark,  placed  between  each  tier.  The  rooms, 
technically  called  beds,  are  kept  closed  from  three  to  four 
months.  During  this  period  the  heat  and  the  carbonic-acid  gas 
generated  by  fermentation  of  the  tan,  together  with  the  acid 
vapors,  combine  to  corrode  the  lead  into  a  white  flaky  sub- 
stance. 

This,  after  it  is  crushed,  screened,  ground  in  water  and  dried, 
forms  the  white  lead  of  commerce,  and  is  either  sold  in  the  dry- 
state  to  mixed  paint  and  color  manufacturers  or  ground  in 
linseed-oil  and  sold  for  general  painting  purposes. 

White  lead  thus  produced  is  a  compound  of  lead  hydroxide 


PAINTING. 


401 


and  lead  carbonate,  generally  retaining  a  residue  of  acetic  acid 
and  more  or  less  water.  It  is  exceedingly  variable  in  compo- 
sition, nearly  every  sample  analyzed  showing  different  propor- 
tions of  the  constituent  components.  Thus  in  four  analyses 
reported  by  Prof.  Hurst  the  proportion  of  carbonate  ranged 
from  63.35  per  cent  to  72.15  per  cent;  that  of  the  hydroxide 
from  25.19  to  36.14;  and  that  of  the  moisture  from  0.42  to 
nothing.  Prof.  Church  gives  the  ideal  proportion  as  70  per 
cent  of  the  carbonate  to  30  per  cent  of  the  hydrate,  but  this 
exact  proportion  is  very  rarely  attained  in  practice.  Five  dif- 
ferent American  brands  of  pure  old  Dutch  process  white  lead 
analyzed  a  few  years  since  by  Mr.  Convers  proved  to  be  con- 
stituted as  follows: 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

Lead  carbonate  .... 
Lead  hydrate.  .  . 

85.32 
14.83 

79.37 
19.80 

78.58 
20.11 

77.98 
20.60 

69.96 
30.19 

Lead  oxide      . 

1.48 

1.48 

Water 

03 

21 

.07 

The  samples  analyzed  were  dry  leads  and  not  the  product 
in  oil  as  sold  to  the  consumer.  The  latter,  especially  when 
mixed  without  drying,  as  in  the  pulp  process,  will  generally 
show  a  higher  percentage  of  moisture,  while  acetic  acid  and  un- 
corroded  particles  of  lead,  left  by  imperfect  grinding  and  wash- 
ing, are  not  rare;  Church  reports  as  high  as  11  per  cent  of  lead 
acetate  in  flake  white. 

This,  the  ordinary  white  lead  of  commerce,  is  a  heavy,  opaque 
material,  ranging  in  color  from  yellowish  white  (cream  color) 
to  grayish  white;  indeed,  it  seldom  happens  that  two  separate 
corrosions  yield  precisely  the  same  shade  of  tone.  This  varia- 
tion is,  of  course,  unimportant,  except  in  attempting  to  match 
shades  by  the  addition  of  definite  proportions  of  color. 

Precipitated  white  lead  is  made  by  suspending  rolls  of  thin 
sheet  lead  or  small  bars  over  malt  vinegar  or  pyroligneous 
acid  in  closed  vessels,  the  evaporation  of  the  acid  being  kept 
up  by  heat  applied  to  the  vessels  while  immersed  in  a  steam 
bath.  The  white  lead  produced  by  precipitation  is  generally 
considered  inferior  to  that  prepared  by  corrosion,  wanting,  as 
it  is,  in  density  or  body,  and  when  mixed  with  its  vehicle, 
absorbing  too  much  oil. 

Sublimed  Lead  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  smelting 


402  PAINTING. 

of  lead  ores.  The  products  of  this  smelting  are  pig  lead,  slags 
poor  enough  in  lead  to  be  thrown  away,  and  the  "fume,"  which 
is  white  and  in  a  fine  state  of  subdivision,  suitable  for  a  white 
pigment,  and  is  sold  as  such  either  dry  or  ground  in  oil.  It  is 
known  to  the  trade  as  Joplin  lead,  being  manufactured  first 
at  Joplin,  Mo.,  or  as  Picher  lead,  from  the  name  of  the  com- 
pany manufacturing  it. 

Adulterations. — White  lead  may  be  either  pure  or  mixed 
with  various  substances,  such  as  sulphate  of  baryta,  sulphate 
of  lead,  sulphate  of  lime,  whiting,  chalk,  zinc  white,  etc.;  these 
substances  do  not  combine  so  well  with  oil  as  does  white  lead, 
nor  do  they  so  well  protect  the  surfaces  to  which  they  are 
applied. 

Sulphate  of  baryta,  the  most  common  adulterant,  is  a  dense, 
heavy,  white  substance,  very  much  like  white  lead  in  appear- 
ance. It  absorbs  very  little  oil,  and  can  usually  be  detected 
by  the  gritty  feeling  produced  when  the  paint  is  rubbed  between 
the  fingers. 

Pure  white  lead  is  insoluble  in  water,  effervesces  with  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  dissolving  when  heated,  and  is  easily  soluble 
in  dilute  nitric  acid.  When  heated  on  a  piece  of  glass  the 
white  lead  becomes  yellow. 

To  test  dry  lead,  digest  a  small  quantity  with  nitric  acid, 
in  which  it  dissolves  readily  on  boiling.  When  ground  with 
oil,  the  oil  should  be  burned  off  and  the  residue  treated  with 
nitric  acid;  or  the  white  lead  ground  with  oil  may  be  boiled 
for  some  time  with  strong  nitric  acid,  which  destroys  the  oil 
and  dissolves  the  lead  on  the  addition  of  water.  If  sulphate 
of  baryta  be  present,  it  being  insoluble  in  the  acid,  it  remains 
behind  and  can  be  collected  on  a  filter,  washed  with  hot  dis- 
tilled water,  and  weighed. 

The  presence  of  other  adulterants  may  be  detected  by  the 
change  in  the  specific  gravity  of  the  lead  when  dry,  or  by  various 
methods  of  analysis. 

Zinc  White. — Zinc  white  is  hydrated  zinc  carbonate  or  oxide. 
It  is  perfectly  durable  in  oil  and  water,  but  wanting  in  body. 
For  inside  work,  zinc  is  preferable  to  white  lead,  and  for  out- 
side work,  about  25  per  cent  of  zinc  in  the  lead  color  makes  a 
better  paint  than  the  pure  lead.  For  use  in  its  pure  state, 
zinc  white  should  be  finely  ground  in  refined  linseed-oil  with 
the  proper  proportions  of  manganese  drier,  and  if  for  interior 
use,  should  have  a  small  proportion  of  good  white  varnish. 


PAINTING.  403 

In  painting  in  pure  zinc,  the  first  coat  may  be  tinted  with 
black,  over  which  the  second  coat  will  make  a  perfect  covering. 

A  soft  brush  with  long  hairs  should  be  used,  brushing  lightly, 
and  the  paint  should  be  applied  a  little  thicker  than  a  lead 
paint. 

The  purity  of  zinc  may  be  determined  by  washing  out  the  oil 
with  benzine  and  dissolving  the  pigment  in  sulphuric  acid. 
Any  residue  shows  the  presence  of  other  pigments.  On  a 
painted  surface  the  presence  of  lead  can  be  determined  by 
scratching  a  spot  through  the  paint  and  applying  a  drop  of 
sodium  sulphide  of  100°  Baume".  If  lead  be  present  it  will 
cause  a  decided  discoloration. « 

Red  Lead  (Red  Oxide  of  Lead). — This  is  one  of  the  oldest 
pigments,  formerly  known  as  minium  or  saturnine  red.  It  is  a 
deuoxide  of  lead  prepared  by  subjecting  massicot  to  the  heat 
of  a  furnace,  with  an  expanded  surface  and  free  accession  of 
air. 

Red  lead  is  often  adulterated  with  red  oxide  of  iron,  brick- 
dust,  or  mineral  paints.  To  test,  heat  the  red  lead  and  treat 
with  dilute  nitric  acid;  the  red  lead  will  be  dissolved  and  the 
adulterants  remain.  Boiling  hydrochloric  acid  extracts  the  ses- 
quioxide  of  iron  from  the  residue. 

Oxide  of  Iron  is  produced  from  the  brown  hematic  ores;  the 
ore  is  roasted  and  separated  from  impurities  and  then,  ground. 

Antimony  Vermilion  (Sulphide  of  Antimony)  is  produced 
from  antimony  ore.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for 
red  lead. 

Vermilion  is  a  sulphuret  of  mercury,  which  previous  to  its 
being  levigated  is  called  cinnabar.  Vermilion  is  adulterated  with 
red  lead,  brightened  with  eosine,  and  with  logwood  mixed  with 
molasses.  Powder  vermilion  may  be  tested  by  placing  a  small 
quantity  on  a  piece  of  paper  laid  on  a  hard  surface;  cover  this 
with  a  card  or  other  piece  of  paper,  which  rub  writh  the  thumb- 
nail or  smooth  handle  of  a  penknife.  If  the  vermilion  be  pure, 
it  will  on  the  removal  of  the  paper  present  a  smooth  surface  of 
the  uniform  original  color,  but  if  adulterated  with  red  lead, 
etc.,  it  will  appear  orange  or  yellow. 

Indian  Red  is  ground  hematite  ore  or  peroxide  of  iron,  but 
can  be  made  artificially  by  calcining  sulphate  of  iron.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Persian  red. 

Scarlet  Red. — A  name  given  to  a  very  bright  scarlet  shade 
of  iron-oxide  pigments. 


404  PAINTING. 

Venetian  Red. — A  red  pigment  made  by  heating  ochres.  Light- 
red  color  works  well  in  oil  or  water.  This  red  is  not  only  useful 
as  a  solid  color  of  extreme  permanence,  but  the  tints  are  clean 
and  sharp  even  when  reduced  to  a  delicate  rose  tint.  Many 
common  Venetian  reds  are  made  in  a  crude  manner  with  a 
cheap,  coarse  base. 

Oxide. — Oxide  reds  are  noted  for  their  permanency  and 
durability.  They  owe  their  color  to  ferric  oxide  by  the  pre- 
cipitation of  iron  solutions. 

Lakes. — A  class  of  pigments  of  ancient  origin,  made  exten- 
sively of  cochineal,  combined  with  tin  and  alumina.  Floren- 
tine lake,  Dutch  pink,  and  rose  pmk  contain  an  excess  of  metallic 
base  in  their  composition. 

YELLOWS. — Chrome  Yellow  is  obtained  from  the  subchromate 
of  lead.  Frequently  adulterated  with  gypsum,  it  is  prepared 
by  mixing  diluted  solutions  of  acetate  or  nitrate  of  lead  and 
bichromate  of  potash. 

Naples  Yellow. — This  old  and  well-known  pigment  is  a  com- 
pound of  the  oxides  of  lead  and  antimony.  This  pigment  is 
generally  replaced  by  chrome  yellows. 

King's  Yellow,  the  least  durable  of  the  yellow  pigments,  is 
obtained  from  arsenic.  It  is  sometimes  called  Chinese  yellow 
and  should  never  be  used  for  good  painting. 

OCHRES. — A  most  important  group  of  natural  pigments  found 
in  many  places.  The  depth  of  color  is  variable;  in  some  it  is 
strong,  in  others  weak. 

Yellow  Ochre  is  a  natural  clay,  colored  by  oxide  of  iron.  It 
varies  in  color  from  yellow  to  brown. 

Raw  Sienna  appears  to  be  an  iron  ore,  considered  as  a  crude 
natural  yellow  lake. 

Dutch  Pink. — Strange  to  say  a  yellow  lake  should  be  called 
Dutch  pink,  still  such  is  the  case. 

This  pigment  is  a  yellow  lake  prepared  from  Persian  berries 
by  precipitating  with  alum  and  whiting. 

BLACK  PIGMENTS. — Lampblack  is  simply  the  soot  obtained 
by  burning  resinous  woods,  tallow,  coal-tar,  oil,  bituminous 
coal,  etc.  It  is  a  purely  carbonaceous  substance  of  fine  texture 
and  very  durable. 

Ivory-black  is  obtained  by  calcining  or  charring  to  black- 
ness in  a  closed  vessel  waste  ivory  and  then  grinding.  This 
makes  a  superior  black,  but  is  more  expensive  than  the 
others. 


PAINTING.  405 

Bone-black  is  prepared  from  bones  by  a  similar  process  to 
ivory-black,  using  bones  as  the  raw  material.  It  has  a  reddish 
tint,  and  unless  well  burned  tends  toward  a  brown  color. 

Frankfort  or  Vegetable  Black  is  a  pigment  prepared  from  the 
sediment  of  wine,  vine  twigs,  and  tendrils  from  which  the  tartar 
has  been  washed,  by  burning  in  the  same  manner  as  ivory- 
black.  It  is  used  mostly  by  printers. 

Blue  Black  is  a  well-burned  and  levigated  charcoal  of  a  cool 
neutral  color,  very  much  like  the  Frankfort  black. 

BLUE  PIGMENTS. — Prussian  Blue  is  made  by  mixing  prussiate 
of  potash  with  a  salt  of  iron.  The  prussiate  of  potash  is  obtained 
by  calcining  and  digesting  old  leather,  blood,  hoofs,  or  other 
animal  matter  with  carbonate  of  potash  and  iron  filings. 

Indigo  Blue  is  a  pigment  manufactured  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies  from  several  plants,  but  principally  from  the  anil,  or 
indigofera.  It  is  very  inferior  to  Prussian  blue. 

Cobalt  Blue  is  an  oxide  of  cobalt  made  by  roasting  cobalt 
ore. 

Blue  Lead  is  obtained  by  subliming  lead  similar  to  the  process 
used  for  making  sublimed  white  lead. 

Ultramarine  Blue. — Ultramarine  is  one  of  the  most  important 
blue  pigments  at  the  disposal  of  the  painter.  The  ultramarine 
of  commerce  is  largely  made  artificially  by  furnacing  a  mixture 
of  silica,  china  clay,  sulphur,  soda,  sodium  sulphate,  and  rosin, 
these  ingredients  being  mixed  together  in  various  portions 
according  to  the  character  of  the  ultramarine  desired.  Several 
qualities  of  ultramarine  are  made,  varying  in  depth  of  tone, 
tint,  fineness,  and  other  qualities. 

Ultramarine  is  a  blue  pigment  of  exceedingly  bright  character, 
varying  from  a  pale  greenish  blue  to  a  violet-blue.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  in  water  painting,  distemper,  fresco-work,  printing 
of  all  kinds,  and  laundry  purposes.  When  exposed  to  all  ordinary 
atmospheric  conditions  it  is  quite  permanent,  which  is  a  most 
important  feature  of  ultramarine.  It  is  easily  affected  when 
treated  with  acids,  as  the  color  is  destroyed,  although  it  is  unaf- 
fected by  boiling  with  alkaline  solutions  of  any  kind.  Some 
varieties  of  ultramarine  are  reddened  in  tone  by  being  mixed 
with  a  solution  of  alum  or  alumina  sulphate. 

The  use  of  even  the  most  carefully  selected  ultramarine  with 
white  lead  is  not  to  be-  recommended,  as  it  is  a  sulphur  com- 
pound and  liable  to  blacken  the  lead. 

Prussian  blue  is  without  this  defect,  having  no  sulphur  in  it. 


406  PAINTING. 

Bremen  Blue, — Bremen  blue  is  a  basic  carbonate  of  copper, 
soluble  in  acids;  on  adding  ammonia  a  deep-blue  solution  is 
obtained,  a  reaction  which  is  highly  characteristic  of  copper. 

GREEN. — Chrome  Green. — An  oxide  of  the  metal  chromium, 
and  usually  made  by  fusing  together  bichromate  of  potash  and 
boracic  acid.  It  is  the  most  permanent  green  known,  very 
bright,  not  acted  on  by  acids,  heat,  or  alkalies. 

Greens  known  by  various  trade  names  are  produced  by 
treating  the  acetate  or  carbonate  of  copper  with  sal  ammoniac. 
Greens  are  also  made  from  the  arsenites  of  copper,  and  from 
cobalt  and  ferrous  oxide  of  zinc. 

BROWN. — Umber  is  the  name  of  a  brown  pigment  obtained 
through  the  agency  of  oxide  of  iron  from  naturally  colored 
clays,  some  coming  from  Turkey,  and  some  from  Umbria,  in 
Italy,  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  When  in  its  natural 
state  it  is  called  raw  umber,  but  after  being  calcined  at  a  low 
temperature  it  is  called  burnt  umber. 

Raw  Sienna  is  a  clay  stained  with  oxides  of  iron  and  man-' 
ganese.  It  was  originally  found  in  Sienna,  Italy.  Siennas 
differ  from  ochres  in  being  rather  more  transparent,  making 
them  very  serviceable  in  staining  properties. 

Burnt  Sienna  is  of  a  bright  orange-red  color,  permanent  in 
color  and  mixes  well  with  oil  and  water. 

Vandyke  Brown. — A  natural  earth  of  warm  brown  color 
resembling  the  umbers,  works  well  in  oil  or  water,  and  is  perma- 
nent. 

COMPOUND  COLORS. — In  mixing  different  colored  paints  to 
produce  any  desired  tint,  it  is  best  to  have  the  principal  ingre- 
dient thick  and  add  to  it  the  other  colors  thinner.  In  the 
following  list  of  the  combinations  of  colors  required  to  produce 
a  required  tint,  the  first-named  color  is  the  principal  ingredient 
and  the  others  follow  in  the  order  of  their  importance: 

Buff — white,  yellow  ochre,  red. 

Chestnut — red,  black,  yellow. 

Chocolate — raw  umber,  red,  black. 

Claret — red,  umber,  black. 

Copper — red,  yellow,  black. 

Dove — white,  vermilion,  blue,  yellow. 

Drab — white,  yellow  ochre,  red,  black. 

Fawn — white,  yellow,  red. 

Flesh — white,  yellow  ochre,  vermillion. 

Freestone — red,  black,  yellow  ochre,  white. 


PAINTING. 


407 


French  gray — white,  Prussian  blue,  lake. 
Gray — white  lead,  black. 
Gold — white,  stone  ochre,  red. 
Green  bronze — chrome,  green,  black,  yellow. 
Green  pea — white,  chrome  green. 
Lemon — white,  chrome  yellow. 
Limestone — white,  yellow  ochre,  black,  red. 
Olive — yellow,  blue,  black,  white. 
Orange — yellow,  red. 
Peach — white,  vermilion. 
Pearl — white,  black,  blue. 
Pink — white,  vermilion,  lake. 
Purple — violet,  with  more  red  and  white. 
Rose — white,  madder  lake. 
Sandstone — white,  yellow  ochre,  black,  red. 
Snuff — yellow,  Vandyke  brown. 
Violet — red,  blue,  white. 

The  following  table  gives  the  proportions  of  colors  for  some 
of  the  most  common  colors: 


Colors. 

Ingredients  by  Weight. 

White 
Lead. 

100 

'25 
99 

98 

Lamp- 
black. 

ioo 

Red 
Lead. 

Red 

Ochre. 

Verdi- 
gris. 

Burnt 
Umber. 

Spanish 
Brown 
or  Raw 
Umber. 

White  . 

... 

... 



Black  
Green  
Stone 

75 

T 

'96' 

Lead  
Red  
Chocolate...  . 

2 

'  '4 

50 

50 

... 

PREPARING  FOR  AND  APPLYING  PAINTS. — In  preparing  work 
for  painting  too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised,  as  succeeding 
coats  and  the  final  result  depend  very  much  on  the  proper 
condition  of  the  work  when  the  priming  coat  is  applied. 

First,  all  the  rough  places  in  the  wood  should  be  rubbed 
down  with  a  block  covered  with  sandpaper  and  all  mouldings 
cleaned  out  with  the  same.  Then  every  knot,  however  small, 
every  indication  of  sap-wood  or  discoloration  of  any  kind,  and 
every  appearance  of  pitch  or  gum,  should  be  carefully  covered 
with  a  coat  of  shellac.  If  the  work  is  to  be  finished  in  a  light 
color,  or  if  it  is  inside  work,  white  shellac  should  be  used. 


408  PAINTING. 

When  the  work  is  to  be  finished  in  two  coats,  the  putty  used 
for  stopping  the  nail-holes  and  other  indentations  should  be 
made  of  white  lead,  worked  up  with  whiting  to  the  proper  consist- 
ency, and  the  filling  should  be  done  after  the  first  coat  has 
become  well  dried.  When  more  than  two  coats  are  to  be  put 
on,  the  filling  or  putty  should  be  used  between  the  first  and 
second  coat,  and  ordinary  linseed-oil  putty  should  be  used. 

As  a  rule  white  should  never  be  used  as  a  priming  coat; 
no  matter  how  many  coats  are  to  be  put  on  the  result  will  be 
more  satisfactory  if  the  first  coat  be  darkened  a  little  with 
lampblack. 

The  way  to  produce  solid,  uniform  work  is  by  making  every 
succeeding  coat  a  little  lighter  in  color  than  the  one  preced- 
ing it. 

It  is  well  to  use  for  priming  the  same  color  as  the  work  is  to 
be  finished;  if  it  is  to  be  finished  green,  use  green  for  priming, 
or  if  to  be  finished  blue,  let  blue  be  the  groundwork.  All 
work  should  be  primed,  especially  with  regard  to  the  finishing 
color. 

The  paint  should  be  put  on  by  strokes  parallel  to  the  grain  of 
the  wood;  and  long  smooth  pieces,  such  as  window-  and  door- 
casings,  should  be  finished  by  drawing  the  brush  the  full  length, 
so  that  there  will  be  no  breaks  or  brush-marks.  The  brush 
must  always  be  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  being  painted, 
and  only  the  ends  of  the  hairs  touching  it;  in  this  way  the 
paint  is  spread  evenly  and  forced  into  the  pores  of  the  wood. 
No  paint  should  be  put  on  top  of  a  preceding  coat  unless  it  is 
perfectly  dry  and  hard. 

When  paint  is  applied  to  walls  and  ceilings  the  plaster  must 
be  perfectly  dry  and  free  from  all  moisture. 

Paint  for  exterior  work  should  be  mixed  with  boiled  linseed- 
oil. 

Painting  Tinwork. — Before  painting  tin,  all  surplus  resin, 
grease,  or  oil  must  be  carefully  removed.  If  necessary  the 
surface  should  be  washed  with  benzine.  Red  lead  is  usually 
used  for  painting  tin.  It  should  be  composed  of  15  pounds  red 
lead  to  1  gallon  of  linseed-oil.  Tinwork  should  be  painted 
as  soon  as  possible  after  being  put  in  place,  and  if  any  rust 
shows  it  should  be  carefully  removed. 

Painting  Ironwork. — Before  painting  wrought  iron  or  steel 
care  must  be  taken  to  have  all  scales,  grease,  rust,  etc.,  removed. 
The  scales  can  be  taken  off  by  brushing  with  a  stiff  wire  brush, 


PAINTING.  409 

and  the  rust  can  be  removed  by  scraping  with  steel  scrapers, 
or  by  a  sand-blast,  or  by  pickling  in  diluted  acid,  which  is  washed 
off  with  water.  All  indications  of  rust  should  be  removed 
before  any  paint  is  put  on,  for  a  small  spot  of  rust  may  grow 
under  the  paint  and  in  time  cause  a  flake  of  the  paint  to  scale 
off.  Deep  rust  can  be  burned  off  with  a  gasoline  torch;  the 
heat  converts  the  rust  into  peroxide  of  iron,  which  can  be 
dusted  off.  When  red  lead  is  used  for  painting  iron  or  steel 
it  should  be  composed  of  25  pounds  of  lead  to  1  gallon  of  oil. 
It  will  require  the  close  attention  of  the  superintendent  to  have 
it  put  on  this  thick,  for  it  is  hard  to  spread,  but  when  it  is 
mixed  thin  it  will  run  and  the  lead  will  settle  to  the  lower  part 
of  the  iron,  leaving  just  a  coat  of  oil. 

When  any  interior  painting  is  being  done,  all  windows  should 
be  covered  to  keep  the  paint  off  the  glass;  a  little  precaution 
at  this  time  will  save  lots  of  work  in  the  future. 

Cleaning  Old  Paint. — This  may  be  effected  by  washing  it  with  a 
solution  of  pearlash  in  water.  If  the  surface  is  greasy,  it  should 
be  treated  with  fresh  quicklime  mixed  in  water,  washed  off 
and  reapplied  until  the  gredse  is  entirely  removed. 

Removing  Old  Paint. — Dissolve  2  ounces  of  soft  soap  and  4 
ounces  of  potash  in  boiling  water;  add  \  pound  of  quicklime; 
apply  hot  and  leave  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours.  This 
will  enable  the  old  paint  to  be  washed  off  with  hot  water. 

VARNISHES. — Varnish  is  a  solution  of  certain  gums  or  resins  in 
alcohol,  turpentine,  linseed-oil,  or  the  like,  and  is  applied  to 
produce  a  hard  shining  transparent  coat  on  the  surface. 

To  estimate  the  quality  of  a  varnish,  the  following  points 
are  to  be  considered:  (1)  Quickness  in  drying;  (2)  hardness  of 
film  or  coating;  (3)  toughness  of  film;  (4)  amount  of  gloss; 
(5)  permanence  of  gloss;  (6)  durability  on  exposure  to  weather. 

Varnish  Gums. — Under  the  names  of  copal  and  damar 
various  gums  in  the  form  of  resins  which  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  world  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  var- 
nishes. The  typical  copal  comes  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
and  is  found  as  a  fossil  in  the  river-beds  and  soft  ground  of  the 
district.  The  gathering  is  done  during  the  wet  season,  when  the 
ground  is  sufficiently  soft  to  permit  of  its  being  dug  into  by 
negroes,  who  use  such  primitive  tools  that  they  are  ineffective 
in  dry  season.  The  botanical  origin  of  copal  is  unknown. 
Some  authorities  assign  it  to  a  tree,  now  extinct,  along  the 
coast.  Copal  from  this  section  comes  in  rough  angular  pieces 


410  PAINTING. 

covered  with  a  crust  of  disintegrated  resin;  when  scraped  off 
the  resin  is  found  lustrous,  quite  transparent,  and  almost  color- 
less. It  melts  at  400°  F.  When  powdered  about  33 J  per  cent 
after  long  digestion  will  dissolve  in  ether,  while  the  rest  simply 
swells  up.  When  melted  it  gives  off  a  small  proportion  of  an 
oily  liquid  which  contains  a  terpene;  the  residue  on  cooling 
will  set  into  a  hard,  brittle  mass  soluble  in  ether,  turpentine, 
or  chloroform,  etc.  It  is  on  this  property  of  becoming  soluble 
after  being  fused  that  the  manufacture  of  varnishes  from  copals 
is  based,  and  from  which  the  best  class  of  carriage  and  cabinet- 
makers' varnishes  are  made. 

The  Singapore  damar  is  generally  considered  the  true  damar, 
from  the  Amboyna  pine  tree,  exuded  out  of  certain  excres- 
cences which  grow  a  little  above  the  root  of  the  tree.  In  Java 
and  Sumatra  the  resin  is  allowed  to  flow  out  naturally;  in  some 
localities  natives  make  incisions  to  promote  the  flow.  The 
Singapore  damar  comes  in  form  of  rounded  pieces  with  pow- 
dery crust,  transparent  and  quite  brittle.  It  is  soluble  in  tur- 
pentine, ether,  chloroform,  etc.  Damar  produces  a  varnish 
which  is  pale,  lustrous,  and  dries  with  a  very  hard  coat.  Var- 
nishes requiring  a  clear,  light,  brilliant,  lustrous  finish  are  made 
from  the  best  damar. 

A  great  variety  of  varnish  gums  are  also  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  varnish,  although  the  above  described  are  considered 
the  best  of  their  class. 

Much  care  must  be  exercised  in  applying  varnish  to  get  it 
spread  on  evenly;  a  fine  hair-brush  must  be  used  and  the  varnish 
well  spread  out,  but  not  worked  enough  to  make  it  froth  or 
foam;  it  must  be  worked  out  thin  enough  so  that  it  will  not 
run,  and  no  succeeding  coat  of  varnish  should  be  put  on  until 
the  preceding  coat  is  hard  and  dry.  Each  coat  of  varnish  should 
be  well  sandpapered  before  another  one  is  put  on. 

Good  varnish  should  dry  and  be  free  from  stickiness  in  from 
one  to  two  days. 

The  more  oil  a  varnish  contains  the  less  liable  it  is  to  crack. 

One  pint  of  varnish  will  single  coat  about  14  square 
yards. 

FINISHING  OF  CALIFORNIA.  REDWOOD. — California  redwood  is 
being  more  generally  used  for  inside  finish  every  year,  and 
on  account  of  its  peculiarities  in  regard  to  finishing  and 
varnishing,  the  following  directions  are  given,  which  if  followed 
will  produce  the  best  results. 


PAINTING.  411 

Formula  for  Finishing  Redwood:  Shellac  Finish. — First  give 
one  coat  of  orange-gum  shellac  (which  is  a  good  quality  of 
gum  shellac  and  alcohol),  applied  very  thin.  If  more  color 
is  required,  give  another  coat  of  orange  shellac,  waiting  at 
least  twenty-four  hours  after  giving  the  first  coat.  Take 
No.  1  sandpaper  and  work  the  raised  grain,  caused  by  shellack- 
ing down  to  a  surface;  then  give  one  coat  of  white  shellac. 
Let  this  coat  be  heavy  and  stand  twenty-four  hours  to  harden; 
if  you  finish  quicker  than  this  the  whole  is  liable  to  crack. 
Then  rub  with  curled  hair  or  haircloth  until  the  gloss  is  taken 
off.  Then  apply  another  coat  of  white  shellac  a  little  thinner. 
Let  stand  two  days  and  rub  with  curled  hair  or  haircloth  same 
as  first  coat;  then  apply  a  third  coat  of  white  shellac  same  as 
second,  and  let  stand  two  days;  rub  down  to  a  surface  with 
No.  00  pulverized  pumice-stone,  felt,  and  water,  being  careful 
not  to  rub  through  the  varnish  on  the  corners;  clean  off  thor- 
oughly dry  with  chamois  skin;  then  take  pulverized  rotten- 
stone  and  water  and  a  piece  of  dry  felt  and  rub  the  work 
thoroughly  with  the  same;  clean  off  with  water  and  dry  with 
chamois  skin,  or  instead  of  cleaning  off  the  rottenstone  with 
water  and  drying  with  chamois  skin,  take  the  palm  of  the 
hand  and  rub  the  rottenstone  until  it  is  dry,  which  will  bring 
it  to  a  fine  gloss  (but  to  finish  in  this  latter  way  the  finisher's 
hand  must  be  perfectly  soft  and  free  from  dust  or  grit),  and 
take  a  soft  cloth  and  wipe  the  hands  off  often,  because  if  the 
least  bit  of  grit  accumulates  it  mars  the  work;  then  take  raw 
linseed-oil,  a  little  fine  cotton  batting,  and  rub  work  over  thor- 
oughly, and  take  a  piece  of  dry  soft  cotton  cloth  and  wipe  it  off. 

To  do  better  work,  rub  with  pumice-stone  between  every 
other  coat  of  shellac,  and  the  more  times  rubbed  and  shellacked, 
the  finer  the  work  turned  out,  or,  in  other  words,  by  finishing 
the  wood  smooth  to  commence  with,  and  putting  on  five  to  seven 
coats  of  shellac  and  rubbing  between  every  other  coat,  the 
finest  piano  finish  can  be  obtained. 

To  finish  a  DEAD  finish,  use  no  rottenstone,  but  instead  rub 
in  pulverized  pumice-stone  and  water,  clean  off  thoroughly, 
and  oil  off  with  raw  linseed-oil. 

To  give  redwood  a  bright,  rich  color,  take  the  following: 
One-fourth  pound  dry  Venetian  red  and  put  in  two  quarts 
of  turpentine,  stir  up  and  let  settle;  then  use  the  turpentine, 
which  will  be  colored  a  very  little.  Apply  this  for  first 
coat. 


412  PAINTING. 

Other  formulas  for  finishing  are  used  to  a  great  extent.  For 
instance,  many  use  last  coats  of  rubbing  varnish,  because  it 
is  softer  to  work  and  polishes  easier,  but  where  they  are  used 
none  but  the  best  grades  are  desirable;  also  all  good  grades  of 
rubbing  varnish  take  from  five  to  thirty  days  to  dry  each  coat. 
The  quick-drying  grades  have  more  or  less  resin  in  them  and 
scratch  white. 

Shellac,  being  very  hard,  is,  of  course,  more  expensive  to  rub 
down,  but  the  firmness  is  a  protection  to  the  wood,  and  it  is 
known  to  be  the  most  durable  finish  for  any  kind  of  wood. 

Never  buy  prepared  shellac,  but  buy  the  gum  shellac  and 
alcohol  and  cut  it,  as  most  prepared  shellac  is  cut  with  cheaper 
ingredients  than  alcohol,  and  oftentimes  spoils  what  otherwise 
would  have  been  a  nice  finish. 

Use  it  quickly,  so  as  not  to  show  laps,  as  it  dries  fast. 

Varnish  Finish. — Use  only  good  grades  of  varnish,  which 
will  cost  at  least  $2.50  per  gallon,  and  for  fine  work  even  better 
grades  should  be  used.  A  gallon  of  varnish  covers  so  much 
surface  it  hardly  pays  to  use  anything  cheaper  than  $3  varnish 
in  good  work.  First  coat  should  be  applied  very  thin — about 
one-half  turpentine  and  one-half  varnish.  Other  coats  can 
be  used  full  strength.  This  will  insure  good  color  and  will 
improve  with  age.  Any  amount  of  rubbing  can  be  done  that 
is  desired,  but  three-coat  work,  with  sandpaper  after  first  coat 
and  rubbing  after  last  coat,  makes  good  work  for  house  finish. 

Wax  Finish. — Use  beeswax  cut  with  turpentine  until  as  thin 
as  linseed-oil;  apply  with  brush.  Second  coat  use  as  thick 
as  lobbered  milk.  Apply  with  soft  cloth  and  rub  till  dry;  the 
more  rubbed  the  better  it  will  look.  This  will  not  show  much 
finish  at  first,  but  in  a  few  months  the  wood  will  gradually 
grow  richer  in  color,  and  one  of  the  most  pleasing  and  restful 
effects  to  the  eye  is  obtained.  It  produces  what  is  called  a 
dead  finish.  This  does  not  scratch  white,  and  if  bruised  at 
any  time  can  be  easily  repaired  with  a  little  of  the  last  coat, 
and  should  it  grow  dusky  or  too  dull  looking  with  age  can  be 
brightened  up  like  new  by  rubbing  with  soft  cloth  wrung  out 
of  warm  water. 

Front  Doors  and  Exterior  Work. — For  front  doors  and  exterior 
work  use  only  the  best  coach  varnish,  which  is  made  from  gums 
that  will  stand  550  degrees  of  heat  before  melting.  This  is  the 
only  thing  that  will  stand  the  hot  rays  of  the  sun.  Use  no 
shellac  with  this. 


PAINTING.  413 

Formula  for  Removing  Dark  Stains  from  Redwood:  Use 
Crystallized  Oxalic  Acid. — Put  in  a  bottle,  pour  water  over  it, 
and  let  dissolve.  There  is  no  danger  of  getting  the  solution 
too  strong,  as  the  water  will  take  up  only  a  certain  portion 
of  the  acid.  By  wetting  a  cloth  with  this  solution  all  stains 
can  be  rubbed  off. 

Caution. — Bottles  should  be  marked  "Poison."  In  using 
be  careful  that  there  are  no  sores  on  the  hands. 

Fillers. — Fillers  should  never  be  used  in  redwood,  as  most 
of  them  contain  linseed-oil,  which  will  spoil  the  work. 

Caution. — Never  use  anything  next  to  the  wood  that  con- 
tain linseed-oil,  as  the  acid  in  the  wood  seems  to  turn  the  oil 
into  a  sort  of  soapy  condition  that  destroys  all  the  fine  lustre 
of  the  grain. 

SHELLAC. — Lac  is  a  resinous  secretion  found  surrounding  the 
twigs  and  branches  of  several  trees  in  India  and  neighboring 
districts.  The  secretion  \s  formed  from  the  sap  of  trees,  which 
sap  is  of  a  gummy  and  resinous  nature,  by  the  female  of  the 
lac  insect,  coccus  lacca.  The  insect  punctures  the  bark  of  the 
tree  and  commences  to  secrete  the  lac,  in  which  it  soon  becomes 
completely  enveloped;  it  then  lays  its  eggs  inside  the  deposit 
of  lac  and  then  dies.  The  young  insects  when  they  are  born 
bore  their  way  through  the  lac  and  swarm  over  the  branches  of 
the  tree. 

Shellac  is  the  principal  commercial  variety  of  lac  and  is 
prepared  and  sold  in  large  quantities.  It  is  prepared  from 
the  seed  lac  by  drying  the  latter  product.  The  dried  lac  is 
then  placed  in  large  bags  made  of  cotton  cloth  of  medium 
texture. 

The  bag  of  lac  is  held  by  two  men  in  front  of  a  large  fire. 
The  heat  of  the  fire  soon  melts  the  lac,  which  flows  out  of  the 
bag,  the  men  assisting  the  flow  by  twisting  the  bag  so  as  to 
squeeze  out  the  contents;  the  molten  lac  drops  into  a  trough 
placed  in  front  of  the  fire. 

A  cylinder  of  wood  covered  with  brass  is  mounted  on  axles 
so  as  to  be  in  a  slightly  inclined  position;  an  operator  dips  a 
ladle  into  the  trough  of  lac  and  pours  it  over  the  surface  of 
the  cylinder  with  a  platen  leaf.  It  rapidly  sets,  when  it  is 
stripped  off  the  cylinder  by  means  of  a  knife  and  is  ready  for 
the  market.  The  best  quality  of  shellac  is  known  as  orange 
shellac,  which  is  a  pale  brownish  orange  color,  but  quite  trans- 
parent. 


414  PAINTING. 

White  shellac  is  obtained  through  the  method  of  bleaching 
orange  shellac  with  oxalic  acid,  etc. 

PUMICE. — Pumice,  as  is  well  known,  is  of  volcanic  origin, 
being  a  trachytic  lava  which  has  been  rendered  light  by  the 
escape  of  gases  when  in  the  molten  state.  The  best  stone  is 
almost  exclusively  obtained  from  Monte  Chirica,  on  the  little 
island  of  Lipari,  off  the  coast  of  Italy.  The  stone  is  brought 
to  the  surface  of  two  great  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes  in  blocks 
or  baskets  by  the  natives,  of  whom  about  1000  are  employed 
in  the  industry.  The  supply  is  said  to  be  practically  inex- 
haustible. 

Pumice  is  not  merely  used  for  scouring  and  cleaning  pur- 
poses, but  also  for  polishing  and  rubbing  down  between  coats 
on  finishing  work  for  coaches,  carriages,  and  interior  woodwork. 
It  is  also  used  for  wood  filler. 

ROSIN. — When  the  resinous  exudations  from  various  species 
of  pine-trees  are  distilled  with  the  aid  of  steam  the  prod- 
ucts are  a  volatile  spiritous  substance,  turpentine,  leaving  a 
liquid  residue  which,  when  cold,  forms  a  hard,  solid  mass, 
known  as  rosin.  Rosin  is  translucent  and  amber-colored, 
brittle,  and  melts  at  212°  Fahr. ;  at  a  higher  temperature  it 
decomposes  into  water,  spirit,  and  oil. 

Rosin  is  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  turpentine,  ether,  ben- 
zine, and  petroleum  spirit.  It  is  largely  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  cheap  varnishes;  such  varnishes,  however,  do 
not  possess  the  durability  characteristic  of  copal  or  kauri 
varnishes. 

Filling  Hardwoods. — Oak,  chestnut,  ash,  and  all  woods  with 
large  pores  must  have  a  coat  of  filler  before  being  varnished, 
and  unless  the  filler  is  well  rubbed  into  all  the  pores  and  all 
the  cavities  are  filled  level  with  the  surface  of  the  wood,  a 
satisfactory  job  of  varnishing  cannot  be  obtained.  The  super- 
intendent should  pay  close  attention  to  the  work  as  it  is 
being  filled,  so  as  to  get  a  perfect  surface  to  apply  the  var- 
nish to. 

The  essential  parts  of  a  hardwood  filler  are  a  transparent,  non- 
absorbent,  mineral  base  and  a  proper  proportion  of  linseed-oil 
and  japan  to  make  a  good  binder. 

Transparent,  for  the  reason  that  when  cleaned  off  the  lights  or 
growths  of  wood  must  show  up  clear.  China  clay,  whiting, 
paris  white  are  not  good,  as  they  are  all  opaque;  a  filler  made 
with  such  a  base  leaves  a  clouded,  muddy  appearance  that  is 


PAINTING.  415 

particularly  objectionable  to  the  present  style  of  antique  oak, 
the  market  requiring  the  greatest  possible  contrast  between 
the  growth  and  the  pore. 

Non-absorbent,  because  the  sole  purpose  of  a  filler  is  to  bear 
the  varnish  up  over  the  pore  equally  as  bold  as  it  is  over  the 
growth,  thus  producing  an  even  surface  on  which  to  rub  or  polish 
Such  absorbents  as  powdered  pumice-stone,  etc.,  absolutely 
fail  to  produce  the  required  result. 

Mineral  as  a  mineral  is  unshrinkable.  Corn-starch  and  all 
other  vegetable  matter  shrink  with  time;  the  varnish  drops 
with  it,  leaving  a  depression  at  each  pore. 

Pinholes. — Failure  to  rub  the  filler  well  into  the  pore  produces 
pinholes,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  blow-holes.  These  are 
more  often  found  in  second-growth  straight-grained  oak,  that 
possessing  a  deeper  pore  than  most  other  wood;  they  are  caused 
by  the  filler  being  wiped  off  instead  of  rubbed  in,  and  thereby 
forced  to  the  very  bottom  of  the  pore,  thus  driving  out  all  the 
air.  Failure  to  get  rid  of  the  air  in  the  pore  means  that  as 
the  filler  dries  it  gradually  sags  down,  compressing  the  air  to 
such  a  degree  that  it  blows  its  way  out,  making  a  pinhole  that 
is  there  to  stay.  Any  number  of  coats  that  may  be  applied 
simply  continue  to  blow  out,  as  the  hole  is  too  small  for  the 
material  to  flow  in  and  fill  it  up — each  coat  forming  a  cap  that 
drops  down  until  the  confined  air  becomes  stronger  and  blows 
out. 

The  filler  is  the  foundation  of  the  finish.  "As  the  foundation 
is,  so  is  the  structure,"  is  the  old  saying.  Does  it  not  apply 
with  equal  force  to  a  filler  finishing?  Is  it  not  quite  as  true  that 
well-filled  work  requires  less  varnish  to  body  it  lip  to  the  requisite 
volume  for  a  polished  surface?  Is  it  not  also  equally  as  certain 
that  it  requires  more  scouring  to  obtain  that  surface?  Now, 
as  a  natural  sequence  to  this,  would  it  not  be  cheaper  to  pay 
a  little  more  per  piece,  have  the  filling  inspected,  rejecting 
it  if  not  up  to  the  standard,  get  the  foundation  right,  and  save 
both  higher-priced  material  and  time? 

Thinning. — Quite  90  per  cent  of  the  complaints  of  filler  are 
directly  traceable  to  the  thinning.  This  is  in  a  great  measure 
due  to  the  filler  salesman,  who  represents  that  7J  to  8  pounds 
of  filler  to  the  gallon  of  liquid  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  produce 
good  results.  An  exhaustive  investigation  of  the  five  most 
prominent  fillers  on  the  market  show  the  best  results  and  least 
wastage  with  the  following  proportions:  For  ash  and  mahogany, 


416  PAINTING. 

7£;  walnut,  8;  quartered  oak,  12;  straight-grained  oak,  14; 
and  chestnut,  15  pounds  of  paste  filler  to  the  gallon  of  liquid. 

Another  phase  of  this  trouble,  and  the  most  serious  abuse  to 
which  filler  is  subjected,  has  grown  out  of  the  habit  of  breaking 
up  the  day's  supply  of  filler  in  the  morning.  Neglect  to  stir 
the  filler  whilst  in  use  permits  the  heavier  particles  to  go  to 
the  bottom,  resulting  in  using  out  too  large  a  portion  of  the 
binder.  When  it  grows  thick  turpentine  or  benzine  is  added, 
but  no  additional  binder  is  supplied,  hence  the  last  of  the  day's 
work  is  not  so  well  filled  as  that  of  the  morning  hours,  and  the 
varnish  coat  must  supply  the  deficiency  of  binder. 

STAINS. — Stains  are  liquid  preparations  of  different  tints, 
applied  to  the  surface  of  the  cheaper  woods,  in  order  to  give 
them  the  appearance  of  the  more  rare  and  expensive  woods, 
such  as  rosewood,  mahogany,  walnut,  etc. 

Suitable  stains  to  imitate  different  woods  may  be  prepared 
as  follows: 

Cherry. — Rain-water,  3  quarts;  annetto,  4  ounces;  boil  in  a 
copper  kettle  till  the  annetto  is  dissolved;  then  put  in  a  piece 
of  potash  the  size  of  a  walnut;  keep  on  the  fire  half  an  hour 
and  it  is  then  ready  for  use. 

Mahogany. — (1)  Put  2  ounces  of  dragon's  blood,  bruised, 
into  a  quart  of  oil  of  turpentine;  let  stand  in  a  warm  place 
until  dissolved,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

(2)  Dragon's  blood,  ^  ounce;  alkanet,  \  ounce;  aloes,  I 
drachm;  spirits  of  wine,  16  ounces. 

Birch. — To  finish  to  represent  mahogany,  coat  with  a  weak 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potash,  then  stain  with  rose-pink 
Vandyke  brown,  and  burnt  Sienna;  then  shellac,  with  a  little 
Bismarck  brown  dissolved  in  the  shellac.  This  makes  a  better 
stain  and  more  lasting  than  a  water  stain. 

Red. — Brazil-wood,  11  parts;  alum,  4  parts;  water,  85  parts; 
boil  together. 

Blue. — Logwood,  7  parts;  blue  vitriol,  1  part;  water,  22 
parts ;  boil. 

Black. — Logwood,  9  parts;  sulphate  of  iron,  1  part;  water, 
25  parts;  boil. 

Green. — Verdigris,  1  part;    vinegar,  3  parts;    dissolve. 

Yellow. — French  berries,  7  parts;  alum,  1  part;  water,  10 
parts;  boil. 

Purple. — Logwood,  11  parts;  alum,  3  parts;  water,  29  parts 
boil. 


PAINTING.  417 

Black  Walnut. — Burnt  umber,  2  parts;  rose-pink,  1  part; 
glue,  1  part;  water  sufficient  to  mix;  heat  and  dissovle  com- 
pletely. 

Ebony. — Drop-black,  2  parts;  rose-pink,  1  part;  turpentine 
sufficient  to  mix. 

Satinwood. — Alcohol,  2  parts;  powdered  gamboge,  3  ounces; 
ground  turmeric,  6  ounces;  steep  and  strain  through  muslin. 

Rosewood. — Alcohol,  1  gallon;  camwood,  2  ounces;  set  in  a 
warm  place  twenty-four  hours,  then  add  aqua  fortis,  1  ounce; 
extract  logwood,  3  ounces;  when  dissolved  is  ready  for  use. 

DATA  ON  PAINTING. — One  pound  of  paint  will  cover  from 
3J  to  4  square  yards  of  wood  for  the  first  coat,  and  from  4J  to  6 
square  yards  for  each  additional  coat;  on  brickwork,  it  will 
cover  about  3  and  4  square  yards  respectively.  Colored  paints 
will  cover  about  one-fourth  more  surface  than  white  paint. 

Prepared  shingle  stains  will  cover  about  200  square  feet  of 
surface  if  put  on  with  a  brush,  or  will  be  sufficient  for  dipping 
about  500  smooth  shingles  or  400  rough  ones. 

One  gallon  of  liquid  filler,  hard  oil  finish,  or  varnish  generally, 
will  cover  from  350  to  400  square  feet  of  surface  for  first  coat, 
and  from  400  to  500  square  feet  of  surface  for  subsequent  coats. 

One  gallon  of  ready-mixed  paint  will  cover  250  to  300  square 
feet  of  wood  surface  one  coat,  or  175  to  225  square  feet  two 
coats,  or  125  to  150  square  feet  three  coats. 

White  lead  and  oil  will  cover  about  15  per  cent  less  than  the 
above. 

BITUMINOUS,  ASPHALT,  ETC.,  PAINTS. — Bituminous  or  asphalt 
paints  are  prepared  by  dissolving  bitumen  in  paraffine,  petroleum, 
naphtha,  or  benzine. 

P.  B.  paint  is  composed  of  asphaltum,  linseed-oil,  turpentine, 
and  kauri-gum. 

Coal-tar  paint  is  composed  of  pure  coal-tar  ,or  coal-tar  mixed 
with  lime  or  other  inert  pigment,  and  mixed  with  fish  or  mineral 
oils.  It  is  also  made  by  mixing  coal-tar  and  benzine;  this  makes 
a  fair  roof  paint.  Coal-tar  paint  is  often  substituted  for  asphal- 
tum paint. 

Graphite  paint  is  prepared  by  mixing  graphite  with  boiled 
linseed-oil  to  which  a  small  percentage  of  litharge,  red  lead, 
manganese,  or  other  metallic  salt  has  been  added  at  the  time 
of  boiling. 

Prince's  metallic  paint  is  made  from  a  blue  magnetic  iron 
ore,  containing  about  50  per  cent  of  iron  peroxide,  25  per  cent 


418  PAINTING. 

limestone,  and  25  per  cent  sulphur.  It  is  mined  in  Carbon 
County,  Pa.  The  prepared  pigment  is  said  to  contain  72  per 
cent  of  iron  peroxide  and  28  per  cent  of  hydraulic  cement.  It 
is  mixed  in  oil,  and  comes  in  one  color,  brown.  It  is  one  of  the 
best  paints  for  roofs  and  rough  outside  work. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  metallic  paints  made  from  mate- 
rials similar  to  Prince's  and  which  possess  about  the  same 
qualities. 

VARIOUS  METHODS  OF  COLORING  OAK. — Flemish  Oak. — Dis- 
solve I  pound  of  bichromate  of  potash  in  one  gallon  of  water. 
Coat  the  wood,  and  when  dry,  sandpaper  down  smooth;  then 
coat  with  best  drop-black,  ground  japan,  thinned  with  tur- 
pentine. Let  stand  five  minutes  and  wipe  off  clean;  then  coat 
with  pure  grain  shellac  and  sandpaper  with  No.  0  sandpaper; 
then  coat  with  beeswax,  1  pound  to  a  gallon  of  turpentine, 
\  pound  of  drop-black  mixed  in  the  wax;  then  wipe  off  clean 
with  cheese-cloth. 

Weathered  Oak. — Give  the  woodwork  one  coat  of  strong 
ammonia.  When  dry,  sandpaper  down  smooth  and  stain  it 
with  a  mixture  composed  of  lampblack,  ochre,  and  2  pounds  of 
silica  to  a  gallon  of  stain.  Wipe  off  with  cheese-cloth,  then 
give  one  coat  of  wax  and  wipe  off  clean.  If  a  brownish 
shade  is  desired,  put  in  1  ounce  of  bichromate  of  potash  and 
ammonia,  or  if  a  greenish  shade,  put  in  some  green  and 
stain. 

Verde  Finish. — One  ounce  of  nigrocene  dissolved  in  J  gal- 
lon of  water.  Give  woodwork  one  coat;  when  dry  sandpaper, 
care  being  taken  not  to  rub  off  the  edges;  then  fill  with  a  bright 
green  filler,  with  some  white  lead  in  the  filler.  When  thoroughly 
dry,  give  one  coat  of  pure  grain  shellac  and  then  wax,  or  it  should 
be  finished  with  three  coats  of  varnish  and  rubbed.  This  finish 
leaves  the  pores  of  a  bright-green  color,  while  the  rest  of  the 
wood  is  almost  black. 

Black  Oak. — One  ounce  of  nigrocene  to  \  gallon  of  water. 
Give  the  woodwork  one  -coat;  then  fill  up  with  a  black  filler; 
then  one  coat  of  shellac  and  three  coats  of  varnish  rubbed  with 
pumice-stone  and  water;  then  oil  and  wipe  clean. 

Birch. — To  finish  to  represent  mahogany,  coat  with  a  weak 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potash,  then  shellac,  with  a  little 
Bismarck  brown. 

HARMONY  AND  CONTRAST  IN  COLORS. — White  contrasts  with 
black  and  harmonizes  with  gray. 


PAINTING.  410 

White  contrasts  with  brown  and  harmonizes  with  buff. 

White  contrasts  with  blue  and  harmonizes  with  sky-blue. 

White  contrasts  with  purple  and  harmonizes  with  rose. 

White  contrasts  with  green  and  harmonizes  with  pea-green. 

Cold  greens  contrast  with  crimson  and  harmonize  with  olive. 

Cold  greens  contrast  with  purple  and  harmonize  with  citrine. 

Cold  greens  contrast  with  white  and  harmonize  with  blues. 

Cold  greens  contrast  with  pink  and  harmonize  with  brown. 

Cold  greens  contrast  with  gold  and  harmonize  with  black. 

Cold  greens  contrast  with  orange  and  harmonize  with  gray. 

Warm  greens  contrast  with  crimson  and  harmonize  with 
yellow. 

Warm  greens  contrast  with  maroons  and  harmonize  with 
orange. 

Warm  greens  contrast  with  purple  and  harmonize  with  citrine. 

Warm  greens  contrast  with  red  and  harmonize  with  sky-blue. 

Warm  greens  contrast  with  pink  and  harmonize  with  gray. 

Wrarm  greens  contrast  with  white  and  harmonize  with  white. 

Warm  greens  contrast  with  black  and  harmonize  with  brown. 

Warm  greens  contrast  with  lavender  and  harmonize  with  buff. 

Greens  contrast  with  colors  containing  red  .and  harmonize 
with  colors  containing  yellow  or  blue. 

Orange  contrasts  with  purple  and  harmonizes  with  yellow. 

Orange  contrasts  with  blue  and  harmonizes  with  red. 

Orange  contrasts  with  black  and  harmonizes  with  red. 

Orange  contrasts  with  black  and  harmonizes  with  warm 
green. 

Orange  contrasts  with  olive  and  harmonizes  with  warm  brown. 

Orange  contrasts  with  crimson  and  harmonizes  with  white. 

Orange  contrasts  with  gray  and  harmonizes  with  buff. 

Orange  requires  blue,  black,  purple,  or  dark  colors  for  con- 
trasts and  warm  colors  for  harmony. 

Citrine  contrasts  with  purple  and  harmonizes  with  yellows. 

Citrine  contrasts  with  blue  and  harmonizes  with  orange. 

Citrine  contrasts  with  black  and  harmonizes  with  white. 

Citrine  contrasts  with  brown  and  harmonizes  with  green. 

Citrine  contrasts  with  crimson  and  harmonizes  with  buff. 

Russet  contrasts  with  green  and  harmonizes  with  red. 

Russet  contrasts  with  black  and  harmonizes  with  yellow. 

Russet  contrasts  with  olive  and  harmonizes  with  orange. 

Russet  contrasts  with  gray  and  harmonizes  with  brown. 

Olive  contrasts  with  orange  and  harmonizes  with  green. 


420  PAINTING. 

Olive  contrasts  with  red  and  harmonizes  with  blue. 

Olive  contrasts  with  white  and  harmonizes  with  black. 

Olive  contrasts  with  maroon  and  harmonizes  with  brown. 

Gold  contrasts  with  any  dark  color,  but  looks  richer  with 
purple,  green,  blue,  black,  and  brown  than  with  the  other 
colors.  It  harmonizes  with  all  light  colors,  but  least  with 
yellow.  The  best  harmony  is  with  white. 

GLASS. — All  glass  is  composed  of  three  chemical  elements, 
viz.,  silica,  soda,  and  some  metallic  oxide.  There  are  three 
varieties  of  glass  used  in  architectural  work,  namely,  crown 
glass,  sheet  glass,  and  plate  glass. 

Crown  glass  is  made  by  dipping  the  end  of  the  blow-pipe 
in  the  melting-pot  and  collecting  a  ball  of  the  molten  glass  on 
the  end  of  the  tube  and  blowing  the  glass  into  a  globe.  This 
globe  is  again  heated  while  it  is  rotated  rapidly  and  spreads 
out  into  a  large  flat,  called  a  "table,"  under  the  influence  of 
the  centrifugal  force  of  rotation.  This  flat  piece  of  glass  is 
then  cut  up  into  panes. 

Sheet  glass  is  made  similarly  to  crown  glass  except  that  the 
glass  as  it  is  blown  is  rolled  on  a  moulding  block,  causing  the 
glass  to  take  the  form  of  a  long  cylinder.  The  ends  of  this  cylin- 
der are  cut  off  and  the  cylinder  split  lengthwise;  the  split 
cylinder  is  then  put  in  the  flattening-kiln,  where  it  is  heated 
and  flattened  out  into  a  flat  sheet  of  glass.  When  cooled  it  is 
cut  into  panes. 

Plate  glass  is  pressed  or  rolled  on  a  table  by  a  large  iron 
roller,  the  glass  is  squeezed  out  before  the  advancing  roller 
and  pressed  into  a  sheet  of  the  desired  size.  The  thickness  of 
the  sheet  is  gauged  by  strips  of  metal  on  each  side  of  the  table. 
The  sheets  after  being  rolled  are  put  into  the  annealing-oven 
for  several  days  and  then  polished  by  grinding  to  an  even 
surface  and  polishing  and  smoothing  with  fine  emery  and  felt 
rubbers. 

The  defects  in  glass  are  very  apparent  and  consist  of  waves, 
air-bubbles,  twists,  sand-specks,  and  patches  of  color. 

Sheet  glass  is  of  various  qualities,  weighing  from  12  to  42 
ounces  per  square  foot.  Every  j^  inch  in  thickness  adds  about 
13  ounces  to  the  weight  per  square  foot.  Glass  is  usually  sold 
by  the  box,  containing  50  square  feet  of  glass  regardless  of  the 
size  of  the  panes;  it  is  sold  in  three  thicknesses  and  grades, 
viz.,  A  A,  A,  and  B,  of  which  AA  is  the  best  and  thickest.  On 
the  Pacific  Coast  it  is  usually  graded  by  weight  as  15-ounce, 


PAINTING. 


421 


21-ounce,  and  26-ounce  glass,  and  which  corresponds  to  the 
AA,  A,  and  B  grades  of  the  Eastern  market. 

The  thickness  of  the  ordinary  window  glass  is  known  as 
single  strength  and  double  strength.  Thus  AA  double  strength 
would  mean  the  best  quality  and  thickness. 

The  finished  plates  of  polished  plate  glass  varies  in  thick- 
ness from  i  to  f  inch. 

GLAZING. — All  glass  should  be  bedded  in  a  layer  of  putty 
spread  in  the  rebate  of  the  sash  and  the  glass  pressed  down 


ROLLS  OF  PAPER  REQUIRED  TO  COVER  THE  WALLS 
OF  A  ROOM. 


Size  of  Room. 

Height  of 
Ceiling. 

Number  of 
Doors. 

Number  of 
Windows. 

Rolls  of 
Paper. 

Yards  of 
Border. 

7X   9  
7X   9  
7X    9  
7X   9  
8X10  
8X10 

8 
9 
10 
12 
8 
g 

1 
1 

1 

6 

7 
8 
10 
7 
8 

11 

11 
11 
11 

12 
12 

8X10  
8X10 

10 
12 

9 
11 

12 
12 

9X11  
9X11    

8 
9 

8 
10 

14 
14 

9X11  

10 

11 

14 

9X11  
10X12 

12 

g 

13 
9 

14 
14 

10X12  
10X12  
10X12  
11X12  
11X12  
11  X12  

9 
10 
12 
8 
9 
10 

1 
1 
2 
2 

2 

1 

1 
1 
2 
2 
2 

10 
11 
13 
8 
9 
10 

15 
15 
15 
16 
16 
16 

11X12  
12X13  

12 
8 

2 
2 

2 
2 

13 
8 

16 
17 

12X13  
12X13 

9 
10 

2 
2 

2 
2 

10 
11 

17 
17 

12X13  

12 

2 

2 

14 

17 

12X15  
12X15.  ^  
12X15  
12X15.      ... 
13X15.      ... 
13X15  
13X15  
13X15  
14X16  
14X16  
14X16  
14X18  
14X18  
14X18 

8 
9 
10 
12 
8 
9 
10 
12 
9 
10 
12 
9 
10 
12 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

10 
11 
12 
15 
10 
11 
13 
16 
12 
14 
17 
13 
15 
19 

18 
18 
18 
18 
19 
19 
19 
19 
20 
20 
20 
22 
22 
22 

15X16  

10 

2 

2 

15 

21 

15X17  

12 

2 

2 

19 

22 

Deduct  one-half  roll  of  paper  for  each  ordinary  door  or  window  extra — 
ze,  4  X  7  feet. 
A  double  roll  of  wall-paper  contains  about  72  square  feet. 


422  CAST  IRON. 

into  this  bed  so  as  to  lay  solid;  it  should  then  be  secured  with  a 
sufficient  number  of  points  or  "sprigs"  and  then  "front  glazed." 
In  glazing  the  sash  care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  the  putty 
on  heavy  enough  to  project  over  the  wood  rebate  and  thus 
show  from  the  inside  of  the  sash.  All  sash  should  have  a  coat 
of  paint  or  oil  before  being  glazed,  so  the  putty  will  take  hold 
of  the  wood. 

PAPER-HANGING. — To  prepare  the  walls,  make  a  size  of 
glue  and  water,  then  give  the  walls  a  coat  of  a  very  weak  solu- 
tion of  the  same.  To  make  a  paste,  take  2  pounds  of  fine  flour, 
put  in  a  pail,  add  cold  water,  and  stir  it  up  together  in  a  thick 
paste.  Take  a  piece  of  alum  about  the  size  of  a  small  chestnut, 
pound  it  fine  and  throw  it  into  the  paste;  mix  well.  Then 
take  about  6  quarts  of  boiling  water  and  mix  with  the  paste 
while  hot  until  the  whole  is  brought  to  a  proper  consistency. 
This  makes  an  excellent  paste,  and  is  fit  for  use  when  cold. 

The  table  on  page  421  shows  how  many  single  rolls  of  wall- 
paper are  required  to  cover  the  walls  of  a  room  of  the  dimen- 
sions indicated  by  the  figures  in  the  left-hand  column,  also  the 
number  of  yards  of  border  required. 

Cast  Iron. — Cast  iron  is  the  remelted  pig  iron  run  in 
moulds  of  the  desired  shape.  A  cast-iron  casting  should  show 
a  smooth  clean  surface  and  have  all  angles  run  true  and  sharp. 
There  should  be  no  "blow"  or  "sand"  holes. 

Cast  iron  when  broken  should  show  a  close-grained  texture, 
and  the  fracture  should  have  a  light-bluish  color.  The  iron 
should  be  soft  enough  so  it  can  be  dented  by  a  blow  of  a  hammer 
on  a  corner  without  breaking  off  pieces. 

The  superintendent  should  examine  all  cast  iron  closely,  as 
very  often  "blow"  or  "  sand"  holes  are  stopped  up  with  putty. 

A  casting  when  struck  with  a  hammer  should  give  a  clear 
ring ;  if  it  gives  a  dull  sound  it  indicates  a  crack  or  holes  stopped 
up. 

Cast-iron  columns  should  be  examined  as  to  the  thickness  of 
the  metal,  for  if  the  core  in  casting  has  been  placed  a  little  out 
of  centre  then  the  column  will  have  thick  iron  on  one  side  and 
thin  iron  on  the  other. 

Cast-iron  pipes  should  be  tapped  with  a  hammer  to  sound  for 
cracks,  "blow"  or  "sand"  holes,  and  also  examined  to  see  if 
they  are  of  the  required  thickness,  and  that  the  bead  and  hub 
are  well  formed. 


CAST  IRON.  423 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  STRUCTURAL  CAST  IRON. 

STRUCTURAL  CAST  IRON.  —  Except  when  chilled  iron  is 
specified,  all  castings  shall  be  tough  gray  iron,  free  from  injurious 
cold-shuts  or  blow-holes,  true  to  pattern,  and  of  a  workmanlike 
finish.  Sample  pieces  1  inch  square,  cast  from  the  same  heat 
of  metal  in  sand  moulds,  shall  be  capable  of  sustaining  on  a 
clear  span  of  4  feet  8  inches  a  central  load  of  500  pounds  when 
tested  in  the  rough  bar. 

DATA  REGARDING  CAST  IRON. — Specific  gravity,  7.10  to  7.50. 

Weight  per  cubic  foot,  450  pounds. 

Ultimate  strength:  Tensile,  13,000  to  29,000  pounds  per 
square  inch;  compressive,  85,000  to  125,000  pounds  per  square 
inch;  shearing,  25,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  torsion,  8600 
pounds  per  square  inch;  transverse,  500  to  4000  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

Working  strength:  Tensile,  3000  pounds  per  square  inch; 
compressive,  80,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  transverse,  600 
pounds  per  square  inch;  shearing,  6000  pounds  per  square  inch; 
torsion,  5000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Shrinkage,  |-  inch  per  foot. 

Melting-point,  2000°  F. 

MALLEABLE  CAST  IRON. — Malleable  cast  iron  is  cast  iron 
which  has  been  deprived  of  some  of  its  carbon  by  heating  to 
a  red  heat,  together  with  some  chemical  compound  having  a 
strong  affinity  for  carbon,  and  then  allowing  it  to  cool  slowly. 
Such  castings  are  not  as  brittle  as  the  ordinary  cast  iron. 

STRENGTH  OF  MALLEABLE  CAST  IRON. 

Tensile 25,000  to  50,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Elongation 1  to  2  per  cent  in  4  inches. 

Elastic  limit 15,000  to  21,000. 

The  same  care  should  be  taken  in  examining  malleable  cast- 
iron  castings  as  with  the  ordinary  cast  iron. 

The  use  of  cast  or  malleable  iron  for  structural  purposes 
should  be  confined  to  those  parts  or  members  which  only  will 
have  to  withstand  a  compressive  strain. 

The  following  tables,  on  pages  424  and  425,  gives  the  strength 
and  safe  load  for  cast-iron  columns. 


424 


CAST  IKON. 


ULTIMATE    STRENGTH    OF    HOLLOW    ROUND    AND    HOLLOW 
RECTANGULAR   CAST-IRON   COLUMNS. 

Ultimate  strength  in  pounds  per  square  inch: 


ROUND  COLUMNS.                          RECTANGULAR  COLUMNS. 

Square 
Bearing. 

Pin  and 
Square. 

Pin 
Bearing. 

Square 
Bearing. 

Pin  and 
Square. 

Pin 

Bearing. 

80000 

80000 

80000 

80000 

80000 

80000 

,  ,  d202 

,   ,  3(12/)2 

14_U2/)2 

t  ,  3(12/)2 

,  ,  9C12Z)2 

,  t  3(1202 

length  of  column  in  feet; 

external  diameter  or  least  side  of  rectangle  in  inches. 


I 

d 

Round  Columns. 
Ultimate  Strength  in  Pounds 
per  Square  Inch. 

Rectangular  Columns. 
Ultimate  Strength  in  Pounds 
per  Square  Inch. 

Square 
Bearing. 

Pin  and 
Square. 

Pin 
Bearing. 

Square 
Bearing. 

Pin  and 
Square. 

Pin 
Bearing. 

.0 

.1 

.2 

67800 
65690 
63530 

62990 
60300 
57600 

58820 
55730 
52690 

70480 
68790 
67000 

66520 
64260 
61940 

62990 
60300 
57600 

.3 
.4 
.5 

61340 
59140 
56940 

54930 
52310 
49770 

49740 
46900 
44200 

65140 
63260 
61350 

59600 
57270 
54960 

54960 
52320 
49760 

.6 
.7 
.8 

54760 
52620 
50530 

47300 
44940 
42670 

41630 
39210 
36930 

59450 
57550 
55670 

52680 
50460 
48300 

47300 
44960 
42670 

1.9 
2.0 
2.1 

48490 
46510 
44600 

40510 
38460 
36520 

34790 
32790 
30920 

53800 
51940 
50160 

46230 
44200 
42260 

40510 
38460 
36520 

2.2 
2.3 

2.4 

42750 
40980 
39280 

34680 
32940 
31310 

29180 
27540 
26030 

48400 
46670 
44990 

40400 
38630 
36930 

34680 
32950 
31310 

2.5 

2.6 

2.7 

37650 
36090 
34600 

29770 
28320 
26950 

24620 
23300 
22070 

43390 
41820 
40320 

35310 
33770 
32310 

29760 
28320 
26950 

2.8 
2.9 
3.0 

33180 
31820 
30530 

25670 
24460 
23320 

20930 
19860 
18870 

38870 
37470 
36120 

30920 
29600 
28340 

25670 
24460 
23320 

3.1 
3.2 
3.3 

29310 
28140 
27030 

22250 
21250 
20300 

17940 
17070 
16260 

34830 
33580 
32390 

27150 
26030 
24960 

22250 
21250 
20300 

3.4 

25970 

19410 

15500 

31240 

23940 

19410 

CAST  IRON. 


425 


SAFE    LOADS   IN    TONS    OF    2000    LBS.    FOR    HOLLOW    ROUND 
CAST-IRON    COLUMNS. 


ide  Diam-  | 
%  Inches.  | 

*o 

i 

o>    • 

£"s 

Length  of  Columns  in  Feet. 

onal  Area, 
hes.  | 

•a'fcS 

13  "° 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

_£  53 

i! 

|l 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

•5  t> 
«  c 

«r 

I"82 

6 

i 

26.2 

23.0 

20.1 

17.5      15.2 

13.2 

11.5 

8.6 

26.95 

6 

J 

37.5 

33.0 

28.8 

25  0      21.7 

18.9 

16.5 

12.4 

38.59 

6 

I 

42.7 

37.6 

32.8 

28.5      24.7 

21.5 

18.8 

14.1 

43*96 

6 

1 

47.6 

41.9 

36.5 

31.8      27.6 

24  0 

21  0 

15  7 

49  01 

6 

li 

52.2 

4(5.0 

40.1 

34.8 

30.2 

26.3 

23.0 





17.2 

53J6 

7 

i 

47.7 

43.1 

38.5 

34.3 

30.4 

26.9 

23.9 

21.2 

18.9 

14.7 

45.96 

7 

1 

61.1 

55.2 

49.3 

43.8 

38.9 

34.4 

30.6 

27.1 

24.2 

18.9 

58.90 

7 

67.2 

60.8 

54.3 

48.3 

42.8 

37.9 

33.7 

29.9 

26.7 

20.8 

64.77 

8 

i 

57.9 

53.3 

48.6 

44.1 

39.7 

35.8 

32.2 

28.9 

26.1 

17.1 

53.29 

8 

1 

74.6 

68.7 

62.5 

56.7 

51.1 

46.0 

41.4 

37.3 

33.6 

22.0 

68.64 

8 

li 

89.9 

82.8 

75.5 

68.4 

61.7 

55.5 

49.9 

44.9 

40.5 

26.5 

82.71 

9 

i 

68.1 

63.6 

58.9 

54.2 

49.6 

45.2 

41.2 

37.5 

34.1 

19.4 

60.65 

9 

1 

88.0 

82.3 

76.2 

70.0 

64.1 

58.4 

53.2 

48.4 

44.1 

25.1 

78.40 

9 

li 

106.6 

99.6 

92.2 

84.8 

77.6 

70.8 

64.4 

58.7 

53.4 

30.4 

94.94 

9 

li 

123.8 

115.7 

107.1 

98.5 

90.1 

82.2 

74.8 

68.1 

62.0 

35.3 

110.26 

9 

li 

139.6 

130.5 

120.8 

111.1 

101.6 

92.7 

84.4 

76.8 

69.9 

39.9 

124.36 

10 

1 

101.4 

95.9 

89.8 

83.6 

77.4 

71.5 

65.8 

60.5 

55.5 

28.3 

88.23 

10 

11 

123.3 

116.5 

109.1 

101.6 

94.1 

86.8 

79.9 

73.4 

67.5 

34.4 

107.23 

10 

li 

143.7    135.8 

127.3 

118.5 

109.7 

101.2 

93.2 

85.6 

78.7 

40.1 

124.99 

10 

li 

162.7 

153.8 

144.1 

134.1 

124.2 

114.6 

105.5 

97.0 

89.1 

45.4 

141.65 

11 

1 

114.8 

109.4 

103.5 

97.3 

91.0 

84.8 

80.2 

73.1 

67.7 

31.4 

98.03 

11 

11 

139.9    133.3 

126.1 

118.6 

110.9 

103.3 

97.8 

89.4 

82.5 

38.3 

119.46 

11 

U 

163.5    155.9 

147.5 

138.6 

128.7 

120.8 

114.3 

104.1 

96.4 

44.8 

139.68 

11 

185.7    177.1 

167.5 

157.5 

147.3 

137.2 

129.8 

118.3 

109.5 

50.9 

158.68 

11 

2 

206.6 

196.9 

186.3 

175.1 

163.8 

152.6 

144.4 

131.5 

121.8 

56.6 

176.44 

12 

1 

128.0 

122.9 

117.2 

111.0 

104.7 

98.4 

92.2 

86.1 

80.4 

34.6 

107.51 

12 

156.4;  150.1 

143.1 

135.7 

127.9 

120.2 

112.6 

105.2 

98.2 

42.2 

131.41 

12 

183.3    175.9 

167.7 

159.0 

149.9 

140.9 

132.0 

123.3 

115.1 

49.5 

154.10 

12 

208.7    200.4 

191.0 

181.1 

170.7 

160.4 

150.3 

140.5 

131.1 

56.4 

175.53 

12 

2 

232.7 

223.4 

213.0 

201.9 

190.4 

178.9 

167.6 

156.6 

146.1 

62.8 

195.75 

13 

1 

141.2 

136.3 

130.7 

124.7 

118.5 

112.1 

105.8 

99.5 

93.5 

37.7 

117.53 

13 

172.8    166.8 

160.0 

152.7 

145.0 

137.2 

129.4 

121.8 

114.4 

46.1 

143.86 

13 

203.0    195.9 

187.9 

179.3 

170.3 

161.1 

152.0 

143.1 

134.3 

54.2 

168.98 

13 

231.6    223.6 

214.5 

204.7 

194.4 

183.9 

173.5 

163.3 

153.3 

61.9 

192.88 

13 

2 

258.9 

249.9 

239.7 

228.7 

217.3 

205.5 

193.9 

182.5 

171.3 

69.1 

215.56 

14 

1 

154.3 

149.6 

144.3 

138.5 

132.3 

125.9 

119.5 

113.1 

106.8 

40.8 

127.60 

14 

H 

189.2 

183.4 

176.9 

169.7 

162.2 

154.4 

146.5 

138.6 

131.0 

50.1 

156.31 

14 

li 

222.6 

215.8 

208.1 

199.7 

190.8 

181.7 

172.3 

163.1 

154.1 

58.9 

183.67 

14 

li 

254.4 

246.7 

237.9 

228.3 

218.1 

207.6 

197.0 

186.5 

176.2 

67.4 

210.00 

14 

2 

284.8 

276.2 

266.4 

255.6 

244.2 

232.4 

220.6 

208.8 

197.2 

75.4 

235.12 

15 

1 

167.4 

162.9 

157.8 

152.1 

146.0 

139.7 

133.3 

126.8 

120.4 

44.0 

137.28 

15 

11 

205.5 

200.0 

193.7 

186.7 

179.3    171.5 

163.6 

155.7 

147.9 

54.0 

168.48 

15 

li 

242.1 

235.7 

228.2 

220.0 

211.21  202.1 

192.8 

183.5 

174.2 

63.6 

198.74 

15 

if 

277.2 

269.8 

2(51.3 

251.9 

241.9 

231.4 

220.7 

210.1 

199.5 

72.9 

227.45 

15 

2 

310.8 

302.5 

293.0 

282.5 

271.2 

259.5 

247.5 

235.5 

223.6 

81.7 

254.90 

If  all  cast-iron  or  other  hollow  columns  are  filled  with  concrete  after 
being  set  it  adds  to  their  strength  and  affords  protection  from  rust  and 
fire. 


426  STRUCTURAL  IRON  AND  STEEL. 

Wrought  Iron. — Wrought  iron,  when  perfect,  is  simply 
pure  iron;  wrought  iron  has  the  advantage  over  other  iron 
in  that  it  can  be  welded  when  heated  to  nearly  a  white  heat 

Good  iron  should  be  soft  and  tough,  and  when  broken  should 
show  small  crystals  of  a  uniform  size  and  color,  and  fine  silky 
fibres,  or  if  broken  gradually  should  show  long  silky  fibres  of 
a  gray-bluish  color. 

Good  iron  should  bend  cold  180°  degrees  around  a  circle  whose 
diameter  is  twice  the  thickness  of  the  piece,  for  bar  iron,  and 
three  times  the  thickness  for  plates. 

DATA  ON  WROUGHT  IRON. 

Specific  gravity  7.79. 

Weight  per  cubic  foot  480  to  485  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Melting-point  2734°  to  3000°  Fahr. 

Ultimate  tensile  strength  30,000  to  70,000  pounds. 

Ultimate  compressive  strength  40,000  to  125,000  pounds. 

Ultimate  shearing  strength  40,000  pounds. 

Working  strength,  tensile,  10,000  to  15,000  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

Working  strength,  compressive,  36,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Working  strength,  shearing,  6000  to  9000  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

Structural  Iron  and  Steel. — Steel  is  a  compound  of 
iron  with  from  .01  to  1.5  per  cent  of  carbon.  It  also  contains 
minute  quantities  of  silicon,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  etc.  The 
process  of  making  steel  may  be  classed  under  two  heads: 
by  adding  carbon  to  wrought  iron,  and  by  abstracting  carbon 
from  cast  iron.  The  former  is  used  for  making  tool  steel  and 
the  latter  for  making  large  masses  of  steel  for  ordinary  uses. 

Good  soft  steel  should  bend  cold  through  180°,  and  close  down 
flat  upon  itself  without  cracking. 

A  simple  test  for  iron  or  steel  is  to  take  a  small  sample,  file 
it  smooth  on  all  sides,  and  place  it  in  dilute  nitric  or  sulphuric 
acid  for  about  twelve  hours,  then  wash  and  dry  it.  The  action 
of  the  acid  will  show  the  structure  of  the  material,  from  which 
its  quality  can  be  judged. 

The  best  steel  will  show  a  frosty  appearance;  ordinary  steel, 
honeycombed;  the  best  iron  will  show  fine  fibres,  while  if  the 
composition  or  structure  of  the  iron  is  uneven,  the  acid  will 
reveal  it. 


STRUCTURAL  IRON  AND  STEEL.  427 

All  structural  steel  or  iron  work  should  be  inspected  at  the 
shops,  just  before  being  riveted  together,  and  again  after  the 
work  is  finished  and  ready  for  painting. 

When  inspecting  the  work  at  the  shop  notice  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  all  members,  beams,  etc.,  are  perfectly  straight, 
and  that  all  are  of  the  dimensions  called  for  by  the  drawings. 
The  superintendent,  or  inspector,  should  examine  each  piece 
as  to  dimensions,  locations  of  rivets,  bolt-holes,  etc.,  and  see 
that  they  are  all  located  correctly.  He  should  see  that  the 
holes  for  riveting  are  of  the  correct  size  and  that  when  the 
work  is  put  together  the  holes  come  directly  opposite  each 
other.  As  each  piece  is  inspected  it  should  be  stamped  or 
marked  so  that  when  it  is  received  at  the  work  there  will  be 
an  indication  of  shop  inspection. 

As  the  material  is  delivered  at  the  work,  the  superintendent 
should  examine  it  for  the  shop  inspector's  mark,  and  if  there 
is  any  which  does  not  bear  this  mark,  when  there  has  been  a 
shop  inspection  made,  it  should  be  examined  closely  for  defects. 

The  superintendent  should  see  that  the  work  has  been  prop- 
erly painted,  and  if  not,  have  a  coat  of  paint  put  on  as  soon  as 
possible.  He  should  also  see  that  all  columns  or  other  mem- 
bers have  been  faced  off  as  required  by  the  specifications. 

In  erecting  the  work  all  columns,  etc.,  should  be  started 
level,  so  they  will  be  carried  level  throughout  the  structure. 

As  the  work  is  put  together,  he  should  see  that  all  holes  for 
bolts  or  rivets  come  opposite,  and  should  not  allow  the  drift- 
pin  to  be  used  except  for  drawing  the  work  together.  If  the 
bolt  or  rivet  will  not  enter  he  should  have  the  hole  reamed 
out  and  a  larger  bolt  or  rivet  used. 

Where  bolts  are  used  in  any  of  the  flanges  of  the  members 
bevelled  washers  should  be  used  on  the  bevelled  flange. 

As  soon  as  the  work  is  put  together  he  should  see  that  it 
receives  a  coat  of  paint  at  once,  and  have  any  rust  which  may 
appear  scraped  off. 

The  following,  by  C.  J.  Tilden,  Assoc.  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E., 
Assistant  Engineer  New  York  Rapid  Transit  Commission, 
242  St.  Nicholas  Ave.,  New  York  City,  is  very  instructive  in 
regard  to  riveting,  etc. 

RIVETS  IN  STRUCTURAL  STEEL  WORK.*  —  A  theoretically 
perfect  rivet  should  fill  the  hole  completely,  be  of  homogeneous 
material  throughout,  and  have  two  well-formed  heads.  The 

*  Condensed  from  an  article  in  the  Harvard  Engineering  Journal, 


428  STRUCTURAL  IRON   AND  STEEL. 

strength  of  a  riveted  joint  depends,  theoretically,  on  but  two 
considerations :  first,  the  shearing  strength  of  the  rivet  material, 
usually  soft  steel;  and,  second,  the  number  of  rivets  used. 
When  comparatively  thin  plates  are  joined  by  rivets  of  large 
diameter,  it  may  happen  that  the  resistance  of  the  metal  to 
crushing  is  less  than  the  shearing  strength  of  one  rivet;  in  which 
case  the  crushing  or  "bearing"  value  of  the  metal  determines 
the  value  to  be  given  to  each  rivet  in  calculating  the  strength 
of  the  joint.  The  question  then  arises  with  what  degree  of 
safety  may  the  designing  engineer  accept  these  theoretical 
assumptions,  and  how  are  they  borne  out  by  the  conditions 
which  occur  in  shop  practice? 

In  the  first  place,  the  material  of  a  rivet  is  not  homogeneous 
In  a  large  majority  of  cases  it  is  probable  that  test-pieces 
taken  from  different  parts  of  a  rivet  after  driving,  assuming 
that  such  small  pieces  could  be  properly  tested,  would  show 
widely  different  characteristics,  and  these  totally  different  from 
similar  tests  of  the  same  rivet  before  driving.  A  very  good 
idea  of  the  great  difference  in  quality  of  rivet  material  after 
driving  may  be  gained  by  watching  for  a  few  hours  a  shop- 
gang  engaged  in  cutting  out  rivets  which  have  been  condemned 
by  the  inspector.  Sometimes  the  metal  is  hard,  tough,  and 
fibrous;  then  again  nearly  as  soft,  to  all  appearances,  as  lead 
or  pewter;  and  occasionally  the  rivet-head  will  fly  off  at  the 
first  blow  of  the  hammer,  apparently  almost  as  hard  and  brittle 
as  glass. 

A  second  noteworthy  discrepancy  in  the  design  of  riveted 
joints  is  the  failure  to  take  account  of  the  action  of  the  rivet- 
heads  in  bringing  the  two  or  more  surfaces  into  very  close 
contact,  so  that  a  large  amount  of  friction  is  developed.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  this  friction  may  amount  to  more  than  the 
shearing  strength  of  the  rivet.  In  any  event  it  is  a  very  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  strength  of  a  riveted  joint. 

In  the  diagram,  Fig.  240,  are  shown  some  of  the  more  frequent 
imperfections  in  rivet-work,  resulting  from  carelessness  of  the 
workmen.  At  a,  for  comparison,  is  sketched  a  perfectly  driven 
rivet.  The  original  form  is  shown  dotted,  the  " shank"  being 
3^  or  ^  of  an  inch  less  in  diameter  than  the  hole  which  it  is  to 
fill,  and  enough  longer  than  the  "grip"  or  length  between  heads, 
to  allow  the  formation  of  the  new  head,  and  the  squeezing 
out  of  the  rivet  material  sufficiently  to  fill  the  hole  completely 
Both  heads  should  be  concentric  with  the  shank,  and  the  rivet 


STRUCTURAL  IRON  AND  STEEL.  429 

should  be  perfecly  tight,  giving  a  clear,  sharp  ring  when  struck 
with  a  light  hammer. 

At  b  is  shown  a  loose  rivet  which  has  been  "calked,"  with  a 
cold-chisel,  to  make  it  appear  tight  under  the  inspector's  hammer 
— a  favorite  trick  of  careless  riveting-gangs,  and  often  very 
difficult  to  detect;  if  suspected,  a  close  examination  should  be 
made  of  the  head  of  the  rivet  for  signs  of  the  calking-tool,  espe- 
cially if  the  rivet  has  been  generously  bespattered  with  fresh 
paint  or  tobacco- juice.  Both  these  commodities,  always  plen- 
tiful in  the  shop,  are  favorite  means  of  concealment  for 
"scamped"  work  of  this  character.  A  result  very  similar  to 
calking,  but  much  harder  to  discover,  is  sometimes  secured  by 
using  the  riveting-machine,  or  "bull"  as  it  is  familiarly  known 
to  the  shop  men,  on  the  cold  rivet.  The  movable  cup  of  the 
'bull"  is  brought  sharply  against  the  rivet-head,  securing  some- 
what the  effect  of  a  blow,  and  this  is  repeated  four  or  five  times 
on  each  loose  rivet.  In  general,  this  machine-calking  is  not  very 
effective,  but  the  writer  has  known  instances  where  it  has  been 
successful.  It  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  tell  from  the  appear- 
ance of  the  rivet-head  afterwards  if  this  trick  has  been  attempted. 
A  very  slight  polish  on  the  head  of  the  rivet  is  about  all  the 
evidence  that  ever  appears,  and  this  is  readily  hidden  by  a  dab 
of  grease  or  dirt,  or  the  ever-ready  tobacco-juice.  It  is  a  form 
of  "scamping"  that  is  seldom  resorted  to,  however,  as  it  is  more 


FIG.  240.  FIG.  241. 

work  than  calking  with  the  cold-chisel,  and  far  less  likely  to 
accomplish  its  purpose. 

The  sketch,  6,  also  shows  the  probable  result  of  heating  the 
rivet  unevenly.  Where  the  heating  is  done  in  an  ordinary 
portable  forge,  fired  with  coke,  the  forge-tender  gets  into  the 
habit  of  heating  only  that  part  of  the  rivet  which  is  to  be  upset 
to  form  the  head,  leaving  the  remainder  comparatively  cool. 
Referring  to  Fig.  241,  for  example,  from  the  lower  end  of  the 
rivet  to,  perhaps,  the  point  x,  the  metal  is  at  white  heat;  above 
that  it  cools  rapidly  until  the  head  is  practically  "cold,"  often 


430  STRUCTURAL  IRON  AND   STEEL. 

not  even  a  dull-red  color.  This  uneven  heating  not  only  pre- 
vents the  rivet  from  upsetting  throughout  its  length,  and  so 
filling  the  hole,  but  is  apt  to  injure  the  quality  of  the  meta] 
above  the  point  x,  owing  to  its  being  worked  under  the  ham- 
mer at  too  low  a  temperature. 

Careless  manipulation  of  the  riveting-machine  may  result 
in  the  condition  shown  at  c,  where  the  head  is  not  concentric 
with  the  shank  The  fault  can  be  detected  only  by  comparison 
with  the  other  rivets  in  the  joint,  showing  uneven  spacing 
and  irregular  lines. 

The  condition  shown  at  d  results  from  too  much  metal  in 
the  shank  of  the  rivet  before  driving,  giving  a  "  soldier-cap " 
head.  The  reverse  of  this  is  shown  at  e. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  these  defects  are  the  only 
ones  which  occur  in  rivet-work;  they  are  only  a  few  of  the 
more  frequent  errors  of  this  kind  that  may  be  observed  in  any 
shop.  Combinations  of  two  or  more  of  the  forms  shown  occur 
not  infrequently,  and  an  almost  endless  variety  of  changes 
mav  be  rung  on  each  one.  Of  the  four  types,  b  and  e  should 
be  condemned  unquestionably  whenever  found,  being  not  only 
bad  workmanship,  but  unreliable;  c  and  d  probably  develop 
the  full  strength  of  the  rivet,  and  may  be  allowed  to  pass  if 
strength  is  the  only  consideration;  but  if  the  work  is  to  be 
exposed  they  should  be  cut  out  and  replaced,  as  they  are  sure 
to  look  ragged  in  finished  work. 

As  to  the  actual  difference  in  strength  between  a  perfect 
rivet,  as  a,  and  any  of  the  imperfect  ones,  it  is  impossible  to 
judge  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  In  fact,  if  a  test  were 
made  it  is  quite  conceivable  that  a  rivet  such  as  b,  or  even  ef 
might  develop  greater  strength  than  a.  About  all  that  can 
be  said  is  that  this  is  not  likely  to  happen,  but  rather  the  reverse, 
as  a  properly  driven  rivet  is  more  likely  to  develop  its  full 
strength  than  one  which  is  imperfect  in  any  way.  But  this  is 
not  reducing  the  question  to  any  scientific  basis,  and,  indeed, 
it  cannot  be  so  reduced.  Rigid  specifications  are  required 
for  riveted  work,  and  the  work  iij  the  shop  is  subjected  to  the 
most  careful  inspection,  not  because  a  carelessly  driven  rivet 
is  less  strong,  by  any  definitely  calculable  percentage,  than 
one  which  is  properly  driven,  but  for  the  simple  reason  that 
careful  and  accurate  work  is  more  reliable. 

The  nearest  approach  to  a  theoretically  perfect  rivet  is  prob- 
ably the  turned  bolt  which  is  occasionally  used  for  field  con- 


STRUCTURAL  IRON   AND  STEEL.  431 

nections.  In  such  cases  it  is  the  practice  of  some  engineers 
to  require  the  holes  to  be  drilled  instead  of  punched,  or  "sub- 
punched  and  reamed" — that  is,  punched  to  a  diameter  about 
J  inch  less  than  that  of  the  bolt  to  be  used  and  reamed  to  proper 
size.  The  bolt  is  turned  to  a  driving  fit,  and  the  threaded 
part  is  of  slightly  reduced  diameter,  the  shoulder,  s,  protecting 
the  thread  while  the  bolt  is  driven  home.  To  keep  the  nut 
in  place  after  it  is  screwed  up  tight,  the  projecting  threaded 
end  of  the  bolt  is  upset  against  the  nut.  In  spite  of  the  reli- 
ability of  this  connection,  however,  its  high  cost  precludes  its 
general  use. 

Fig.  241  shows  a  form  of  rivet  which  Has  certain  advantages 
and  disadvantages  over  the  ordinary  shape.  In  this  form  the 
shank  is  slightly  increased  in  diameter  (exaggerated  in  the  draw- 
ing) for  a  distance  of  \  to  f  inch  from  the  head.  Directly  under 
the  head,  at  the  base  of  the  cone-like  enlargement,  the  shank 
has  the  same  diameter  as  the  hole  into  which  the  rivet  is  to  go — 
that  is,  from  T&  to  ^  inch  larger  than  the  main  part  of  the 
shank.  This  is  an  advantage  in  the  shop,  where  the  rivet  is 
sure  to  be  uniformly  heated  throughout  its  length,  as  it  insures 
the  complete  filling  of  the  hole  up  to  the  rivet-head.  In  the 
field,  however,  where  the  rivets  are  likely  to  be  unevenly  heated, 
such  a  design  would  be  of  doubtful  advantage.  A  rivet  of 
this  shape  might  easily  appear  sound  and  tight  under  the  inspect- 
or's hammer,  and  yet  have  been  very  imperfectly  driven. 

TABLES  ON  RIVETS. — On  pages  432  and  433  are  given  tables 
on  the  shearing  and  bearing  value  of  rivets. 

EXPLANATION  OF  TABLES. — Intransmitting  stresses  by  means 
of  rivets,  it  is  customary  to  disregard  the  friction  between 
the  parts  joined  as  too  uncertain  an  element  to  be  relied 
upon  to  any  extent.  The  rivets  must  then  be  proportioned 
for  the  entire  stress  which  is  to  be  transmitted  from  one  plate 
or  group  of  plates  to  the  other,  and  they  must  be  of  sufficient 
size  and  number  to  present  ample  resistance  to  shearing  and 
afford  sufficient  bearing  area  so  as  not  to  cause  a  crushing 
of  the  metal  at  the  rivet-holes.  This  latter  condition,  while 
generally  observed  for  pins,  is  very  often  entirely  overlooked  in 
riveted  work.  Its  observance,  in  most  cases  of  riveted  girders 
with  single  webs,  determines  the  size  and  number  of  rivets  to  be 
used  and  frequently  makes  it  necessary  to  adopt  a  greater 
thickness  of  web  than  would  otherwise  be  required.  Thus,  if 
the  web  is  ^  inch  thick,  the  rivets  connecting  the  same  with 


432 


STRUCTURAL  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


SHEARING   AND    BEARING   VALUE   OF   RIVETS. 
(All  Dimensions  in  Inches.) 


Diameter  of  Rivet. 

Area  in 
Square 
Inches. 

Single 
Shear 
at  6000 
Lbs. 

Bearing  Value  for 

Inches. 

Fraction. 

Decimal. 

i 

& 

I 

& 

f 
* 

4 
i 
i 

l 

.375 
.500 
.625 
.750 
.875 
1.000 

.1104 
.1963 
.3063 
.4418 
.6013 
.7854 

660 
1180 
1840 
2650 
3610 
4710 

1130 
1500 
1880 

1410 

1690 

2630 
3280 
3940 
4590  , 
5250  ' 

1880 
2340 
2810 

2250 
2810 
3380 
3940 

2250 
2630 
3000 

3280 
3750 

4500 

Diameter  of  Rivet. 

Area  in 
Square 
Inches. 

Single 
Shear 
at  7500 
Lbs. 

Bearing  Value  for 

Inches. 

Fraction. 

Decimal. 

i 

A 

i 

A 

I 
* 
f 
i 

i 

1 

.375 
.500 
.625 
.750 
.875 
1.000 

.1104 
.  1963 
.3068 
.4418 
.6013 
.7854 

830 
1470 
2300 
3310 
4510 
5890 

1410 
1880 
2340 

1760 

2110 

3280 
4100 
4920 
5740 
6560 

2340 
2930 
3520 

2810 
3520 
4220 
4920 

2810 
3280 
3750 

4100 
4690 

5620 

Diameter  of  Rivet. 

Area  in 
Square 
Inches. 

Single 
Shear 
at 
10000 
Lbs. 

Bearing  Value  for 

Inches. 

Fraction. 

Decimal. 

ir 

A 

1 

A 

i 

* 
i 
* 

* 

1 

.375 
.500 
.625 
.750 
.875 
1.000 

.1104 
.1963 
.  3068 
.4418 
.6013 
.7854 

1100 
1960 
3070 
4420 
6010 
7850 

1880 
2500 
3130 

2340 

2810 

4380 
5470 
6560 
7660 
8750 

3130 
3910 
4690 
5470 
6250 

3750 
4690 
5630 
6570 

3750 
4380 
5000 

7500 

Diameter  of  Rivet. 

Area  in 
Square 
Inche^. 

Single 
Shear 
at 
12000 
Lbs. 

Bearing  Value  for 

Inches. 

Fraction. 

Decimal. 

i 

A 

1 

A 

i 
* 
f 
i 
i 
i 

.375 
.500 
.625 
.750 
.875 
1.000 

.1104 
.1963 
.3063 
.4418 
.6013 
.7854 

1320 
2360 
3680 
5300 
7220 
9430 

2350 
3130 
3910 

2930 

3520 

5470 

8210 
9580 
10940 

3910 
4880 
5860 

4690 
5860 
7030 
8210 

4690 
5470 
6250 

6840 
7820 

9380 

In  above  tables  all  bearing  values  above  or  to  right  of  upper  zie/ag  lines 
are  greater  than  double  shear.  Values  between  upper  and  lower  zigzag 
lines  are  less  than  double  and  greater  than  single  shear. 


STRUCTURAL  IRON  AND   STEEL. 


433 


SHEARING  AND   BEARING   VALUE  OF   RIVETS. 
(All  Dimensions  in  Inches.) 

Different  Thicknesses  of  Plate  in  Inches  at  12,000  Lbs.  per  Square  Inch. 


* 

A 

1 

ft 

f 

if 

i 

ri 

1 

3000 

3750 

4220 

4690 

4500 

5060 

5630 

6190 

6750 

.... 

5250 

5910 

6560 

7220 

7880 

8530 

9190 

9840 

6000 

6750 

7500 

8250 

9000 

9750 

10500 

11250 

12000 

Different  Thicknesses  of  Plate  in  Inches  at  15,000  Lbs.  per  Square  Inch. 


* 

A 

f 

ft 

* 

H 

I 

«! 

1 

3750 

4690 

5280 

5860 

5630 

6330 

7030 

7720 

8440 

6560 

7380 

8200 

9030 

9850 

10670 

11480 

12300 

.... 

7500 

8440 

9380 

10310 

11250 

12190 

13130 

14060 

15000 

Different  Thicknesses  of  Plate  in  Inches  at  20,000  Lbs.  ber  Square  Inch. 


* 

A 

* 

g 

* 

« 

J 

H 

1 

5000 

6250 

7030 

7810 

7500 

8440 

9380 

10310 

11250 

.... 

8750 

9840 

10940 

12030 

13130 

14220 

15310 

16410 

10000 

11250 

12500 

13750 

15000 

16250 

17500 

18750 

20000 

Different  Thicknesses  of  Plate  in  Inches  at  25,000  Lbs.  per  Square  Inch. 


* 

A 

1 

H 

f 

tt 

{ 

H 

1 

6250 

7810 

8790 

9770 

9380 

10550 

11720 

12890 

14060 

10940 

12310 

13670 

15040 

16410 

17770 

19140 

20510 

.... 

12500 

14060 

15630 

17190 

18750 

20320 

21880 

23440 

25000 

Values  below  and  to  left  of  lower  zigzag  lines  are  less  than  single  shear. 


STRUCTURAL  IRON  AND  STEEL. 

the  flange  angles  have  a  bearing  value  of  only  3520  pounds 
for  a  f-inch  rivet,  while  their  shearing  value  is  =2X3310  =  6620 
pounds  per  rivet,  the  rivets  being  in  double  shear.  Conse- 
quently, while  the  usual  thickness  of  web  of  floor-beams  for 
railway  bridges  is  f  inch,  it  sometimes  becomes  necessary  for 
shallow  floor-beams  to  increase  this  thickness  to  §  inch  and 
even  f  inch,  in  order  that  the  pressure  of  the  rivets  upon  the 
semi-intrados  of  the  rivet-holes  be  not  excessive  between  the 
points  of  support  of  floor-beam  and  of  application  of  the  load 

CONVENTIONAL  SIGNS  FO.R  RIVETING 

1 


•«- Shop -*  k Field -** 


Flattened  to  yj 

or  countersunk  and    Flattened  to  M        flattened  to  % 
not  chipped 


0       0 


FIG.  242. 

(in  which  space  the  transmission  of  strain  from  web  to  flanges 
takes  place). 

Fig.  242  shows  the  signs  used  by  draughtsmen  to  designate 
the  shape  and  style  of  rivets  desired  in  the  work. 

The  following  requirements  for  iron  and  steel  construction 
is  taken  from  the  New  York  Building  Code. 

Sec.  21.  STRUCTURAL  MATERIAL. — Wrought  Iron.  —  All 
wrought  iron  shall  be  uniform  in  character,  fibrous,  tough, 
and  ductile.  It  shall  have  an  ultimate  tensile  resistance  of 
not  less  than  48,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  an  elastic  limit  of 
not  less  than  24,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  an  elongation 
of  20  per  cent  in  eight  inches,  when  tested  in  small  specimens. 

Steel. — All  structural  steel  shall  have  an  ultimate  tensile 
strength  of  from  54,000  pounds  to  64,000  pounds  per  square 
inch.  Its  elastic  limit  shall  be  not  less  than  32,000  pounds 
per  square  inch  and  a  minimum  elongation  of  not  less  than 
20  per  cent  in  eight  inches.  Rivet  steel  shall  have  an  ultimate 
strength  of  from  50,000  to  58,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.  435 

Cast  Steel. — Shall  be  made  of  open-hearth  steel,  containing 
one-quarter  to  one-half  per  cent  of  carbon,  not  over  eight 
one-hundredths  of  one  per  cent  of  phosphorus,  and  shall  be 
practically  free  from  blow-holes. 

Cast  Iron. — Shall  be  of  good  foundry  mixture,  producing  a 
clean,  tough,  gray  iron.  Sample  bars,  five  feet  long,  one  inch 
square,  cast  in  sand  moulds,  placed  on  supports  four  feet  six 
inches  apart,  shall  bear  a  central  load  of  450  pounds  before 
breaking.  Castings  shall  be  free  of  serious  blow-holes,  cinder- 
spots,  and  cold-shuts.  Ultimate  tensile  strength  shall  be  not 
less  than  16,000  pounds  per  square  inch  when  tested  in  small 
specimens. 


SPECIFICATIONS   FOR  IRON   AND  STEEL 
CONSTRUCTION. 

Sec.  110.  Skeleton  Construction. — Where  columns  are  used 
to  support  iron  or  steel  girders  carrying  inclosure  walls,  the 
said  columns  shall  be  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  or  rolled 
steel,  and  on  their  exposed  outer  and  inner  surfaces  be  con- 
structed to  resist  fire  by  having  a  casing  of  brickwork  not  less 
than  eight  inches  in  thickness  on  the  outer  surfaces,  nor  less  than 
four  inches  in  thickness  on  the  inner  surfaces,  and  all  bonded 
into  the  brickwork  of  the  inclosure  walls.  The  exposed  sides 
of  the  iron  or  steel  girders  shall  be  similarly  covered  in  with 
brickwork  not  less  than  four  inches  in  thickness  on  the  outer 
surfaces  and  tied  and  bonded,  but  the  extreme  outer  edge  of 
the  flanges  of  beams,  or  plates  or  angles  connected  to  the  beams, 
may  project  to  within  two  inches  of  the  outside  surface  of  the 
brick  casing.  The  inside  surfaces  of  girders  may  be  similarly 
covered  with  brickwork,  or  if  projecting  inside  of  the  wall,  they 
shall  be  protected  by  terra-cotta,  concrete,  or  other  fire-proof 
material.  Girders  for  the  support  of  the  inclosure  walls  shal 
be  placed  at  the  floor  line  of  each  story. 

Sec.  111.  Steel  and  Wrought-iron  Columns. — No  part  of  a  steel 
or  wrought-iron  column  shall  be  less  than  one-quarter  of  an  inch 
thick.  No  wrought-iron  or  rolled-steel  column  shall  have  an 
unsupported  length  of  more  than  forty  times  its  least  lateral 
dimension  or  diameter,  except  as  modified  by  Section  138  of 
this  Code,  and  also  except  in  such  cases  as  the  commissioners 
of  buildings  may  specially  allow  a  greater  unsupported  length. 


436  IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  ends  of  all  columns  shall  be  faced  to  a  plane  surface  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  columns  and  the  connection 
between  them  shall  be  made  with  splice-plates.  The  joint  may 
be  effected  by  rivets  of  sufficient  size  and  number  to  transmit 
the  entire  stress,  and  then  the  splice-plates  shall  be  equal  in 
sectional  area  to  the  area  of  columns  spliced.  When  the  sec- 
tion of  the  columns  to  be  spliced  is  such  that  splice-plates 
cannot  be  used,  a  connection  formed  of  plates  and  angles  may 
be  used,  designed  to  properly  distribute  the  stress.  No  mate- 
rial, whether  in  the  body  of  the  column  or  used  as  lattice-bar 
or  stay-plate,  shall  be  used  in  any  wrought-iron  or  steel  column 
of  less  thickness  than  one- thirty-second  of  its  unsupported 
width  measured  between  centres  of  rivets  transversely,  or  one- 
sixteenth  the  distance  between  centres  of  rivets  in  the  direction 
of  the  stress.  Stay-plates  are  to  have  not  less  than  four  rivets, 
and  are  to  be  spaced  so  that  the  ratio  of  length  by  the  least  radius 
of  gyration  of  the  parts  connected  does  not  exceed  forty;  the 
distance  between  nearest  rivets  of  two  stay-plates  shall  in  this 
case  be  considered  as  length.  Steel  and  wrought-iron  columns 
shall  be  made  in  one,  two,  or  three-story  lengths,  and  the  mate- 
rials shall  be  rolled  in  one  length  wherever  practicable  to  avoid 
intermediate  splices.  Where  any  part  of  the  section  of  a 
column  projects  beyond  that  of  the  column  below,  the  differ- 
ence shall  be  made  up  by  filling  plates  secured  to  column  by 
the  proper  number  of  rivets.  Shoes  of  iron  or  steel,  as  de- 
scribed for  cast-iron  columns,  or  built  shoes  of  plates  and  shapes 
may  be  used,  complying  with  same  requirements. 

Sec.  112.  Cast-iron  Columns. — Cast-iron  columns  shall  not 
have  less  diameter  than  five  inches  or  less  thickness  than  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch;  nor  shall  they  have  an  unsupported  length 
of  more  than  twenty  times  their  least  lateral  dimensions  or 
diameter,  except  as  modified  by  Section  138  of  this  Code,  and 
except  the  same  may  form  part  of  an  elevator  inclosure  or  stair- 
case, and  also  except  in  such  cases  as  the  commissioner  of 
buildings  having  jurisdiction  may  specially  allow  a  greater 
unsupported  length.  All  cast-iron  columns  shall  be  of  good 
workmanship  and  material.  The  top  and  bottom  flanges, 
seats,  and  lugs  shall  be  of  ample  strength,  reinforced  by  fillets 
and  brackets;  they  shall  be  not  less  than  one  inch  in  thickness 
when  finished.  All  columns  must  be  faced  at  the  ends  to  a 
true  surface  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  column  Column 
joints  shall  be  secured  by  not  less  than  four  bolts  each,  not  less 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.  437 

than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  holes  for 
these  bolts  shall  be  drilled  in  a  template.  The  core  of  a  column 
below  a  joint  shall  be  not  larger  than  the  core  of  the  column 
above  and  the  metal  shall  be  tapered  down  for  a  distance  of 
not  less  than  six  inches,  or  a  joint  plate  may  be  inserted  of 
sufficient  strength  to  distribute  the  load.  The  thickness  of 
metal  shall  be  not  less  than  one-twelfth  the  diameter  or  the 
greatest  lateral  dimension  of  cross-section,  but  never  less  than 
three-quarters  of  an  inch.  Wherever  the  core  of  a  cast-iron 
column  has  shifted  more  than  one-fourth  the  thickness  of  the 
shell,  the  strength  shall  be  computed  assuming  the  thickness  of 
metal  all  around  equal  to  the  thinnest  part,  and  the  column  shall 
be  condemned  if  this  computation  shows  the  strength  to  be 
less  than  required  by  this  Code.  Wherever  blow-holes  or  imper- 
fections are  found  in  a  cast-iron  column  which  reduces  the 
area  of  the  cross-section  at  that  point  more  than  ten  per  cent, 
such  column  shall  be  condemned.  Cast-iron  posts  or  columns 
not  cast  with  one  open  side  or  back,  before  being  set  up  hi 
place,  shall  have  a  three-eighths  of  an  inch  hole  drilled  in  the 
shaft  of  each  post  or  column,  by  the  manufacturer  or  contractor 
furnishing  the  same,  to  exhibit  the  thickness  of  the  castings ;  and 
any  other  similar  sized  hole  or  holes  which  the  commissioners 
of  buildings  may  require  shall  be  drilled  in  the  said  posts  or 
columns  by  the  said  manufacturer  or  contractor  at  his  own 
expense. 

Iron  or  steel  shoes  or  plates  shall  be  used  under  the  bottom 
tier  of  columns  to  properly  distribute  the  load  on  the  founda- 
tion. Shoes  shall  be  planed  on  top. 

Sec.  113.  Double  Columns. — In  all  buildings  hereafter  erected 
or  altered,  where  any  iron  or  steel  column  or  columns  are  used 
to  support  a  wall  or  part  thereof,  whether  the  same  be  an  exterior 
or  an  interior  wall,  and  columns  located  below  the  level  of  the 
sidewalk  which  are  used  to  support  exterior  walls  or  arches  over 
vaults,  the  said  column  or  columns  shall  be  either  constructed 
double,  that  is,  an  outer  and  an  inner  column,  the  inner  column 
alone  to  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  sustain  safely  the  weight  to 
be  imposed  thereon,  and  the  outer  columns  shall  be  one  inch 
shorter  than  the  inner  columns,  or  such  other  iron  or  steel 
column  of  sufficient  strength  and  protected  with  not  less  than 
two  inches  of  fire-proof  material  securely  applied,  except  that 
double  or  protected  columns  shall  not  be  required  for  walls 
fronting  on  streets  or  courts. 


438  IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 

Sec.  114.  Party-wall  Posts. — If  iron  or  steel  posts  are  to  be 
used  as  party  posts  in  front  of  a  party  wall,  and  intended  for 
two  buildings,  then  the  said  posts  shall  be  not  less  in  width  than 
the  thickness  of  the  party-  wall,  nor  less  in  depth  than  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  to  be  supported  above.  Iron  or  steel  posts  in 
front  of  side,  division,  or  party  walls  shall  be  filled  up  solid  with 
masonry  and  made  perfectly  tight  between  the  posts  and  walls. 
Intermediate  posts  may  be  used,  which  shall  be  sufficiently 
strong,  and  the  lintels  thereon  shall  have  sufficient  bearings 
to  carry  the  weight  above  with  safety. 

Sec.  115.  Plates  between  Joints  of  Open-back  Columns. — Iron 
or  steel  posts  or  columns  with  one  or  more  open  sides  and  backs 
shall  have  solid  iron  plates  on  top  of  each,  excepting  where 
pierced  for  the  passage  of  pipes. 

Sec.  116.  Steel  and  Iron  Girders. — Rivets  in  flanges  shall  be 
spaced  so  that  the  least  value  of  a  rivet  for  either  shear  or  bear- 
ing is  equal  or  greater  than  the  increment  of  strain  due  to  the 
distance  between  adjoining  rivets.  All  other  rules  given  under 
riveting  shall  be  followed.  The  length  of  rivets  between  heads 
shall  be  limited  to  four  times  the  diameter.  The  compression 
flange  of  plate  girders  shall  be  secured  against  buckling  if  its 
length  exceeds  thirty  times  its  width.  If  splices  are  used, 
they  shall  fully  make  good  the  members  spliced  in  either  ten- 
sion or  compression.  Stiffeners  shall  be  provided  over  supports 
and  under  concentrated  loads;  they  shall  be  of  sufficient  strength 
as  a  column  to  carry  the  loads,  and  shall  be  connected  with  a 
sufficient  number  of  rivets  to  transmit  the  stresses  into  the 
web  plate.  Stiffeners  shall  fit  so  as  to  support  the  flanges  of 
the  girders.  If  the  unsupported  depth  of  the  web  plate  exceeds 
sixty  times  its  thickness,  Stiffeners  shall  be  used  at  intervals 
not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  twenty  times  the  thickness  of 
the  web. 

Sec.  117.  Rolled-steel  and  Wrought-iron  Beams  Used  as 
Girders. — When  rolled-steel  or  wrought-iron  beams  are  used 
in  pairs  to  form  a  girder,  they  shall  be  connected  together 
by  bolts  and  iron  separators  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  five 
feet.  All  beams  twelve  inches  and  over  in  depth  shall  have 
at  least  two  bolts  to  each  separator. 

Sec.  118.  Cast-iron  Lintels. — Cast-iron  lintels  shall  not  be 
used  for  spans  exceeding  sixteen  feet.  Cast-iron  lintels  or 
beams  shall  be  not  less  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness in  any  of  their  parts. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.  439 

Sec.  119.  Plates  under  Ends  of  Lintels  and  Girders. — When 
the  lintels  or  girders  are  supported  at  the  ends  by  brick  walls 
or  piers  they  shall  rest  upon  cut-granite  or  bluestone  blocks 
at  least  ten  inches  thick,  or  upon  cast-iron  plates  of  equal  strength 
by  the  full  size  of  the  bearings.  In  case  the  opening  is  less  than 
twelve  feet,  the  stone  blocks  may  be  five  inches  in  thickness, 
or  cast-iron  plates  of  equal  strength  by  the  full  size  of  the 
bearings,  may  be  used,  provided  that  in  all  cases  the  safe  loads 
do  not  exceed  those  fixed  by  Section  139  of  this  Code. 

Sec.  120.  Rolled-steel  and  Wrought-iron  Floor-  and  Roof- 
beams. — All  rolled-steel  and  wrought-iron  floor-  and  roof-beams 
used  in  buildings  shall  be  of  full  weight,  straight  and  free  from 
injurious  defects.  Holes  for  tie-rods  shall  be  placed  as  near  the 
thrust  of  the  arch  as  practicable.  The  distance  between  tie-rods 
in  floors  shall  not  exceed  eight  feet,  and  shall  not  exceed  eight 
times  the  depth  of  floor-beams  twelve  inches  and  under.  Chan- 
nels or  other  shapes,  where  used  as  skew-backs,  shall  have  a 
sufficient  resisting  moment  to  take  up  the  thrust  of  the  arch. 
Bearing  plates  of  stone  or  irctal  shall  be  used  to  reduce  the 
pressure  on  ths  wall  to  the  working  stress.  Beams  resting 
on  girders  shall  be  securely  riveted  or  bolted  to  the  same;  where 
joined  on  a  girder,  tie-straps  of  one-half  inch  net  sectional 
area  shall  be  used,  with  rivets  or  bolts  to  correspond.  Anchors 
shall  be  provided  at  the  ends  of  all  such  beams  bearing  on 
walls. 

Sec.  121.  Templates  under  Ends  of  Steel  or  Iron  Floor- 
beams. — Under  the  ends  of  all  iron  or  steel  beams  where  they 
rest  on  the  walls,  a  stone  or  cast-iron  template  shall  be  built 
into  the  walls.  Templates  under  ends  of  steel  or  iron  beams 
shall  be  of  such  dimensions  as  to  bring  no  greater  pressure 
upon  the  brickwork  than  that  allowed  by  Section  139  of  this 
Code.  When  rolled-iron  or  steel  floor-beams,  not  exceeding 
six  inches  in  depth,  are  placed  not  more  than  thirty  inches  on 
centres,  no  templates  shall  be  required. 

Sec.  122.  Framing  and  Connecting  Structural  Work.  —  All 
iron  or  steel  trimmer-beams,  headers,  and  tail-beams,  shall 
be  suitably  framed  and  connected  together,  and  the  iron  or 
steel  girders,  columns,  beams,  trusses,  and  all  other  ironwork 
of  all  floors  and  roofs  shall  be  strapped,  bolted,  anchored,  and 
connected  together,  and  to  the  walls. 

All  beams  framed  into  and  supported  by  other  beams  or 
girders  shall  be  connected  thereto  by  angles  or  knees  of  a 


440  IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 

proper  size  and  thickness,  and  have  sufficient  bolts  or  rivets 
in  both  legs  of  each  connecting  angle  to  transmit  the  entire 
weight  or  load  coming  on  the  beam  to  the  supporting  beam  or 
girder.  In  no  case  shall  the  shearing  value  of  the  bolts  or 
rivets  or  the  bearing  value  of  the  connecting  angles,  provided 
for  in  Section  139  of  this  Code,  be  exceeded. 

Sec.  123.  Riveting  of  Structural-steel  and  Wrought-iron  Work. 
— The  distance  from  centre  of  a  rivet-hole  to  the  edge  of  the 
material  shall  be  not  less  than 

f  of  an  inch  for  £-inch  rivets. 

7  <  I  1 1    f  C   t  (   5   ( (      ft 

8  8 

It"  "    "   "   t   "     " 

J3  tt  It    It   c  l   7   tl      (  ( 

11  tt  tt    It   ft    |   ft      ft 

Wherever  possible,  however,  the  distance  shall  be  equal  to 
two  diameters.  All  rivets,  wherever  practicable,  shall  be 
machine-driven.  The  rivets  in  connections  shall  be  proportioned 
and  placed  to  suit  the  stresses.  The  pitch  of  rivets  shall  never 
be  less  than  three  diameters  of  the  rivet,  nor  more  than  six 
inches.  In  the  direction  of  the  stress  it  shall  not  exceed 
sixteen  times  the  least  thickness  of  the  outside  member.  At 
right  angles  to  the  stress  it  shall  not  exceed  thirty-two  times 
the  least  thickness  of  the  outside  member.  All  holes  shall 
be  punched  accurately,  so  that  upon  assembling  a  cold  rivet 
will  enter  the  hole  without  straining  the  material  by  drifting. 
Occasional  slight  errors  shall  be  corrected  by  reaming.  The 
rivets  shall  fill  the  holes  completely;  the  heads  shall  be  hemi- 
spherical and  concentric  with  the  axis  of  the  rivet.  Gussets  shall 
be  provided  wherever  required,  of  sufficient  thickness  and  size 
to  accommodate  the  number  of  rivets  necessary  to  make  a 
connection. 

Sec.  124.  Bolting  of  Structural-steel  and  Wrought-iron  Work  — 
Where  riveting  is  not  made  mandatory  connections  may  be 
effected  by  bolts.  These  bolts  shall  be  of  wrought  iron  or  mild 
steel,  and  they  shall  have  U.  S.  Standard  threads.  The  threads 
shall  be  full  and  clean,  the  nut  shall  be  truly  concentric  with  the 
bolt,  and  the  thread  shall  be  of  sufficient  length  to  allow  the 
nut  to  be  screwed  up  tightly.  When  bolts  go  through  bevel- 
flanges,  bevel-washers  to  match  shall  be  used  so  that  head  and 
nut  of  bolt  are  parallel.  When  bolts  are  used  for  suspenders,  the 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.  441 

working  stresses  shall  be  reduced  for  wrought  iron  to  ten  thou- 
sand pounds  and  for  steel  to  fourteen  thousand  pounds  per 
square  inch  of  net  area,  and  the  load  shall  be  transmitted  into 
the  head  or  nut  by  strong  washers  distributing  the  pressure 
evenly  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  same.  Turned  bolts  in 
reamed  holes  shall  be  deemed  a  substitute  for  field-rivets. 

Sec.  125.  Steel  and  Wrought-iron  Trusses. — Trusses  shall  be 
of  such  design  that  the  stresses  in  each  member  can  be  calcu- 
lated. All  trusses  shall  be  held  rigidly  in  position  by  efficient 
systems  of  lateral  and  sway  bracing,  struts  being  spaced  so  that 
the  maximum  limit  of  length  to  least  radius  of  gyration,  estab- 
lished in  Section  111  of  this  Code,  is  not  exceeded.  Any  mem- 
ber of  a  truss  subjected  to  transverse  stress,  in  addition  to 
direct  tension  or  compression,  shall  have  the  stresses  causing 
such  strain  added  to  the  direct  stresses  coming  on  the  member, 
and  the  total  stresses  thus  formed  shall  in  no  case  exceed  the 
working  stresses  stated  in  Section  139  of  this  Code. 

Sec.  126.  Riveted-steel  and  Wrought-iron  Trusses. — For  ten- 
sion members,  the  actual  net  area  only,  after  deducting  rivet- 
holes,  one-eighth  inch  larger  than  the  rivets,  shall  be  considered 
as  resisting  the  stress.  If  tension  members  are  made  of  angle- 
irons  riveted  through  one  flange  only,  only  that  flange  shall  be 
considered  in  proportioning  areas.  Rivets  to  be  proportioned 
as  prescribed  in  Section  123  of  this  Code.  If  the  axes  of  two 
adjoining  web  members  do  not  intersect  within  the  line  of  the 
chords,  sufficient  area  shall  be  added  to  the  chord  to  take  up  the 
bending  strains.  No  bolts  shall  be  used  in  the  connections  of 
riveted  trusses,  excepting  when  riveting  is  impracticable,  and 
then  the  holes  shall  be  drilled  or  reamed. 

Sec.  127.  Steel  and  Iron  Pin-connected  Trusses. — The  bending 
stresses  on  pins  shall  be  limited  to  twenty  thousand  pounds  for 
steel  and  fifteen  thousand  pounds  for  iron.  All  compression 
members  in  pin-connected  trusses  shall  be  proportioned,  using 
seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  permissible  working  stress  for  col- 
umns. The  heads  of  all  eye-bars  shall  be  made  by  upsetting  or 
forging.  No  weld  will  be  allowed  in  the  body  of  the  bar.  Steel 
eye-bars  shall  be  annealed.  Bars  shall  be  straight  before  bor- 
ing. All  pinholes  shall  be  bored  true,  and  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  the  members,  and  must  fit  the  pin  within  one-thirty- 
second  of  an  inch.  The  distances  of  pinholes  from  centre  to 
centre  for  corresponding  members  shall  be  alike,  so  that,  when 
piled  upon  one  another,  pins  will  pass  through  both  ends  with- 


442  IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 

out  forcing.  Eyes  and  screw-ends  shall  be  so  proportioned  that 
upon  test  to  destruction,  fracture  will  take  place  in  the  body  of 
the  member.  All  pins  shall  be  accurately  turned.  Pin-plates 
shall  be  provided  wherever  necessary  to  reduce  the  stresses  on 
pins  to  the  working  stresses  prescribed  in  Section  139  of  this 
Code.  These  pin-plates  shall  be  connected  to  the  members  by 
rivets  of  sufficient  size  and  number  to  transmit  the  stresses 
without  exceeding  working  stresses.  All  rivets  in  members  of  pin- 
connected  trusses  shall  be  machine-driven.  All  rivets  in  pin- 
plates  which  are  necessary  to  transmit  stress  shall  be  also  machine- 
driven.  The  main  connections  of  members  shall  be  made  by 
pins.  Other  connections  may  be  made  by  bolts.  If  there  is  a 
combination  of  riveted  and  pin-connected  members  in  one  truss, 
these  members  shall  comply  with  the  requirements  for  pin-con- 
nected trusses;  but  the  riveting  shall  comply  with  the  require- 
ments of  Section  126  of  this  Code. 

Sec.  128.  Iron  and  Other  Metal  Fronts  to  be  Filled  In.— All 
cast-iron  or  metal  fronts  shall  be  backed  up  or  filled  in  with 
masonry  of  the  thicknesses  provided  for  in  Sections  31  and  32. 

Sec.  129. — Painting  of  Structural  Metal-work. — All  structural 
metal- work  shall  be  cleaned  of  all  scale,  dirt,  and  rust,  and  be 
thoroughly  coated  with  one  coat  of  paint.  Cast-iron  columns 
shall  not  be  painted  until  after  inspection  by  the  Department  of 
Buildings.  Where  surfaces  in  riveted  work  come  in  contact, 
they  shall  be  painted  before  assembling.  After  erection  all 
work  shall  be  painted  at  least  one  additional  coat.  All  iron  or 
steel  used  under  water  shall  be  inclosed  with  concrete. 

SPECIFICATIONS   FOR   CONSTRUCTIONAL   IRON. 

1.  CHARACTER    AND    FINISH. — All    wrought    iron    must    be 
tough,  ductile,  fibrous,  and  of  uniform  quality.     Finished  bars 
must  be  thoroughly  welded  during  the  rolling,  and  be  straight, 
smooth,  and  free  from  injurious  seams,  blisters,  buckles,  cracks, 
or  imperfect  edges. 

2.  MANUFACTURE. — No  specific  process  or  provision  of  manu- 
facture  will   be   demanded,    provided   the   material   fulfils  the 
requirements  of  these  specifications. 

3.  STANDARD  TEST-PIECE. — The  tensile  strength,  limit  of  elas- 
ticity and  ductility,  shall  be  determined  from  a  standard  test- 
piece  of  as  near  |-square-inch  sectional  area  as  possible.      The 
elongation  shall  be  measured  on  an  original  length  of  8  inches. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.  443 

4.  ELASTIC  LIMIT. — Iron  of  all  grades  shall  have  an  elastic  limit 
of  not  less  than  26,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

5.  HIGH  TEST  OR  TENSION  IRON. — When  tested  in  specimens 
of  uniform  sectional  area  of  at  least  J  square  inch,  taken  from 
members  which  have  been  rolled  to  a  section  of  not  more  than 
4 1    square    inches,    the    iron  shall  show  a  minimum  ultimate 
strength  of  50,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  a  minimum 
elongation  of  18  per  cent  in  8  inches. 

6.  Specimens  taken  from  bars  of  a  larger  cross-section  than 
4 \  square  inches  will  be   allowed  a  reduction   of  500  pounds 
for  each  additional  square  inch  of  cection,  down  to  a  minimum 
of  48,000   pounds,  and   have  an  elongation  of  15  per  cent  in 
8  inches. 

7.  BENDING  TEST. — All  iron  for  tension  members  must  bend 
cold  through  90  degrees  to  a  curve  whose  diameter  is  not  over 
twice  the  thickness  of  the  piece,  without  cracking.     At  least 
one  sample  in  three  must  bend  through  180  degrees  to  this 
curve,    without  cracking.        When    nicked    on    one    side    and 
bent  by  a  blow  from  a  sledge,  the  fracture  must  be  mostly 
fibrous. 

8.  ANGLE  AND  OTHER-SHAPED  IRON. — The  same-sized  speci- 
mens taken  from  angle  and  other-shaped  iron  shall  have  a  mini- 
mum ultimate  strength  of  48,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and 
a  minimum  elongation  of  15  per  cent  in  8  inches. 

9.  Specimens   from  angle  and  other-shaped  iron  must  bend 
cold  through  90  degrees  to  a  curve  whose  diameter  is  not  over 
twice  the  thickness  of  the  piece,  without  cracking. 

10.  PLATES. — The  same-sized  specimens,  taken    from  plates 
8  inches  to  24  inches  in  width,  shall  show  a  minimum  ultimate 
strength  of  48,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  a  minimum 
elongation  of  15  per  cent  in  8  inches;    plates  from  24  inches  to 
36  inches  wide   shall   show  a  minimum  ultimate  strength  of 
46,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  elongate  10  per  cent  in  8 
inches;   plates  over  36  inches  wide  shall  have  a  minimum  elon- 
gation of  8  per  cent  in  8  inches. 

11.  Samples  of  plate  iron  shall  stand  bending  cold  through 
90  degrees  to  a  curve  whose  diameter  is  not  over  three  times 
its  thickness,  without  cracking.     When  nicked  and  bent  cold, 
the  fracture  must  be  mostly  fibrous. 

12.  RIVET  IRON. — Rivet  iron  shall  have  the  same  physical 
requirements  as  high-test  iron,  and,  in  addition,   shall  bend 
cold  180  degrees  to  a  curve  whose  diameter  is  equal  to  the 


444  IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 

thickness  of  the  rod  tested,  without  sign  of  fracture  on  the 
convex  side. 

13.  PIN  IRON. — Specimens  taken  from  pin  iron  under  4  inches 
diameter  shall  have  a  minimum  ultimate  strength  of  50.000 
pounds  per  square  inch,  and  elongate  15  per  cent  in  8  inches. 
Rounds  over  4  inches  diameter,  having  a  minimum  elongation 
of  10  per  cent  in  8  inches  will  be  satisfactory. 

14.  FULL-SIZE  TEST. — Full-size  pieces  of  flat,  round,  or  square 
iron,  not  over  4^  inches  in  sectional  area,  shall  have  an  ultimate 
strength  of  50,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  stretch  12  J 
per  cent  in  the  body  of  the  bar.     Bars  of  a  larger  sectional  area 
than  4J  square   inches  will    be  allowed  a  reduction  of   1000 
pounds  per  square  inch,  down  to  a  minimum  of  46,000  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  stretch  10  per  cent  in  the  body  of  the  bar. 

15.  VARIATION  IN  WEIGHT. — The  variation  in  cross-section 
or  weight  of  rolled  material  of  more  than  2J  per  cent  from  that 
specified  may  be  cause  for  rejection. 


SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  CONSTRUCTIONAL  STEEL. 

1.  PROCESS  OF  MANUFACTURE. — Steel  may  be  made  by  either 
the  open-hearth  or  Bessemer  process. 

2.  TEST-PIECES. — The  tensile  strength,  limit  of  elasticity  and 
ductility  shall    be  determined  from  a  standard  test-piece  cut 
from  the  finished  material  and  planed  or  turned  parallel;    the 
piece  to  have  as  near  J  square  inch  sectional  area  as  possible, 
and  elongation  to  be  measured  on  an  original  length  of  8  inches; 
two  test-pieces  to  be  taken  from  each  heat  or  blow  of  finished 
material,  one  for  tension  and  one  for  bending. 

3.  Every  finished  piece  of  steel   shall  be  stamped  on  one 
side  near  the  middle  with  the  blow  number  identifying  the 
melt;    and  steel  for  pins  shall  have  the  melt  number  stamped 
on  the  ends.     Rivet  and  lacing  steel,  and  small  pieces  for  pin- 
plates  and  stiffeners,  may  be  shipped  in  bundles  securely  wired 
together,  with  the  melt  number  on  a  metal  tag  attached. 

4.  FINISH. — Finished  bars  must  be  free  from  injurious  seams, 
flaws,  or  cracks,  and  have  a  workmanlike  finish. 

5.  GRADE  OF  STEEL. — Steel  shall  be  of  three  grades:    SOFT, 

MEDIUM,    HIGH. 

6.  SOFT  STEEL. — Specimens  from  finished  material  for  test,  cut 
to  size  specified  above,  shall  have  an  ultimate  strength  of  from 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.  445 

54,000  to  62,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  elastic  limit  one-half 
the  ultimate  strength;  minimum  elongation  of  26  per  cent  hi 
8  inches;  minimum  reduction  of  area  at  fracture,  50  per  cent. 
This  grade  of  steel  to  bend  cold  180  degrees  flat  on  itself,  with- 
out sign  of  fracture  on  the  outside  of  the  bent  portion. 

7.  MEDIUM  STEEL. — Specimens  from  finished  material  for  test, 
cut  to  size  specified  above,  shall  have  an  ultimate  strength  of 
60,000  to  68,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  elastic  limit  one- half 
the   ultimate   strength;    minimum  elongation   20    per  cent   in 
8  inches ;  minimum  reduction  of  area  at  fracture,  40  per  cent. 
This  grade  of  steel  to  bend  cold  1£0  degrees  to  a  diameter  equal 
to  the  thickness  of  the  piece  tested,  without  crack  or  flaw  on  the 
outside  of  the  bent  portion. 

8.  HIGH  STEEL. — Specimens  from  finished  material  for  test, 
cut  to  size  specified  above,  shall  have  an  ultimate  strength  of 
66,000  pounds  to  74,000  pounds  per  square  inch;  elastic  limit 
one-half  the  ultimate  strength;    minimum  elongation  18  per 
cent  in  8  inches;    minimum  reduction  of  area  at  fracture,  35 
per  cent.     This  grade  of  steel  to  bend  cold  180  degrees  to  a  diam- 
eter equal  to  three  times  the  thickness  of  the  test-piece,  without 
crack  or  flaw  on  the  outside  of  the  Lent  portion. 

9.  PIN  STEEL. — Pins  made  of  either  of  the  above-mentioned 
grades  of  steel  shall,  on  specimen  test-pieces  cut  from  finished 
material,  fill  the  physical  requirements  of  the  grade  of  steel 
from  which  it  is  rolled,  for  ultimate  strength,  elastic  limit,  and 
bending,  but  the  elongation  shall  be  decreased  5  per  cent,  and 
reduction  of  area  at  fracture  10  per  cent  from  that  specified. 

10.  VARIATION  IN  WEIGHT. — The  variation  in  cross-section 
or  weight  of  more  than  2|  per  cent  from  that  specified  will  be 
sufficient  cause  for  rejection. 

11.  FULL-SIZE  TESTS  OF  STEEL  BARS. — Full-size  tests  of  steel 
used  for  eye-bars  shall  not  be  required  to  show  more  than  10 
per  cent  elongation  in  the  body  of  the  bar,  and  tensile  strength 
not  more  than  4000  pounds  below  the  minimum  tensile  strength 
required  in  specimen  tests  of  the  grade  of  steel  from  which 
it  is  rolled. 


446  IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    WORKMANSHIP. 

1.  INSPECTION. — Inspection    of   work   shall   be   made   as    it 
progresses,  and  at  as  early  a  period  as  the  nature  of  the  work 
permits. 

2.  All  workmanship  must  be  first-class.     All  abutting  sur- 
faces of  compression  members,  except  flanges  of  plate  girders 
where  the  joints  are  fully  spliced,  must  be  planed  or  turned 
to  even  bearings  so  that  they  shall  be  in  such  contact  through- 
out as  may  be  obtained  by  such  means.     All  finished  surfaces 
must  be  protected  by  white  lead  and  tallow. 

3.  The    rivet-holes    for   splice   plates    of   abutting   members 
shall  be  so  accurately  spaced  that  when  the  members  are  brought 
into  position  the  holes  shall  be  truly  opposite  before  the  rivets 
are  driven. 

4.  Rollers  must  be  finished  perfectly  round  and  roller-beds 
planed. 

5.  RIVETS. — The  pitch  of  rivets  in  all  classes  of  work  shall 
never  exceed  6  in.,  nor  16  times  the  thinnest  outside   plate, 
nor  be  less  than  3  diameters  of  the  rivet.     The  rivets  used 
shall  generally  be  f,  f ,  and  |  in.  diameter.     The  distance  be- 
tween the  edge  of  any  piece  and  the  centre  of  a  rivet-hole  must 
never  be  less  than  1J  in.,  except  for  bars  less  than  2J  in.  wide. 
When  practicable  it  shall  be  at  least  2  diameters  of  the  rivet. 
Rivets  must  completely  fill  the  holes,  have  full  heads  concen- 
tric with  the  rivet,  of  a  height  not  less  than  .6  the  diameter  of 
the  rivet,  and  in  full  contact  with  the'surface,  or  be  countersunk 
when  so  required,  and  machine-driven  wherever  practicable. 

6.  PUNCHING. — The  diameter  of  the  punch  shall  not  exceed 
by  more  than  ^  in.  the  diameter  of  the  rivets  to  be  used,  and 
all  holes   must  be   clean   cuts,  without   torn  or  ragged  edges. 
Rivet-holes  must  be  accurately  spaced;  the  use  of  drift-pins  will 
be  allowed  only  for  bringing  together  the  several  parts  forming 
a  member,  and  they  must  not  be  driven  with  such  force  as  to 
disturb  the  metal  about  the  holes. 

7.  Built  members  must,  when  finished,  be  true  and  free  from 
twists,  kinks,  buckles,  or  open  joints  between  the  component 
pieces. 

8.  EYE-BARS  AND    PINHOLES. — All  pinholes    must  be  accu- 
rately bored  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  members,  unless 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.  447 

otherwise  shown  in  the  drawings,  and  in  pieces  not  adjustable 
for  length  no  variation  of  more  than  ^  of  an  inch  will  be  allowed 
in  the  length  between  centres  of  pinholes;  the  diameter  of  the 
pinholes  shall  not  exceed  that  of  the  pins  by  more  than  •$$  in., 
nor  by  more  than  ^  in.  for  pins  under  3?  in.  diameter.  Eye- 
bars  must  be  straight  before  boring;  the  holes  must  be  in  the 
centre  of  the  heads,  and  on  the  centreline  of  the  bars.  When- 
ever eye-bars  are  to  be  packed  more  than  $  of  an  inch  to  the 
foot  of  their  length  out  of  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  structure, 
they  must  be  bent  with  a  gentle  curve  until  the  head  stands 
at  right  angles  to  the  pin  in  their  intended  positions  before 
being  bored.  All  eye-bars  belonging  to  the  same  panel,  when 
placed  in  a  pile,  must  allow  the  pin  at  each  end  to  pass  through 
at  the  same  time  without  forcing.  No  welds  will  be  allowed 
in  the  body  of  the  bar  of  eye-bars,  laterals,  or  counters,  except 
to  form  the  loops  of  laterals,  counters,  and  sway-rods;  eyes  of 
laterals,  stirrups,  sway-rods,  and  counters  must  be  bored. 

PILOT-NUTS. — Pins  and  lateral  bolts  must  be  finished  per- 
fectly round  and  straight,  and  the  party  contracting  to  erect  the 
work  must  provide  pilot-nuts  where  necessary  to  preserve  the 
threads  while  the  pins  are  being  driven.  Thimbles  or  washers 
must  be  used  whenever  required  to  fill  the  vacant  spaces  on 
pins  or  bolts. 

9.  ANNEALING. — In  all  cases  where  a  steel  piece  in  which 
the  full  strength  is  required  has  been  partially  heated  the  whole 
piece  must  be  subsequently  annealed.     All  bends  in  steel  must 
be  made  cold,  or  if  the  degree  of  curvature  is  so  great  as  to 
require  heating,  the  whole  piece  must  be  subsequently  annealed. 

10.  PAINTING. — All    surfaces    inaccessible    after    assembling 
must  be  well  painted  or  oiled  before  the  parts  are  assembled. 

11.  The  decision  of  the  engineer  shall  control  as  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  drawings  and  specifications  during  the  execution 
of  work  thereunder,  but  this  shall  not  deprive  the  contractor 
of  his  right  to  redress,  after  the  completion  of  the  work,  for  an 
improper  decision. 

NOTES  ON  STEEL  AND  IRON. — 1.  The  average  weight  of 
wrought  iron  is  480  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot.  A  bar  1  inch  square 
and  3  feet  long  weighs,  therefore,  exactly  10  Ibs.  Hence: 

To  find  the  sectional  area,  given  the  weight  per  foot,  multi- 
ply by  0.3. 

To  find  the  weight  per  foot,  given  the  sectional  area,  multi- 

i     u     10 
Pty  by 


448  IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 

2.  The  weight  of  steel  is  2  per  cent  greater  than  that  of 
wrought  iron. 

To  find  sectional  area,  given  weight  per  foot,  divide  by  3.4. 
To  find  weight  per  foot,  given  sectional  area,  multiply  by  3.4. 

3.  The  centre  load  at  which  a  bar  of  wrought  iron  1  in.  square 
and  12  ins.  centre  to  centre  of  points  of  support  will  give  way  is 
very  nearly  one  ton  (of  2240  Ibs.). 

4.  Within  the  elastic  limit  the  extension  and  compression  of 
wrought  iron   is  very  nearly  one   ten-thousandth  of  its  length 
for  a  stress  of  one  ton  (of  2240  Ibs.)  per  square  inch. 

For  cast  iron  this  ratio  is  one  five-thousandth  for  tension,  but 
becomes  variable  for  compression. 

5.  The    contraction    or    expansion    of    wrought    iron    under 
changes  of  temperature  is  about  one  ten-thousandth  of  its  length 
for  a  variation  of  15°  Fahr. 

The  stress  thus  induced,  if  the  ends  are  held  rigidly  fixed,  will 
be  about  one  ton  (of  2240  Ibs.)  per  square  inch  of  cross-section. 

6.  The  coefficient  of  expansion  of  wrought  iron  for  100°  Fahr. 
is  0.0006S6.     Therefore  for  a  variation  in  temperature  of  125°,  a 
bar  of  wrought  iron  100  feet  long  will  expand  or  contract  1.029 
inches. 

Conversely,  a  change  in  length  of  1  inch  per  hundred  feet 
would  be  produced  by  a  variation  in  temperature  of  121.5° 
Fahr. 

7.  The  melting-point  of  iron  and  steel  is  about  as  follows: 

Wrought  iron  ............  3000°  Fahr. 

Cast  iron  .................   2000°      " 

Steel  ....................   2400°      " 

8.  The  welding  heat  of  wrought  iron  is  2733°  Fahr. 
MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES.  —  1.  Thrust  of  arch  per  lineal  foot 


1  ~ 


in  which  w=load  per  square  foot,  r=rise  in  arch  in  inches,  and 
Z=span  in  feet. 

2.  Approximately  the  radius  of  gyration  for  a  box  section  is 
four-tenths  the  least  side. 

The  working  strength  of  iron  and  steel  as  given  by  the  Chicago 
Building  Code  is  as  follows: 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.  449 


STRESSES— CAST-IRON  FIBRE— STRAINS— LENGTH. 

Sec.  92.  The  stresses  in  materials  hereafter  used  in  construc- 
tion, produced  by  the  calculated  strains  due  to  their  own  weight 
and  applied  loads,  shall  in  no  case  exceed  the  following: 

^    ,   .          f  Extreme  fibre  strains  tension.  ....  2,500  Ibs. 

Ciu5tiron:i  For  columns 10>0oo  » 

Reduced  by  Gordon's  formula.     Reduced  for  eccentric  load. 
No  cast-iron  column  shall  have  a  length  to  exceed  twenty 
times  its  diameter  or  least  side. 

STRESSES  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  INCH. 

Wrought  Iron.    Steel. 

Extreme  fibre  stresses,  I  beams  and  shapes 12,000  16,000 

Extreme  fibre  stresses,  built  beams 10,000  15,000 

Tension 12,000  15,000 

Shearing 7,500  10,000 

Direct-bearing  pins  and  rivets 15,000  20,000 

Bending  on  pins 18,000  22,500 

*  For  columns  and  compression  members 12,000  15,000 


*  Reduced  for  ratio  of  length  of  column  to  its  least  radius  of  gyration  by 
approved  modern  formulae.     Reduced  for  eccentric  load. 


450 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


WEIGHTS  OF  FLAT   ROLLED  STEEL, 

PER  LINEAL  FOOT. 
One  Cubic  Foot  Weighing  489.6  Lbs. 


Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 

1" 

H" 

14" 

H" 

2" 

2i" 

2*" 

2i" 

12" 

A 

.638 

.797 

.957 

1.11 

1.28 

1.44 

1.59 

1.75 

7.65 

1 

.850 

1.06 

1.28 

1.49 

1.70 

1.91 

2.12 

2.34 

10.20 

A 

1.06 

1.33 

1.59 

1.86 

2.12 

2.39 

2.65 

2.92 

12.75 

1.28 

1.59 

1.92 

2.23 

2.55 

2.87 

3.19 

3.51 

15.30 

A 

1.49 

1.86 

2.23 

2.60 

2.98 

3.35 

3.72 

4.09 

17.85 

i 

1.70 

2.12 

2.55 

2.98 

3.40 

3.83 

4.25 

4.67 

20.40 

& 

1.92 

2.39 

2.87 

3.35 

3.83 

4.30 

4.78 

5.26 

22.95 

1 

2.12 

2.65 

3.19 

3.72 

4.25 

4.78 

5.31 

5.84 

25.50 

ft 

2.34 

2.92 

3.51 

4.09 

4.67 

5.26 

5.84 

6.43 

28.05 

1 

2.55 

3.19 

3.83 

4.47 

5.10 

5.75 

6.38 

7.02 

30.60 

H 

2.76 

3.45 

4.14 

4.84 

5.53 

6.21 

6.90 

7.60 

33.15 

2. 

2.98 

3.72 

4.47 

5.20 

5.95 

6.69 

7.44 

8.18 

35.70 

T! 

3.19 

3.99 

4.78 

5.58 

6.38 

7.18 

7.97 

8.77 

38.25 

1 

3.40 

4.25 

5.10 

5.95 

6.80 

7.65 

8.50 

9.35 

40.80 

i& 

3.61 

4.52 

5.42 

6.32 

7.22 

8.13 

9.03 

9.93 

43.35 

If 

3.83 

4.78 

5.74 

6.70 

7.65 

8.61 

9.57 

10.52 

45.90 

Wb 

4.04 

5.05 

6.06 

7.07 

8.08 

9.09 

10.10 

11.11 

48.45 

H 

4.25 

5.31 

6.38 

7.44 

8.50 

9.57 

10.63 

11.69 

51.00 

A 

4.46 

5.58 

6.69 

7.81 

8.93 

10.04 

11.16 

12.27 

53.55 

| 

4.67 
4.89 

5.84 
6.11 

7.02 
7.34 

8.18 
8.56 

9.35 

9.78 

10.5211.69 
11.0012.22 

12.85 
13.44 

56.10 
58.65 

I 

5.10 

6.38 

7.65 

8.93 

10.20 

11.48 

12.75 

14.03 

61.20 

A 

5.32 

6.64 

7.97 

9.30 

10.63 

11.95 

13.28 

14.61 

63.75 

1 

5.52 

6.90 

8.29 

9.67 

11.05 

12.43 

13.81 

15.19 

66.30 

ii 

5.74 

7.17 

8.61 

10.04 

11.47 

12.91 

14.34 

15.78 

68.85 

If 

5.95 

7.44 

8.93 

10.42 

11.90 

13.40 

14.88 

16.37 

71.40 

if 

6.16 
6.38 

7.70 
7.97 

9.24 
9.57 

10.79 
11.15 

12.33 
12.75 

13.8615.40 
14.3415.94 

16.95 
17.53 

73.95 
76.50 

m 

6.59 

8.24 

9.88 

11.53 

13.18 

14.83 

16.47 

18.12 

79.05 

2 

6.80 

8.50 

10.20 

11.90 

13.60 

15.30 

17.00 

18.70 

81.60 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


451 


WEIGHTS  OF  FLAT  ROLLED  STEEL— (Continued). 
PFB  LINEAL  FOOT. 


Thick- 
ness in 
Inches 

3" 

ar 

3*" 

3f" 

4" 

W 

4*" 

<r 

12" 

A 

1.91 

2.07 

2.23 

2.39 

2.55 

2.71 

2.87 

3.03 

7.65 

1 

2.55 

2.76 

2.98 

3.19 

3.40 

3.61 

3.83 

4.04 

10.20 

i 

3.19 

3.45 

3.72 

3.99 

4.25 

4.52 

4.78 

5.05 

12.75 

1 

3.83 

4.15 

4.47 

4.78 

5.10 

5.42 

5.74 

6.06 

15.30 

A 

4.46 

4.83 

5.20   5.58 

5.95 

6.32 

6.70 

7.07 

17.85 

i 

5.10 

5.53 

5.95    6.38 

6.80 

7.22 

7.65 

8.08 

20.40 

A 

5.74 

6.22 

6.70 

7.17 

7.65    8.13 

8.61 

9.09 

22.95 

1 

6.38 

6.91 

7.44 

7.97 

8.50    9.03 

9.57 

10.10 

25.50 

H 

7.02 

7.60 

8.18 

8.76 

9.35    9.93 

10.52 

11.11 

28.05 

I 

7.65 

8.29 

8.93 

9.57 

10.2010.84 

11.48 

12.12 

30.60 

13 

8.29 

8.98 

9.67 

10.36 

11.0511.74 

12.43 

13.12 

33.15 

I 

8.93 

9.67 

10.41 

11.16 

11.9012.65 

13.39 

14.13 

35.70 

it 

9.57 

10.36 

11.1611.9512.7513.55 

14.34 

15.14 

38.25 

1 

10.20 

11.05 

11.90 

12.75 

13.6014.45 

15.30 

16.15 

40.80 

ITS 

10.84 

11.74 

12.65 

13.55 

14.4515.35 

16.26 

17.16 

43.35 

1|- 

11.48 

12.43 

13.3914.3415.3016.26 

17.22 

18.17 

45.90 

Ij% 

12.12 

13.12 

14.13 

15.14 

16.1517.16 

18.17 

19.18 

48.45 

H 

12.75 

13.81 

14.87 

15.94 

17.0018.06 

19.13 

20.19 

51.00 

IT% 

13.39 

14.50 

15.62 

16.74 

17.85 

18.96 

20.08 

21.20 

53.55 

if 

14.03 

15.20 

16.36 

17.53 

18.7019.87 

21.04 

22.21 

56.10 

14.66 

15.88 

17.10 

18.3319.5520.77 

21.99 

23.22 

58.65 

ii 

15.30 

16.58 

17.85 

19.  13j  20.  40  21.  68 

22.95 

24.23 

61.20 

i^ 

15.94 

17.27 

18.60 

19.92 

21.2522.58 

23.91 

25.24 

63.75 

if 

16.58 

17.96 

19.34 

20.72 

22.1023.48 

24.87 

26.25 

66.30 

IT& 

17.22 

18.65 

20.08 

21.51 

22.9524.38 

25.82 

27.26 

68.85 

If 

17.85 

19.34 

20.83 

22.32 

23.8025.29 

26.78 

28.27 

71.40 

li| 

18.49 

20.03 

21.57 

23.11 

24.6526.19 

27.73 

29.27 

73.95 

ii 

19.13 

20.72 

22.31 

23.91 

25.5027.10 

28.69 

30.28 

76.50 

lit 

19.77 

21.41 

23.06 

24.70 

26.3528.00 

29.64 

31.29 

79.05 

2 

20.40 

22.10 

23.80 

25.50 

27.20 

28.90 

30.60 

32.30 

81.60 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


WEIGHTS  OF  FLAT  ROLLED   STEEL— (Continued). 
PER  LINEAL  FOOT. 


Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 

5" 

«. 

5*" 

5f" 

6" 

ar 

6*" 

6f" 

12" 

i6 

3.19 
4.25 

3.35 
4.46 

3.51 
4.67 

3.67 
4.89 

3.83 
5.10 

3.99 
5.31 

4.14 
5.53 

4.30 

5.74 

7.65 
10.20 

A 

F 

5.31 

6.38 
7.44 
8.50 

5.58 
6.69 
7.81 
8.93 

5.84 
7.02 
8.18 
9.35 

6.11 
7.34 
8.56 
9.77 

6.38 
7.65 
8.93 
10.20 

6.64 
7.97 
9.29 
10.63 

6.90 
8.29 
9.67 
11.05 

7.17 
8.61 
10.04 
11.48 

12.75 
15.30 
17.85 
20.40 

1 

9.57 
10.63 
11.69 
12.75 

10.04 
11.16 
12.27 
13.39 

10.52 
11.69 
12.85 
14.03 

11.00 
12.22 
13  .  44 
14.67 

11.48 
12.75 
14.03 
15.30 

11.95 
13.28 
14.61 
15.94 

12.43 
13.81 
15.20 
16.58 

12.91 

14.34 
15.78 
17.22 

22.95 
25.50 

28.05 
30.60 

1 

!« 

13.81 
14.87 
15,94 
17.00 

14.50 
15.62 
16.74 
17.85 

15.19 
16.36 
17.53 
18.70 

15.88 
17.10 
18.33 
19.55 

16.58 
17.85 
19.13 
20.40 

17.27 
18.60 
19.92 
21.25 

17.95 
19.34 
20.72 
22.10 

18.65 
20.08 
21.51 
22.95 

33.15 
35.70 
38.25 
40.80 

it 

18.06 
19.13 
20.19 
21.25 

18.96 
20.08 
21.20 
22.32 

19.87 
21.04 
22.21 
23.38 

20.77 
21.99 
23.22 
24.44 

21.68 
22.95 
24.23 
25.50 

22.58 
23.91 
25.23 
26.56 

23.48 

24.87 
26.24 
27.62 

24.39 

25.82 
27.25 
28.69 

43.35 
45.90 

48.45 
51.00 

if6 
i|6 

22.32 
23.38 
24.44 
25.50 

23.43 
24.54 
25.66 

26.78 

24.54 
25.71 

26.88 
28.05 

25.66 

26.88 
28.10 
29.33 

26.78 
28.05 
29.33 
30.60 

27.90 
29.22 
30.55 

31.88 

29.01 
30.39 
31.77 
33.15 

30.12 
31.56 
32.99 
34.43 

53.55 
56.10 
58.65 
61.20 

•111 

26.57 
27.63 
28.69 
29.75 

27.89 
29.01 
30.12 
31.24 

29.22 
30.39 
31.55 
32.73 

30.55 
31.77 
32.99 
34.22 

31.88 
33.15 
34.43 
35.70 

33.20 
34.53 
35.86 
37.19 

34.53 
35.91 
37.30 
38.68 

35.86 
37.29 
38.73 
40.17 

63.75 
66.30 

68.85 
71.40 

if 
1* 

30.81 
31.87 
32.94 
34.00 

32.35 
33.47 
34.59 
35.70 

33.89 
35.06 
36.23 

37.40 

35.43 
36.65 

37.88 
39.10 

36.98 
38.25 
39.53 

40.80 

38.52 
39.85 
41.17 
42.50 

40.05 
41.44 

42.82 
44.20 

41.60 
43.03 
44.46 
45.90 

73.95 
76.50 
79.05 
81.60 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


453 


WEIGHTS   OF   FLAT   ROLLED   STEEL—  (Continued). 
PER  LINEAL  FOOT. 


Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 

7" 

'4 

71" 

'  4.78 
6.36 

* 

8" 

* 

81" 

8*" 

12" 

ft 

4.46 
5.95 

4.62 
6.16 

4.94 
6.58 

5.10 
6.80 

5.26 
7.01 

5.42 

7.22 

5.58 
7.43 

7.65 
10.20 

I 

7.44 
8.93 
10.41 
11.90 

7.70 
9.25 
10.78 
12.32 

7.97 
9.57 
11.16 
12.75 

8.23 
9.88 
11.53 
13.18 

8.50 
10.20 
11.90 
13.60 

8.76 
10.52 
12.27 
14.03 

9.03 

10.84 
12.64 
14.44 

9.29 
11.16 
13.02 

14.87 

12.75 
15.30 

17.85 
20.40 

ft 

1 

13.39 

14.87 
16.36 
17.85 

13.86 
15.40 
16.94 
18.49 

14.34 
15.94 
17.53 
19.13 

14.82 
16.47 
18.12 
19.77 

15.30 
17.00 
18.70 
20.40 

15.78 
17.53 
19.28 
21.04 

16.26 
18.06 
19.86 
21.68 

16.74 
18.59 
20.45 
22.32 

22.95 
25.50 
28.05 
30.60 

it 
11G 

19.34 
20.83 
22.32 
23.80 

20.03 
21.57 
23.11 
24.65 

20.72 
22.32 
23.91 
25.50 

21.41 
23.05 
24.70 
26.35 

22.10 

23.80 
25.50 
27.20 

22.79 
24.55 
26.30 
28.05 

23.48 
25.30 
27.10 
28.90 

24.17 
26.04 
27.89 
29.75 

33.15 
35.70 

38.25 
40.80 

If 

25.29 

26.78 
28.26 
29.75 

26.19 
27.73 
29.27 
30.81 

27.10 

28.68 
30.28 
31.88 

28.00 
29.64 
31.29 
32.94 

28.90 
30.60 
32.30 
34.00 

29.80 
31.56 
33.31 
35.06 

30.70 
32.52 
34.32 
36.12 

31.61 
33.47 
35.33 
37.20 

43.35 
45.90 
48.45 
51.00 

46 

31.23 
32.72 
34.21 
35.70 

32.35 
33.89 
35.44 
36.98 

33.48 
35.06 
36.66 
38.26 

34.59 
36.23 

37.88 
39.53 

35.70 
37.40 
39.10 
40.80 

36.81 
38.57 
40.32 
42.08 

37.93 
39.74 
41.54 
43.35 

39.05 
40.91 
42.77 
44.63 

53.55 
56.10 
58.65 
61.20 

If 

If 

1? 

37.19 

38.67 
40.16 
41.65 

38  .  51 
40.05 
41.59 
43.14 

39.84 
41.44 
43.03 
44.63 

41.17 
42.82 
44.47 
46.12 

42.50 
44.20 
45.90 
47.60 

43.83 
45.58 
47.33 
49.09 

45.16 
46.96 
48.76 
50.58 

46.49 
48.34 
50.20 
52.07 

63.75 
66.30 
68.85 
71.40 

if 

216 

43.14 
44.63 
46.12 
47.60 

44.68 
46.22 
47.76 
49.30 

46.22 

47.82 
49.41 
51.00 

47.76 
49.40 
51.05 
52.70 

49.30 
51.00 
52.70 
54.40 

50.84 
52.60 
54.35 
56.10 

52.38 
54.20 
56.00 
57.80 

53.92 
55.79 
57.64 
59.50 

73.95 
76.50 
79.05 
81.60 

454 


IRON  AND  STEEL    CONSTRUCTION. 


WEIGHTS   OF   FLAT  ROLLED   STEEL—  (Continued). 
PER  LINEAL  FOOT. 


Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 

9" 

91" 

9*" 

*. 

10" 

«*. 

10*" 

W 

12" 

i6 

5.74 
7.65 

5.90 
7.86 

6.06 
8.08 

6.22 
8.29 

6.38 
8.50 

6.54 
8.71 

6.70 
8.92 

6.86 
9.14 

7.65 
10.20 

! 

9.56 
11.48 
13.40 
15.30 

9.83 
11.80 
13.76 
15.73 

10.10 
12.12 
14.14 
16.16 

10.36 
12.44 
14.51 

16.58 

10.62 
12.75 

14.88 
17.00 

10.89 
13.07 
15.25 
17.42 

11.16 
13.39 
15.62 

17.85 

11.42 
13.71 
15.99 

18.28 

12.75 
15.30 

17.85 
20.40 

| 

17.22 
19.13 
21.04 
22.96 

17.69 
19.65 
21.62 
23.59 

18.18 
20.19 
22.21 
24.23 

18.65 
20.72 
22.79 

24.86 

19.14 
21.25 
23.38 
25.50 

19.61 
21.78 
23.96 
26.14 

20.08 
22.32 
24.54 

26.78 

20.56 
22.85 
25.13 
27.42 

22.95 
25.50 
28.05 
30.60 

if 

24.86 
26.78 
28.69 
30.60 

25.55 
27.52 
29.49 
31.45 

26.24 
28.26 
30.28 
32.30 

26.94 
29.01 
31.08 
33.15 

27.62 
29.75 

31.88 
34.00 

28.32 
30.50 
32.67 
34.85 

29.00 
31.24 
33.48 
35.70 

29.69 
31.98 
34.28 
36.55 

33.15 

35.70 
38.25 
40.80 

I 

32.52 
34.43 
36.34 
38.26 

33.41 
35.38 
37.35 
39.31 

34.32 
36.34 

38.36 
40.37 

35.22 
37.29 
39.37 
41.44 

36.12 
38.25 
40.38 
42.50 

37.03 
39.21 
41.39 
43  .  56 

37.92 
40.17 
42.40 
44.63 

38.83 
41.12 
43.40 
45.69 

43.35 

45.90 
48.45 
51.00 

I 

40.16 
42.08 
44.00 
45.90 

41.28 
43.25 
45.22 
47.18 

42.40 
44.41 
46.44 
48.45 

43.52 
45.  5« 
47.66 
49.73 

44.64 
46  .  75 

48.88 
51.00 

45.75 
47.92 
50.10 

52.28 

46.86 
49.08 
51.32 
53.55 

47.97 
50.25 
52.54 
54.83 

53.55 

56.10 
58.65 
61.20 

If 
ift 
If 

47.82 
49.73 
51.64 
53.56 

49.14 
51.10 
53.07 
55.04 

50.48 
52.49 
54.51 
56.53 

51.80 
53.87 
55.94 
58.01 

53.14 
55.25 
57.38 
59.50 

54.46 
56.63 
58.81 
60.99 

55.78 
58.02 
60.24 
62.48 

57.11 
59.40 
61.68 
63.97 

63.75 

66.30 

71  '40 

2  6 

55.46 
57.38 
59.29 
61.20 

57.00 
58.97 
60.94 
62.90 

58.54 
60.56 
62.58 
64.60 

60.09 
62.16 
64.23 
66.30 

61.62 
63.75 

65.88 
68.00 

63.17 
65.35 
67.52 
69.70 

64.70 
66.94 
69.18 
71.40 

66.24 
68.53 
70.83 
73.10 

73.95 

76.50 
79.05 
81.60 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


WEIGHTS  OF  FLAT  ROLLED  STEEL— (Continued). 
PER  LINEAL.  FOOT. 


Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 

11" 

^ 

dr 

g 

12" 

$ 

| 

^ 

neces- 
<1  in. 

& 

7.02 

7.17 

7.32 

7.49 

7.65 

7.82 

7.98 

8.13 

c£J 

? 

9.34 

9.57 

9.78 

10.00 

10.20 

10.42 

10.63 

10.84 

ifeS 

ft 

11.68 

11.95 

12.22 

12.49 

12.75 

13.01 

13.28 

13.55 

"aSS 

14.03 

14.35 

14.68 

14.99 

15.30 

15.62 

15.94 

16.26 

Jfo 

1 

16.36 

16.74 

17.12 

17.49 

17.85 

18.23 

18.60 

18.97 

^h 

18.70 

19.13 

19.55 

19.97 

20.40 

20.82 

21.25 

21.67 

ai§ 

A 

21.02 

21.51 

22.00 

22.48 

22.95 

23.43 

23.90 

24.39 

s|3 

23.38 

23.91 

24.44 

24.97 

25.50 

26.03 

26.56 

27.09 

"i  °^ 

ii 

25.70 

26.30 

26.88 

27.47 

28.05 

28.64 

29.22 

29.80 

£^J!» 

I 

28.05 

28.68 

29.33 

29.97 

30.60 

31.25 

31.88 

32.52 

llx 

30.40 

31.08 

31.76 

32.46 

33.15 

33.83 

34.53 

35.22 

-2     -3 

32.72 

33.47 

34.21 

34.95 

35.70 

36.44 

37.19 

37.93 

Mg  o3 

if 

35.06 

35.86 

36.66 

37.46 

38.25 

39.05 

39.84 

40.64 

A  CX 

i 

37.40 

38.25 

39.10 

39.95 

40.80 

41.65 

42.50 

43.35 

ITS 

39.74 

40.64 

41.54 

42.54 

43.35 

44.25 

45.16 

46.06 

g:3l 

li 

42.08 

43.04 

44.00 

44.94 

45.90 

46.86 

47.82 

48.77 

-c:S  fl 

lw 

44.42 

45.42 

46.44 

47.45 

48.45 

49.46 

50.46 

51.48 

"1  a}1* 

u 

46.76 

47.82 

48.88 

49.94 

51.00 

52.06 

53.12 

54.19 

Pi 

1A 

49.08 

50.20 

51.32 

52.44 

53.55 

54,  67 

55.78 

56,90 

PI 

i| 

51.42 

52.59 

53.76 

54.93 

56.10 

57.27 

58.44 

59.60 

-c's'fl 

ITO 

53.76 

54.99 

56.21 

57.43 

58.65 

59.87 

60.10 

62.32 

£«-,  '-o 

II 

56.10 

57.37 

53.65 

59.93 

61.20 

62.48 

63.75 

65.03 

SsJ 

1A 

58.42 

59.76 

61.10 

62.43 

63.75 

65.08 

66.40 

67.74 

•T'S^ 

if 

60.78 

62.16 

63.54 

64.92 

66.30 

67.  63 

69.06 

70.44 

2^0 

63.10 

64  55 

65.98 

67.42 

68.85 

70  .  29 

71.72 

73.15 

o-^^ 

if 

65.45 

66.93 

68.43 

69.92 

71.40 

72.90 

74.38 

75.87 

III 

lij 

67.80 

69.33 

70.86 

72.41 

73.95 

75.48 

77.03 

78.57 

jpi 

1& 

70.12 

71.72 

73.31 

74.90 

76.50 

78.09 

79.69 

81  .28 

o^ 

IT! 

72.46 

74.11 

75.76 

77.41 

79.05 

80.70 

82.34 

83.99 

fS'^a 

2 

74.80 

76.50 

78.20 

79.90 

81.60 

83.30 

85.00 

86.70 

jH 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


WEIGHTS  AND   AREAS   OF   SQUARE   AND   ROUND   BARS  AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES   OF   ROUND   BARS. 

One  cubic  foot  of  steel  weighing  489.6  Ibs. 


Thickness 
or  Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 

Weight  of 
D  Bar 
One  Foot 
Long. 

Weight  of 
QBar 
One  Foot 
Long. 

Area  of 

.  D  Bar 
in  Square 
Inches. 

Area  of 
m  QBar 
in  Square 
Inches. 

Circum- 
ference of 
O  Bar 
in  Inches. 

0 

A 

.013 

.010 

.0039 

.0031 

.1963 

.053 

.042 

.0156 

.0123 

.3927 

1 

.119 

.094 

.0352 

.0276 

.5890 

£ 

.212 

.167 

.0625 

.0491 

.7854 

JL 

.333 

.261 

.0977 

.0767 

.9817 

| 

.478 

.375 

.1406 

.1104 

1.1781 

5 

.651 

.511 

.1914 

.1503 

1.3744 

1 

.850 

.667 

.2500 

.1963 

1.5708 

& 

1.076 

.845 

.3164 

.2485 

1.7671 

| 

1.328 

1.043 

.3906 

.3068 

1.9635 

ft 

1.608 

1.262 

.4727 

.3712 

2.1598 

1 

1.913 

1.502 

.5625 

.4418 

2.3562 

if 

2.245 

1.763 

.6602 

.5185 

2.5525 

|. 

2.603 

2.044 

.7656 

.6013 

2.7489 

if 

2.989 

2.347 

.8789 

.6903 

2.9452 

1 

3.400 

2.670 

1.0000 

.7854 

3.1416 

A 

3.838 

3.014 

1.1289 

.8866 

3.3379 

i 

4.303 

3.379 

1.2656 

.9940 

3  .  5343 

ft 

4.795 

3.766 

1.4102 

1  .  1075 

3.7306 

| 

5.312 

4.173 

1.5625 

1.2272 

3.9270 

5.857 

4.600 

1.7227 

1.3530 

4.1233 

i 

6.428 

5.049 

1.8906 

1.4849 

4.3197 

7.026 

5.518 

2.0664 

1.6230 

4.5160 

I 

7.650 

6.008 

2.2500 

1.7671 

4.7124 

^ 

8.301 

6.520 

2.4414 

1.9175 

4.9087 

1 

8.978 

7.051 

2.6406 

2.0739 

5.1051 

» 

9.682 

7.604 

2.8477 

2.2365 

5.3014 

1 

10.41 

8.178 

3.0625 

2.4053 

5.4978 

it 

11.17 

8.773 

3.2852 

2.5802 

5.6941 

'* 

11.95 

9.388 

3.5156 

2.7612 

5.8905 

if 

12.76 

10.02 

3.7539 

2.9483 

6.0868 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


457 


WEIGHTS   AND   AREAS   OF  SQUARE  AND   ROUND   BARS  AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES    OF   ROUND    BARS— (Continued). 


Thickness 
or  Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 

Weight  of 
D  Bar 
One  Foot 
Long. 

Weight  of 
QBar 
One  Foot 
Long. 

Area  of 
D  Bar 
in  Square 
Inches. 

Area  of 
QBar 
in  Square 
Inches. 

Circum- 
ference of 
QBar 
in  Inches. 

2 

13.60 

10.68 

4.0000 

3.1416 

6.2832 

* 

14.46 

11.36 

4.2539 

3.3410 

6.4795 

15.35 

12.06 

4.5156 

3.5466 

6.6759 

A 

16.27 

12.78 

4.7852 

3.7583 

6.8722 

1 

17.22 

13.52 

5.0625 

3.9761 

7.0686 

rS 

18.19 

14.28 

5.3477 

4.2000 

7.2649 

| 

19.18 

15.07 

5.6406 

4.4301 

7.4613 

|| 

20.20 

15.86 

5.9414 

4.6664 

7.6576 

I 

21.25 

16.69 

6.2500 

4.9087 

7.8540 

\ 

22.33 

17.53 

6.5664 

5.1572 

8.0503 

23.43 

18.40 

6.8906 

5.4119 

8.2467 

ft 

24.56 

19.29 

7.2227 

5.6727 

8.4430 

f 

25.71 

20.20 

7.5625 

5.9396 

8.6394 

ft 

26.90 

21.12 

7.9102 

6.2126 

8.8357 

I 

28.10 

22.07 

8.2656 

6.4918 

9.0321 

11 

29.34 

23.04 

8.6289 

6.7771 

9.2284 

3 

30.60 

24.03 

9.0000 

7.0686 

9.4248 

A 

31.89 

25.04 

9.3789 

7.3662 

9.6211 

1 

33.20 

26.08 

9  .  7656 

7.6699 

9.8175 

A 

34.55 

27.13 

10.160 

7.9798 

10.014 

i 

35.92 

28.20 

10.563 

8.2958 

10.210 

ft 

37.31 

29.30 

10.973 

8.6179 

10.407 

38.73 

30.42 

11.391 

8.9462 

10.603 

A 

40.18 

31.56 

11.816 

9.2806 

10.799 

j 

41.65 

32.71 

12.250 

9.6211 

10.996 

T% 

43.14 

33.90 

12.691 

9.9678 

11.192  • 

| 

44.68 

35.09 

13.141 

10.321 

11.388 

H 

46.24 

36.31 

13.598 

10.680 

11.585 

i 

47.82 

37.56 

14.063 

11.045 

11.781 

H 

49.42 

38.81 

14.535 

11.416 

11.977 

f 

51.05 

40.10 

15.016 

11.793 

12.174 

H 

52.71 

41.40 

15.504 

12.177 

12.370 

458 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


WEIGHTS   AND  AREAS   OF   SQUARE  AND   ROUNDj  BARS  AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES    OF    ROUND    BARS— (Continued). 


Thickness 
or  Diam- 
eter in 
Inches.' 

Weight  of 
G  Bar 
One  Foot 
Long. 

Weight  of 
QBar 
One  Foot 
Long. 

Area  of 
GBar 
in  Square 
Inches. 

Area  of 
QBar 
in  Square 
Inches. 

Circum- 
ference of 
QBar 
in  Inches. 

4 

54.40 

42.73 

16.000 

12.566 

12.566 

A 

56.11 

44.07 

16.504 

12.962 

12.763 

57.85 

45.44 

17.016 

13.364 

12.959 

A 

59.62 

46.83 

17.535 

13.772 

13.155 

| 

61.41 

48.24 

18.063 

14.186 

13.352 

ft 

63.23 

49.66 

18.598 

14.607 

13  .  548 

65.08 

51.11 

19.141 

15.033 

13  .  744 

1 

66.95 

52.58 

19.691 

15.466 

13.941 

i 

68.85 

54.07 

20.250 

15.904 

14.137 

| 

70.78 

55.59 

20.816 

16.349 

14.334 

72.73 

57.12 

21.391 

16.800 

14.530 

ft 

74.70 

58.67 

21.973 

17.257 

14.726 

"  t 

76.71 

60.25 

22.563 

17.721 

14.923 

if 

78.74 

61.84 

23.160 

18.190 

15.119 

f 

80.81 

63.46 

23.766 

18.665 

15.315 

ft 

82.89 

65.10 

24.379 

19.147 

15.512 

5 

85.00 

66.76 

25.000 

19  .  635 

15.708 

A 

87.14 

68.44 

25.629 

20.129 

15.904 

89.30 

70.14 

26.266 

20.629 

16.101 

1 

91.49 

71.86 

26.910 

21.135 

16.297 

i 

93.72 

73.60 

27.563 

21.648 

16.493 

A 

95.96 

75.37 

28.223 

22.166 

16.690 

| 

98.23 

77.15 

28.891 

22.691 

16.886 

T6 

100.5 

78.95 

29.566 

23.221 

17.082 

i 

102.8 

80.77 

30.250 

23.758 

17.279 

'         A 

105.2 

82.62 

30.941 

24.301 

17.475 

f 

107.6 

84.49 

31.641 

24.850 

17.671 

8 

110.0 

86.38 

32.348 

25.406 

17.868 

l 

112.4 

88.29 

33.063 

25.967 

18.064 

i| 

114.9 

90.22 

33.785 

26.535 

18.261 

2 

117.4 

92.17 

34.516 

27.109 

18.457 

ft 

119.9 

94.14 

35.254 

27.688 

18.653 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


459 


WEIGHTS   AND  AREAS   OF  SQUARE   AND   ROUND   BARS  AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES    OF    ROUND    BARS—  (Continued). 


Thickness 
or  Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 

Weight  of 
D  Bar 
One  Foot 
Long 

Weight  of 
O  Bar 
One  Foot 
Long. 

Area  of 
D  Bar 
in  Square 
Inches. 

Area  of 
.  O  Bar 
in  Square 
Inches. 

Circum- 
ference of 
QBar 
in  Inches. 

6 

122.4 
125.0 
127.6 
130.2 

96.14 
98.14 
100.2 
102.2 

36.000 
36.754 
37.516 

38.285 

28.274 
28.866 
29.465 
30.069 

18.850 
19.046 
19.242 
19.439 

i 
I 

132.8 
135.5 
138.2 
140.9 

104.3 
106.4 
108.5 
110.7 

39.063 
39.848 
40.641 
41.441 

30.680 
31.296 
31.919 
32  .  548 

19.635 
19.831 
20.028 
20.224 

i 
i 

143.6 
146.5 
149.2 
152.1 

112.8 
114.9 
117.2 
119.4 

42.250 
43.066 
43.891 
44.723 

33  .  183 
33.824 
34.472 
35.125 

20.420 
20.617 
20.813 
21.009 

it 

154.9 
157.8 
160.8 
163.6 

121.7 
123.9 
126.2 
128.5 

45.563 
46.410 
47.266 
48.129 

35.785 
36.450 
37.122 
37.800 

21.206 
21.402 
21.598 
21  .  795 

7 
A 

A 

166.6 
169.6 
172.6 
175.6 

130.9 
133.2 
135.6 
137.9 

49.000 
49.879 
50.766 
51.660 

38.485 
39.175 
39.871 
40.574 

21.991 
22.187 
22.384 
22.580 

i 

178.7 
181.8 
184.9 

188.1 

140.4 
142.8 
145.3 
147.7 

52.563 
53.473 
54.391 
55.316 

41  .  282 
41.997 
42.718 
43.445 

22.777 
22.973 
23.169 
23.366 

I 

I 
ft 

191.3 
194.4 

197.7 
200.9 

150.2 
152.7 
155.2 

157.8 

56.250 
57.191 
58.141 
59.098 

44.179 
44.918 
45.664 
46.415 

23.562 
23.758. 
23.955 
24.151 

i 

It 

204.2 
207  .  6 
210.8 
214.2 

160.3 
163.0 
165.6 
168.2 

60.063 
61.035 
62.016 
63.004 

47.173 
47.937 

48.707 
49.483 

24.347 
24.544 
24.740 
24.936 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION, 


WEIGHTS   AND   AREAS   OF   SQUARE   AND   ROUND   BARS  AND 
CIRCUMFERENCES    OF    ROUND    BARS— (Continued). 


Thickness 
or  Diam- 
eter in 
Inches. 

Weight  of 
QBar 
One  Foot 
Long. 

Weight  of 
QBar 
One  Foot 
Long. 

Area  of 
D  Bar 
in  Square 
Inches. 

Area  of 
,  QBar 
in  Square 
Inches. 

Circum- 
ference of 
O  Bar 
in  Inches. 

8 

t 

217.6 
221.0 
224.5 
228.0 

171.0 
173.6 
176.3 
179.0 

64.000 
65.004 
66.016 
67.035 

50  .  265 
51.054 
51.849 
52.649 

25.133 
25.329 

25.525 
25.722 

1 

231.4 
234.9 
238.5 
242.0 

181.8 
184.5 
187.3 
190.1 

68.063 
69.098 
70.141 
71.191 

53.456 
54.269 
55.088 
55.914 

25.918 
26.114 
26.311 
26.507 

| 

245.6 
249.3 
252.9 
256.6 

193.0 
195.7 
198.7 
201.6 

72.250 
73.316 
74.391 
75.473 

56.745 

57  .  583 
58.426 
59.276 

26.704 
26.900 
27.096 
27.293 

1 

ft 

260.3 
264.1 
267.9 
271.6 

204.4 
207.4 
210.3 
213.3 

76.563 

77.660 
78.766 
79.879 

60.132 
60.994 
61.862 
62.737 

27.489 
27.685 
27.882 
28.078 

9 
t 

275.4 
279.3 
283.2 

287.0 

216.3 
219.3 
222.4 
225.4 

81.000 
82.129 

83  .  266 
84.410 

63.617 
64  .  505 
65.397 
66.296 

28.274 
28.471 
28.667 
28.863 

| 

290.9 
294.9 
298.9 
302.8 

228.5 
231.5 
234.7 
237.9 

85.563 

86.723 
87.891 
89.066 

67.201 
68.112 
69.029 
69.953 

29.060 
29.256 
29.452 
29.649 

i 

6 

306.8 
310.9 
315.0 
319.1 

241.0 
244.2 
247.4 
250.6 

90.250 
91.441 
92.641 

93.848 

70  .  882 
71.818 
72.760 
73.708 

29.845 
30.041 
30.238 
30.434 

1 

323.2 
327.4 
331.6 
335.8 

253.9 
257.1 
260.4 
263.7 

95.063 
96.285 
97.516 
98.754 

74.662 
75.622 
76.589 
77.561 

30.631 
30.827 
31.023 
31.022 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


461 


WEIGHT    OF    SHEETS    OF    WROUGHT    IRON,    STEEL,    COPPER, 
AND  BRASS  (from  HASWELL). 

Weights  per  square  foot.     Thickness  by  Birmingham  Gauge. 


Number  of 
Gauge. 

Thickness 
in  Inches. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

Copper. 

Brass. 

0000 

.454 

18.22 

18.46 

20.57 

19.43 

000 

.425 

17.05 

17.28 

19.25 

18.19 

00 

.38 

15.25 

15.45 

17.21 

16.26 

0 

.34 

13.64 

13.82 

15.40 

14.55 

1 

.3 

12.04 

12.20 

13.59 

12.84 

2 

.284 

11.40 

11.55 

12.87 

12.16 

3 

.259 

10.39 

10.53 

11.73 

11.09 

4 

.238 

9.55 

9.68 

10.78 

10.19 

5 

.22 

'8.83 

8.95 

9.97 

9.42 

6 

.203 

8.15 

8.25 

9.20 

8.69 

7 

.18 

7.22 

7.32 

8.15 

7.70 

8 

.165 

6.62 

6.71 

7.47 

7.06 

9 

.148 

5.94 

6.02 

6.70 

6.33 

10 

.134 

5.38 

5.45 

6.07 

5.74 

11 

.12 

4.82 

4.88 

5.44 

5.14 

12 

.109 

4.37 

4.43 

4.94 

4.67 

13 

.095 

3.81 

3.86 

4.30 

4.07 

14 

.083 

3.33 

3.37 

3.76 

3.55 

15 

.072 

2.89 

2.93 

3.26 

3.08 

16 

.065 

2.61 

2.64 

2.94 

2.78 

17 

.058 

2.33 

2.36 

2.63 

2.48 

18 

.049 

1.97 

1.99 

2.22 

2.10 

19 

.042 

1.69 

1.71 

1.90 

1.80 

20 

.035 

1.40 

1.42 

1.59 

1.50 

21 

.032 

1.28 

1.30 

1.45 

1.37 

22 

.028 

1.12 

1.14 

1.27 

1.20 

23 

.025 

1.00 

1.02 

1.13 

1.07 

24 

.022 

.883 

.895 

1.00 

.942 

25 

.02 

.803 

.813 

.906 

.856 

26 

.018 

.722 

.732 

.815 

.770 

27 

.016 

.642 

.651 

.725 

.685 

28 

.014 

.562 

.569 

.634 

.599 

29 

.013 

.522 

.529 

.589 

.556 

30 

.012 

.482 

.488 

.544 

.514 

31 

.01 

.401 

.407 

.453 

.428 

32 

.009 

.361 

.366 

.408 

.385 

33 

.008 

.321 

.325 

.362 

.342 

34 

.007 

.281 

.285 

.317 

.300 

35 

.005 

.201 

.203 

.227 

.214 

Specific  gravity  .... 
Weight  cubic  foot  .  . 

7.704 
481.75 

7.806 

487.75 

8.698 
543.6 

8.218 
513.6 

Weight  cubic  inch.. 

.2787 

.2823 

.3146 

.2972 

462 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


WEIGHT    OF    SHEETS    OF    WROUGHT    IRON,    STEEL,    COPPER 
AND  BRASS  (from  HASWELL). 

Weights  per  sq.  ft.     Thickness  by  American  (Browne  &  Sharpe's)  Gauge. 


Number  of 
Gauge. 

Thickness 
in  Inches. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

Copper. 

Brass. 

0000 

.46 

18.46 

18.70 

20.84 

19.69 

000 

.4096 

16.44 

16.66 

18.56 

17.53 

00 

.3648 

14.64 

14.83 

16.53 

15.61 

0 

.3249 

13.04 

13.21 

14.72 

13.90 

1 

.2893 

11.61 

11.76 

13.11 

12.38 

2 

.2576 

10.34 

10.48 

11.67 

11.03 

3 

.2294 

9.21 

9.33 

10.39 

9.82 

4 

.2043 

8.20 

8.31 

9.26 

8.74 

5 

.1819 

7.30 

7.40 

8.24 

7.79 

6 

.1620 

6.50 

6.59 

7.34 

6.93 

7 

.1443 

5.79 

5.87 

6.54 

6.18 

8 

.1285 

5.16 

5.22 

5.82 

5.50 

9 

.1144 

4.59 

4.65 

5.18 

4.90 

10 

.1019 

4.09 

4.14 

4.62 

4.36 

11 

.0907 

3.64 

3.69 

4.11 

3.88 

12 

.0808 

3.24 

3.29 

3.66 

3.46 

13 

.0720 

2.89 

2.93 

3.26 

3.08 

14 

.0641 

2.57 

2.61 

2.90 

2.74 

15 

.0571 

2.29 

2.32 

2.59 

2.44 

16 

.0508 

2.04 

2.07 

2.30 

2.18 

17 

.0453 

1.82 

1.84 

2.05 

1.94 

18 

.0403 

1.62 

1.64 

1.83 

1.73 

19 

.0359 

1.44 

1.46 

1.63 

1.54 

20 

.0320 

1.28 

1.30 

1.45 

1.37 

21 

.0285 

1.14 

1.16 

1.29 

1.22 

22 

.0253 

1.02 

1.03 

1.15 

1.08 

23 

.0226- 

.906 

.918 

1.02 

.966 

24 

.0201 

.807 

.817 

.911 

.860 

25 

.0179 

.718 

.728 

.811 

.766 

26 

.0159 

.640 

.648 

.722 

.682 

27 

.0142 

.570 

.577 

.643 

.608 

28 

.0126 

.507 

.514 

.573 

.541 

29 

.0113 

.452 

.458 

.510 

.482 

30 

.0100 

.402 

.408 

.454 

.429 

31 

.0089 

.358 

.363 

.404 

.382 

32 

.0080 

.319 

.323 

.360 

.340 

33 

.0071 

.284 

.288 

.321 

.303 

34 

.0063 

.253 

.256 

.286 

.270 

35 

.0056 

.225 

.228 

.254 

.240 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


463 


SAFE  LOADS  UNIFORMLY  DISTRIBUTED  FOR  STANDARD  AND 
SPECIAL  I  BEAMS. 

In  Tons  of  2000  Lbs. 


si 

24"  I. 

3-f 

20"  I. 

J 

18"  I. 

.£) 

15"  I. 

df 

fe 

<3  a 

k 

If 

£ 

S  o 

80 

c§ 

80 

65 

C§ 

55 

§ 

80 

60 

42 

s 

|a 

Lbs. 

<§  s 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

o  ® 

Lbs. 

O  03 
**"*  O 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

j3  g 

Jdo 

1 

?J 

73  a 

T3JH 

Q 

jjj 

-< 

^ 

12 

77.33 

.53 

65.18 

51.98 

.44 

39  .  29 

.39 

47.14 

36.09 

26.18 

.33 

13 

71.38 

.48 

60.16 

47.98 

.40 

36.27 

.36 

43.51 

33.31 

24.17 

.30 

14 

66.28 

.45 

55.87 

44.56 

.37 

33.68 

.34 

40.40 

30.93 

22.44 

.28 

15 

61.86 

.42 

52.14 

41.59 

.35 

31.43 

.31 

37.71 

28.87 

20.94 

.26 

16 

58.00 

.39 

48.88 

38.99 

.33 

29.47 

.29 

35.35 

27.07 

19.63 

.24 

17 

54.58 

.37 

46.01 

36.69 

.31 

27.74 

.28 

33.27 

25.47 

18.48 

.23 

18 

51.56 

.35 

43.45 

34.66 

.29 

26.19 

26 

31.42 

24.06 

17.45 

.22 

19 

48.84 

.33 

41.17 

32.83 

.28 

24.82 

25 

29.77 

22.79 

16.53 

.21 

20 

46.40 

.32 

39.11 

31.19 

.26 

23.58 

24 

28.28 

21.65 

15.71 

.20 

21 

44.19 

.30 

37.24 

29.70 

.25 

22.45 

22 

26.94 

20.62 

14.96 

.19 

22 

42.18 

.29 

35.55 

28.35 

.24 

21.43 

21 

25.71 

19.68 

14.28 

.18 

23 

40.35 

.27 

34.01 

27.12 

.23 

20.50 

20 

24.59 

18.83 

13.66 

.17 

24 

38.67 

.26 

32.59 

25.99 

.22 

19.65 

20 

23  :  57 

18.04 

03.19 

.16 

25 

37.12 

.25 

31.29 

24.95 

.21 

18.86 

19 

22.63 

17.32 

12.57 

.16 

26 

35.69 

.24 

30.08 

23.99 

.20 

18.14 

18 

21.76 

16.66 

12.08 

.15 

27 

34.37 

.23 

28.97 

23.10 

.19 

17.46 

17 

20.95 

16.04 

11.64 

.14 

28 

33.14 

.23 

27.93 

22.28 

.19 

16.84 

17 

20.20 

15.47 

11.22 

.14 

29 

32.00 

.22 

26.97 

21.51 

.18 

16.26 

16 

19.51 

14.93 

10.83 

.13 

30 

30.93 

.21 

26.07 

20.79 

.17 

15.72 

16 

18.86 

14.43 

10.47 

.13 

31 

29.94 

.20 

25.23 

20.12 

.17 

15.21 

15 

18.25 

13.97 

10.13 

.13 

32 

29.00 

.20 

24.44 

19.49 

.16 

14.73 

15 

17.68 

13.53 

9.82 

.12 

33 

28.12 

.19 

23.70 

18.90 

.16 

14.29 

14 

17.14 

13.12 

9.52 

.12 

34 

27.29 

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18.35 

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Safe  loads  given  include  weight  of  beam. 
Ibs.  per  square  inch. 


Maximum  fibre  stress,  16,000 


or  THE 


UNIVERSITY 


464 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


SAFE  LOADS  UNIFORMLY  DISTRIBUTED  FOR  STANDARD  AND 
SPECIAL  I  BEAMS. 

In  Tons  of  2000  Lbs. 


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Safe  loads  given  include  weight  of  beam. 
Ibs.  per  square  iach. 


Maximum  fibre  stress,  16,000 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


465 


SAFE  LOADS  UNIFORMLY  DISTRIBUTED  FOR  STANDARD  AND 
SPECIAL  I  BEAMS. 

In  Tons  of  2000  Lbs. 


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Safe  loads  given  include  weight  of  beam.     Maximum  fibre  stress,  16,000 
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466 


IRON  AND   STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


SAFE  LOADS  UNIFORMLY  DISTRIBUTED  FOR  STANDARD  AND 
SPECIAL   CHANNELS. 

In  Tons  of  2000  Lbs. 


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Safe  loads  given  include  weight  of  channel. 
Ibs.  per  square  inch. 


Maximum  fibre  stress,  16,000 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


467 


SAFE  LOADS  UNIFORMLY  DISTRIBUTED  FOR  STANDARD  AND 
SPECIAL   CHANNELS. 

In  Tons  of  2000  Lbs. 


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Safe  loads  given  include  weight  of  channel.     Maximum  fibre  stress,  16,000 
Ibs.  per  square  inch. 


468 


IRON  AND   STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


PROPERTIES   OF 


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M'  =  moment  of  forces  in  foot-pounds;    C  and  C"  =  coefficients  given  on 
opposite  page. 

Weights  in  heavy  print  are  standard,  others  are  special. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


469 


I  BEAMS. 


10 

11 

12 

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11.27 

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60.8 

648200 

506400 

11.54 

B  7 

-08 

58  9 

6283OO 

490800 

11-70 

.04 

53.5 

570600 

445800 

8.65 

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50.6 

539200 

421300 

8.83 

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47.6 

507900 

396800 

9.06 

15  8 

1-08 

44-8 

478100 

373500 

9-29 

0.99 

38.0 

405800 

317000 

9.21 

1-01 

36-0 

383700 

299700 

9-45 

B  9 

0.90 

31.7 

338500 

264500 

7.12 

0.91 
0.93 

29.3 
26.8 

312400 
286300 

244100 
223600 

7.32 

7.57 

Bll 

0-97 

24-4 

260500 

203500 

7-91 

L=tC  or  C'. 

M'-£^£l 

;    CorC'=Ll 

_         _8/<S 

~~  12* 

470 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


PROPERTIES   OF 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

-fe-8 

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c3.g  E 

gfe-9 

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£ 

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H 

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w 

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35.00 

10.29 

0.732 

4.772 

111.8 

7.31 

3.29 

30  00 

8.82 

0.569 

4.609 

101.9 

6.42 

3.40 

B13 

9 

25.00 

7.35 

0.406 

4.446 

91.9 

5.65 

3.54 

2100 

6-31 

0290 

4330 

84-9 

5-16 

3-67 

25  50 

7.50 

0.541 

4.271 

68.4 

4.75 

3.02 

23.00 

6.76 

0.449 

4.179 

64.5 

4.39 

3.09 

B15 

8 

20.50 

6.03 

0.357 

4.087 

60.6 

4.07 

3.17 

1800 

533 

0-270 

4000 

56-9 

3-78 

3-27 

20.00 

5.88 

0.458 

3.868 

42.2 

3.24 

2.68 

B17 

7 

17.50 

5.15 

0  .  353 

3.763 

39.2 

2.94 

2.76 

15-00 

4-42 

0  25O 

3-660 

362 

2-67 

2  86 

17.25 

5.07 

0.475 

3.575 

26.2 

2.36 

2.27 

B19 

6 

14.75 

4.34 

0.352 

3.452 

24.0 

2.09 

2.35 

1225 

361 

0  23O 

3-330 

21  8 

1-85 

2-46 

14.75 

4.34 

0.504 

3.294 

15.2 

1.70 

1.87 

B21 

5 

12.25 

3.60 

0  .  357 

3.147 

13.6 

1.45 

1.94 

9-75 

2-87 

0-210 

3-000 

12  1 

1-23 

205 

10.50 

3.09 

0.410 

2.880 

7.1 

1.01 

1.52 

9.50 

2.79 

0.337 

2.807 

6.7 

0.93 

1.55 

B23 

4 

8.50 

2.50 

0  .  263 

2.733 

6.4 

0.85 

.59 

7-50 

2-21 

0  190 

2-660 

6-0 

0-77 

-64 

7.50 

2.21 

0.361 

2.521 

2.9 

0.60 

.15 

B77 

3 

6.50 

1.91 

0.263 

2.423 

2.7 

0.53 

.19 

5-50 

1  63 

0  170 

2  330 

25 

046 

•23 

Weights  in  heavy  print  are  standard,  others  are  special. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


471 


I  BEAMS— (Continued). 


10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

IJJ 

III 

||p 

fj'g  d-£ 

jRj 

S,2°jQ' 
n  XA  <» 

2  23  o 

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0.84 

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265000 

207000 

6.36 

0.85 
0.88 

22.6 
20.4 

241500 
217900 

188700 
170300 

7.58 
6.86 

B13 

090 

18-9 

201300 

157300 

7.12 

0.80 

17.1 

182500 

142600 

5.82 

0.81 
0.82 

16.1 
15.1 

172000 
161600 

134400 
126200 

5.96 
6.12 

B15 

0-84 

14-2 

151700 

118500 

6-32 

0.74 

12.1 

128600 

100400 

5.15 

0.76 

11.2 

119400 

93300 

5.31 

B17 

0-78 

10-4 

110400 

86300 

5-50 

0.68 

8.7 

93100 

72800 

4.33 

0.69 

8.0 

85300 

66600 

4.49 

B19 

0-72 

7-3 

77500 

60500 

4.70 

0.63 

6.1 

64600 

50500 

0.63 

5.4 

58100 

45400 

.... 

B21 

0-65 

4.8 

51600 

40300 

.... 

0.57 

3.6 

38100 

29800 

0.58 

3.4 

36000 

28100 

0.58 

3.2 

33900 

26500 

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B23 

0-59 

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31800 

24900 



0.52 

1.9 

20700 

16200 

0.52 

1.8 

19100 

15000 

B77 

053 

1.7 

17600 

13800 

472 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


PROPERTIES  OF 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

.  ? 

8 

9 

ofi  2 

l|| 

0> 

I 

1 

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55.00 

16.18 

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12.19 

5.16 

50.00 

14.71 

0.720 

3.720 

402.7 

11.22 

5.23 

45.00 

13.24 

0.622 

3.622 

375.1 

10.29 

5.32 

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15 

40.00 

11.76 

0.524 

3.524 

347.5 

9.39 

5.43 

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10.29 

0.426 

3.426 

320.0 

8.48 

5.58 

33-00 

9-90 

0-400 

3-400 

312-6 

8-23 

5-62 

40.00 

11.76 

0.758 

3.418 

197.0 

6.63 

4.09 

35.00 

10.29 

0.636 

3.296 

179.3 

5.90 

4.17 

C  2 

12 

30.00 

8.82 

0.513 

3.173 

161.7 

5.21 

4.28 

25.00 

7.35 

0.390 

3.050 

144.0 

4.53 

4.43 

20-50 

6.03 

0-280 

2-940 

128-1 

391 

4-61 

35.00 

10.29 

0.823 

3.183 

115.5 

4.66 

3.35 

30.00 

8.82 

0.676 

3.036 

103.2 

3.90 

3.42 

C  3 

10 

25.00 

7.35 

0.529 

2.889 

91.0 

3.40 

3.52 

20.00 

5.88 

0.382 

2.742 

78.7 

2.85 

3.66 

15-00 

4-46 

0-240 

2-600 

66-9 

2-30 

3-87 

25.00 

7.35 

0.615 

2.815 

70.7 

2.98 

3.10 

20.00 

5.88 

0.452 

2.652 

60.8 

2.45 

3.21 

C  4 

9 

15.00 

4.41 

0.288 

2.488 

50.9 

1.95 

3.40 

13-25 

3-89 

0-230 

2-430 

47-3 

1.77 

3-49 

21.25 

6.25 

0.582 

2.622 

47.8 

2.25 

2.77 

18.75 

5.51 

0.490 

2.530 

43.8 

2.01 

2.82 

C  5 

8 

16.25 

4.78 

0.399 

2.439 

39.9 

1.78 

2.89 

13.75 

4.04 

0.307 

2.347 

36.0 

1.55 

2.98 

11.25 

3-35 

0-220 

2-260 

32  3 

1-33 

3-11 

19.75 

5.81 

0.633 

2.513 

33.2 

1.85 

2.39 

17.25 

5.07 

0.528 

2.408 

30.2 

1.62 

2.44 

C  6 

7 

14.75 

4.34 

0.423 

2.303 

27.2 

1.40 

2.50 

12.25 

3.60 

0.318 

2.198 

24.2 

1.19 

2.59 

9-75 

2-85 

0-210 

2-090 

21-1 

0-98 

2-72 

15.50 

4.56 

0.563 

2.283 

19.5 

1.28 

2.07 

13.00 

3.82 

0.440 

2.160 

17.3 

1.07 

2.13 

C  7 

6 

10.50 

3.09 

0.318 

2.038 

15.1 

0.88 

2.21 

8-00 

2-38 

0-200 

1-920 

13-0 

0-70 

2-34 

11.50 

3.38 

0.477 

2.037 

10.4 

0.82 

1.75 

C   8 

5 

9.00 

2.65 

0.330 

1.890 

8.9 

0.64 

1.83 

6-50 

1.95 

0-190 

1-750 

7-4 

O-48 

1-95 

7.25 

2.13 

0.325 

1.725 

4.6 

0.44 

1.46 

C  9 

4 

6.25 

1.84 

0.252 

1.652 

4.2 

0.38 

1.51 

5.25 

1.55 

0-180 

1.580 

3-8 

0-32 

1-56 

6.00 

1.76 

0.362 

1.602 

2.1 

0.31 

1.08 

C72 

3 

5.00 

1.47 

0.264 

1.504 

1.8 

0.25 

1.12 

4-00 

1.19 

0-170 

1-410 

1-6 

0-20 

1  17 

L  =  safe  load  in  pounds  uniformly  distributed;    Z  =  span  in  feet. 

AT  =  moment  of  forces  in  foot-pounds  ;  C  and  C'  =  coefficients  given  on  oppo- 

site page. 

Weights  in  heavy  print  are  standard,  others  are  special. 

IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 

CHANNELS. 


473 


10 

11 

12 

13 

-14 

15 

16 

«&S 

"i-O 
co  Jr!  03 

^"Sd-g 

afB*8 

£3 

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113.8 

Utt^ 

rt  , 

Section  M  o  c 
Neutral  Ax 
80  pendicular 
at  Centre. 

i 

Coefficient  of 
for  Fibre  81 
Q  16,000  Lbs. 
In.  Use 
Buildings. 

Coefficient  of 
for  Fibre  81 
0  12,500  Lbs. 
In.  Use 
Bridges. 

sol 

IX 

Distance  of 
H  of  Gravity 
Outside  of  ' 

M 

0) 

2 
a 
.2 

1 

02 

.868 

57.4 

611900 

478000 

8.53 

0.823 

.873 

53.7 

572700 

447400 

8.71 

0.803 

.882 

50.0 

533500 

416800 

8.92 

0.788 

.893 

46.3 

494200 

386100 

9.15 

0.783 

C  1 

.908 

42.7 

455000 

355500 

9.43 

0.789 

•912 

41-7 

444500 

347300 

9-50 

0-794 

.751 

32.8 

350200 

273600 

6.60 

0.722 

.757 

29.9 

318800 

249100 

6.81 

0.694 

.768 

26.9 

287400 

224500 

7.07 

0.677 

C  3 

.785 

24.0 

256100 

200000 

7.36 

0.678 

.805 

21-4 

227800 

178000 

7-67 

0-704 

.672 

23.1 

246400 

192500 

5.17 

0.695 

.672 

20.6 

220300 

172100 

5.40 

0.651 

.680 

18.2 

194100 

151700 

5.67 

0.620 

C  3 

.696 

15.7 

168000 

131200 

5.97 

0.609 

•718 

13-4 

142700 

111500 

6-33 

0639 

.637 

15.7 

167600 

130900 

4.84 

0.615 

.646 

13.5 

144100 

112600 

5.12 

0.585 

.665 

11.3 

120500 

94200 

5.49 

0.590 

C  4 

.674 

10-5 

112200 

87600 

5  63 

0-607 

.600 

11.9 

127400 

99500 

4.23 

0.587 

,603 

11.0 

116900 

91300 

4.38 

0.567 

.610 

10.0 

106400 

83200 

4.54 

0.556 

C  5 

.619 

9.0 

96000 

75000 

4.72 

0.557 

.630 

8-1 

86100 

67300 

4-94 

0-576 

.565 

9.5 

101100 

79000 

3.48 

0.583 

.564 

8.6 

92000 

71800 

3.64 

0.555 

.568 

7.8 

82800 

64700 

3.80 

0.535 

C  6 

.575 

6.9 

73700 

57500 

3.99 

0.528 

.586 

6-0 

66800 

52200 

4-22 

0-546 

.529 

6.5 

69500 

54300 

2.91 

0.546 

.529 

5.8 

61600 

48100 

3.09 

0.517 

.534 

5.0 

53800 

42000 

3.  28 

0.503 

C  7 

.542 

4-3 

46200 

36100 

352 

0-517 

.493 

4.2 

44400 

34700 

2.34 

0.508 

1 

.493 

3.5 

37900 

29600 

2.56 

0.481 

C  8 

.498 

3-0 

31600 

24700 

2-79 

0-489 

.455 

2.3 

24400 

19000 

1.85 

0.463 

.454 

2.1 

22300 

17400 

1.96 

0.458 

C  9 

.453 

1-9 

20200 

15800 

2-06 

0-464 

.421 

1.4 

14700 

11500 

1.07 

0.459 

.415 

1.2 

13100 

10300 

1.19 

0.443 

C72 

.409 

1-1 

11600 

91OO 

1-31 

0-443 

CorC'. 


M'  = 


Cor  C7 

8 


The  sectional  index  numbers  in  the  previous  tables  refer  to  sections  in 
the  Carnegie  Steel  Co.'s  Handbook. 


474  IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLES  ON  THE  PROPERTIES 
OF  STANDARD  AND  SPECIAL  I  BEAMS  AND 
CHANNELS. 

The  tables  on  I  beams  and  channels  are  calculated  for  all 
weights  to  which  each  pattern  is  rolled. 

Columns  12  and  13  in  the  tables  for  I  beams  and  channels 
give  coefficients  by  the  help  of  which  the  safe,  uniformly  dis- 
tributed load  may  be  readily  and  quickly  determined.  To 
do  this,  it  is  only  necessary  to  divide  the  coefficient  given  by 
the  span  or  distance  between  supports  in  feet. 

If  a  section  is  to  be  selected  (as  will  usually  be  the  case) 
intended  to  carry  a  certain  load  for  a  length  of  span  already 
determined  on,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  ascertain  the  coeffi- 
cient which  this  load  and  span  will  require  and  refer  to  the 
table  for  a  section  having  a  coefficient  of  this  value.  The 
coefficient  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  load  in  pounds  uni- 
formly distributed  by  the  span  length  in  feet. 

In  case  the  load  is  not  uniformly  distributed,  but  is  con- 
centrated at  the  middle  of  the  span,  multiply  the  load  by  2  and 
then  consider  it  as  uniformly  distributed.  The  deflection  will 
be  T8ff  of  the  deflection  for  the  latter  load. 

For  other  cases  of  loading,  obtain  the  bending  moment  in 
foot-pounds  (the  most  common  cases  are  given  on  page  478) ; 
this  multiplied  by  8  will  give  the  coefficient  required. 

If  the  loads  are  quiescent,  the  coefficients  for  fibre  stress 
of  16,000  pounds  per  square  inch  for  steel  may  be  used;  but 
if  moving  loads  are  to  be  provided  for,  the  coefficient  for  12,500 
pounds  should  be  taken.  Inasmuch  as  the  effects  of  impact 
may  be  very  considerable  (the  stresses  produced  in  an  unyield- 
ing, inelastic  material  by  a  load  suddenly  applied  being  double 
those  produced  by  the  same  load  in  a  quiescent  state),  it  will 
sometimes  be  advisable  to  use  still  smaller  fibre  stresses  than 
those  given  in  the  tables.  In  such  cases  the  coefficients  can 
readily  be  determined  by  proportion.  Thus,  for  a  fibre  stress 
of  8000  pounds  per  square  inch,  the  coefficient  will  equal  the 
coefficient  for  16,000  pounds  fibre  stress  divided  by  2. 

The  section  moduli  are  used  to  determine  the  fibre  stress 
per  square  inch  in  a  beam  or  other  shape,  subjected  to  bending 
or  transverse  stresses,  by  simply  dividing  the  same  into  the 
bending  moment  expressed  in  inch-pounds. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION.  475 

Column  14  in  the  table  of  the  " Properties  of  Beams"  gives 
the  distance  c.  t.  c.  of  beams  making  the  radii  of  gyration  equal 
for  both  axes. 

The  length  of  a  beam  used  as  a  strut  should  not  exceed  125 
times  its  least  radius  of  gyration. 

Column  14  in  the  table  of  the  "  Properties  of  Standard 
Channels"  gives  the  distance  which  the  channels  should  be 
placed  back  to  back  to  make  the  radii  of  gyration  equal  for 
both  axes.  Column  15  in  the  same  table  can  be  used  to  obtain 
the  radius  of  gyration  for  struts  consisting  of  two  channels 
when  the  distance  back  to  back  varies  from  that  given  in  the 
table. 

These  tables  have  all  been  prepared  with  great  care.  No 
approximations  have  entered  into  any  of  the  calculations,  so 
that  the  figures  given  may  be  relied  upon  as  accurate. 

Examples. — I.  What  section  of  I  beam  will  be  required  to 
carry  40,000  Ibs.  uniformly  distributed,  including  its  own  weight, 
over  a  span  of  16  ft.  between  supports,  allowing  a  fibre  stress 
of  16,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch? 

Answer.— The  coefficient  (C)  required  =  40,000X16  =  640,000. 

In  table  of  Properties  of  I  Beams,  page  469,  look  in  column 
12  for  the  nearest  number  corresponding  to  640,000,  which  is 
648,200.  Therefore  the  beam  to  be  used  is  15  in.  45  Ibs. 

The  tables  on  pages  463  to  465  for  I  beams  give  the  loads 
which  a  beam  will  carry  safely  (distributed  uniformly  over  its 
length)  for  the  distances  between  supports  indicated.  These 
loads  include  the  weight  of  the  beam,  which  must  be  deducted 
in  order  to  arrive  at  the  net  load  which  the  beam  will  carry. 
On  pages  466  to  467  will  also  be  found  the  safe  loads  for 
channels 

For  beams  of  heavier  sections  than  those  calculated  in  the 
tables,  a  separate  column  of  corrections  is  given  for  each  size, 
stating  the  proper  increase  of  safe  load  for  every  additional 
pound  in  the  weight  per  foot  of  beam.  The  values  given  are 
based  on  a  maximum  fibre  stress  of  16,000  pounds  per  square 
inch. 


476  IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


GENERAL  FORMULAE  ON  THE  FLEXURE  OF  BEAMS  OF 
ANY  CROSS-SECTION. 

Let  A  =  area  of  section  in  square  inches, 

Z  =  length  of  span  in  inches, 
W  =  load  uniformly  distributed  in  pounds, 
M  =  bending  moment  in  inch-pounds, 
h  =  height  of  cross-section,  out  to  out,  in  inches, 
n  =  distance  of  centre  of  gravity  of  section,  from  top  or 

from  bottom,  in  inches, 

/  =  stress  per  square  inch  in  extreme  fibres  of  beam,  either 

top  or  bottom,   in  pounds,   according  as  n  relates 

to   distance   from   top   or   from   bottom   of   section, 

D  =  maximum  deflection  in  inches, 

/  =  moment    of    inertia    of    section    neutral    axis    through 

centre  of  gravity, 
/"  =  moment  of  inertia  of  section  neutral  axis  parallel  to 

above,  but  not  through  centre  of  gravity, 
d  =  distance  between  these  neutral  axes, 
S  =  section  modulus, 
r  =  radius  of  gyration  in  inches, 
E  =  modulus  of  elasticity  for  steel  29,000,000; 

then :   S  = ,  r 


Mn       M_ 
'I         S' 


Win 


81    ~8S' 


~_  5W13  for  beam  supported  at  both  ends  and  uni- 

~384EI  formly  loaded, 
j.  _    PI3     for  beam  supported  at  both  ends  and  loaded 

4SEI  with  a  single  load  P  at  middle, 
^   Wl3    for  beam  fixed  at  one  end  and  unsupported 
8EI    at  the  other  and  uniformly  loaded, 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


477 


PZ3     for  beam  fixed  at  one  end  and  unsupported 
3EI~  at  other  and  loaded  with  a  single  load  P  at 

the  latter  end. 

SPECIAL  CASES  OF  LOADING. — I.  Beam  loaded  by  a  single 
load  P  at  a  point  distant  b  feet  from  the  left  hand  and  a  feet 
from  the  right-hand  support. 

1  =  length  of  beam  between  supports  =  a  + 6. 

Pressure  or  reaction  at  left-hand  support  =  Py  and  at  right- 
hand  support  =  Py. 

Maximum  bending  moment  neglecting  dead  weight  of  beam 
occurs  at  point  of  application  of  the  load  and  =— -j — . 

P  =  load  given  in  tables  pages  463  to  467  X  x-r->. 

When  a  =  b  =  $l: 

P  PI 

Reaction  =  — ;    maximum   bending  moment  =  —  and   P  =  load 

given  in  tables  X^. 

II.  Beam  fixed  at  one  end  and  unsupported  at  the  other, 
I  representing  the  length  of  beam  from  end  to  support. 

If  loaded  by  a  uniformly  distributed  load  W: 

Wl 

Maximum  bending  moment  occurs  at  support  and  =  -77-. 

z 

TF=load  given  in  tables  pages  463  to  467 Xi 
If  loaded  with  a  single  load  P  at  its  extremity: 
Maximum  bending  moment  occurs  at  support  and  =  PZ. 
P  =  load  given  in  tables  X^. 

When  beams  have  no  lateral  support  the  s'afe  load  is  given  in 
the  following  table: 

BEAMS  WITHOUT  LATERAL  SUPPORT. 


Length  of  Beam. 


Proportion  of  Tabular  Load  Form- 
ing Greatest  Safe  Load. 


20  times  flange  width 

Whole  tabular  load 

30     ' 

«         • 

9/10 

• 

40     ' 

«         . 

8/10 

« 

50     ' 

.. 

7/10 

• 

60     ' 

••         * 

6/10 

• 

70     ' 

5/10 

478 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


BENDING    MOMENTS    AND    DEFLECTIONS    OF    BEAMS    UNDER 
VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  LOADING. 


W  =  total  load. 
I  =  length  of  beam. 


7  =  moment  of  inertia. 
E  =  modulus  of  elasticity. 


(1)  Beam  fixed  atone  end  and  loaded 
at  the  other. 


Safe  load  =  i  that  given  in  tables. 
Maximum  bending  moment  at  point 
of  support  =  Wl. 

Maximum    shear    at    point    of    sup- 
port =  W. 

Wl3 
Deflection  =  —=^ 


(2)  Beam  fixed  at  one  end  and 
formly  loaded. 


Safe  load  =  }  that  given  in  tables. 
Maximum      bending      moment     at 

point  of  support  —  ~n~- 

Maximum   shear  at   point   of  sup- 
port =  W. 

Deflection  =  — --. 


(3)  Beam    supported    at    both    ends, 
single  load  in  the  middle. 


Safe  load  =  £  that  given  in  tables. 
Maximum  bending  moment  at  middle 

of  beam  =  -— . 

Maximum    shear    at    points    of    sup- 
port =  $W. 

Wl3 
Deflection  = 


(4)  Beam  supported  at  both  ends 
and  uniformly  loaded. 


Safe  load  =  that  given  in  tables. 
Maximum  bending  moment  at  mid- 

t  v  Wl 

die  01  beam=-^— . 

o 

Maximum  shear  at  points  of  sup- 
port =  %W. 

WP 
Deflection  = 


(5)  Beam    supported. at    both    ends, 
single  unsymmetrical  load. 


(6)  Beam  supported  at  both  end,0 
two  symmetrical  loads. 


y,  \'i  o 


I 


-«--»;  *"°" 
1 


Safe  load  =  that  given  in  tables  X  JT-T- 

8ao 

Maximum    bending     moment     under 

load  -™S. 

Maximum  shears:    at    support    ntjar 

Wb  Wa 

a  =  —r-;  at  other  support  =—j-. 

Max.  deflec. - 


Safe  load  =^=that  given  in  tables  XT  — 
Maximum  bending  moment  between 


Maximum  shear  between  load  and 
nearer  support  =  £  W. 


Max.  deflection  = 


IRON  AND  STEEL  CONSTRUCTION. 


479 


TROUGH-PLATE  FLOORING. — The  trough  and  corrugated  plate 
sections  shown  below  are  used  for  floors  of  bridges  and  fire- 
proof buildings,  as  shown  in  Fig.  243. 

The  following  tables  give  weights  per  lineal  foot  of  each 
rolled  section  and  per  square  foot  of  floor  surface  for  thicknesses 
varying  by  xg  inch;  also  the  section  modulus  for  1  foot  in  width 
and  the  safe  loads  per  square  foot  for  spans  of  different  lengths, 
using  fibre  stresses  of  12,000  and  10,000  pounds. 


FIG.  243. 
PROPERTIES  OF  TROUGH  SECTION. 


Section  index  
Thickness  of  base. 

M  10 

£ 

M  11 

T^r 

M  12 
A 

M  13 
ft 

M14 

4. 

Weight  per  lineal  foot  
Weight  per  square  foot.  .  .  . 

16.3 
25.00 

nub 

28.15 

19*7 
31.31 

211.4 
34  48 

23.2 
37  74 

Section    modulus    for    1    ft.    in 
width  

11.56 

13.06 

14.57 

16.12 

17.67 

SAFE  LOADS  IN  POUNDS  PER  SQUARE  FOOT  OF  FLOOR  FOR 
SPANS  OF  DIFFERENT  LENGTHS. 


Span  in 

M10 

M  11 

M  12 

M  13 

M14 

Feet. 

12,000 
Lbs. 

10,000 
Lbs. 

12,000 
Lbs. 

10,000 
Lbs. 

12,000 
Lbs. 

10,000 
Lbs. 

12,000 
Lbs. 

10,000 
Lbs. 

12,000 
Lbs. 

10,000 
Lbs. 

5 

3699 

3083 

4179 

3483 

4662 

3885 

5158 

4298  5654 

4712 

6 

2569 

2141 

2902 

2418 

3238 

2698 

3582 

2985 

3927 

3272 

7 

1887 

1573 

2132 

1777 

2379 

1983 

2632 

2193 

2885 

2404 

8 

1445 

1204 

1633 

1361 

1821 

1517 

2015 

1679 

2209 

1841 

9 

1142 

952 

1290 

1075 

1439 

1199 

1592 

1327 

1745 

1454 

10 

925 

771 

1045 

871 

1166 

972 

1290 

1075 

1414 

1178 

11 

764 

637 

864 

720 

963 

803 

1066 

888 

1168 

973 

12 

642 

535 

726 

605 

809 

674 

896 

747 

982 

818 

13 

547 

456 

618 

515 

690 

575 

763 

636 

836 

697 

14 

472 

393 

533 

444 

595 

496 

658 

548 

721 

601 

15 

411 

343 

464 

387 

518 

432 

573 

478 

628 

523 

16 

361 

301 

408 

340 

455 

379 

504 

420 

552 

460 

Safe  loads  given  include  weight  of  section. 


480  ELECTRICAL  TERMS,  ETC. 

Electric  Wiring",  etc.  —  During  the  progress  of  this 
part  of  the  work,  the  superintendent  must  pay  close  attention, 
as  the  conduits  are  put  in  place,  to  see  that  they  are  laid  properly, 
and  all  outlets  left  at  the  proper  location;  he  should  see  that  no 
more  bends  are  put  in  a  line  of  conduits  than  are  absolutely 
necessary,  and  as  the  conduits  are  being  put  together  he  should 
see  that  the  inside  end  of  each  piece  is  reamed  out  so  there 
will  be  no  burr  to  catch  the  steel  fishing-wire  or  to  tear  the 
covering  of  the  electric  wire  as  it  is  pulled  through.  The  dif- 
ferent pieces  of  the  conduit  tubes  should  be  screwed  together 
so  that  they  will  butt  in  the  centre  of  the  coupling. 

The  quarter-bends  in  the  tubing  should  not  be  less  than  a 
3-inch  radius.  When  the  wires  are  run  in  the  tubes  the  super- 
intendent should  see  that  no  extreme  force  is  required  to  pull 
them  through  and  that  the  covering  is  in  no  way  scratched  or 
torn.  He  should  see  that  all  splices  are  well  soldered  and 
covered,  and  should  permit  no  splice  to  be  made  in  a  straight 
run  of  wire. 

The  superintendent  should  provide  himself  with  samples  of 
the  wires  to  be  used  so  as  to  determine  if  the  proper-sized  con- 
duits are  being  put  in.  The  conduits  should  be  large  enough 
so  that  the  wires  can  be  easily  drawn  through  them. 

Electrical  Terms,  etc.  —  A  broken  circuit  is  one  in 
which  its  conducting  elements  are  disconnected  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  prevent  the  current  from  flowing. 

A  closed  or  completed  circuit  is  one  whose  conducting  elements 
are  so  connected  as  to  allow  the  current  to  flow. 

A  circuit  is  said  to  be  grounded  when  the  earth  or  ground 
forms  a  part  of  the  conducting  path,  and  conducts  the  current 
into  the  earth. 

AMPERE. — A  current  of  water  is  the  rate  of  flow,  or  the 
intensity  or  strength  at  which  the  water  flows.  We  say,  for 
instance,  the  water  flows  through  a  pipe  at  the  rate  of  1  gallon 
per  second.  Similarly  the  unit  of  the  electric  current  is  one 
coulomb  per  second.  This  is  the  ampere  or  unit  rate  of  flow, 
or  unit  of  current  strength,  or  simply  the  unit  of  current  of 
electricity. 

In  the  case  of  the  waterflow,  we  have  no  single  word  to 
express  the  strength  of  the  current,  but  have  to  speak  of  the 
quantity  and  time. 

OHM. — A  pipe  of  small  diameter  offers  a  greater  resistance 
to  the  flow  of  water  than  a  pipe  of  larger  dimension.  So  a  wire 


ELECTRICAL  TERMS,  ETC.  481 

of  small  diameter  offers  more  resistance  to  an  electric  current 
than  a  wire  of  larger  diameter.  If  we  double  the  cross-section 
of  a  wire  we  halve  its  resistance.  If  we  double  the  length  of 
a  wire,  we  double  its  resistance.  If  we  double  the  cross-section 
and  double  the  length  of  a  wire,  the  resistance  remains  the  same. 
This  law  may  be  expressed  thus :  For  a  wire  of  a  given  substance 
the  resistance  is  directly  proportional  to  the  length,  and  inversely 
proportional  to  the  cross-section.  The  unit  of  electrical  resist- 
ance is  called  an  ohm. 

The  unit  now  universally  adopted  is  called  the  international 
ohm  and  is  the  resistance  offered  by  a  column  of  pure  mercury 
106.3  centimeters  in  length  and  1  square  millimeter  in  sectional 
area  at  32°  Fahr.,  or  the  temperature  of  melting  ice.  These 
dimensions  in  inches  would  be  41.85  inches  in  length,  and  a 
sectional  area  of  .00155  square  inch. 

In  the  table  on  page  482  are  given  various  data  respecting 
the  copper  wire  used  in  electrical  installations.  In  the  first 
column  is  the  gauge  number  by  American  wire-gauge;  in  the 
second  column  is  the  diameter  as  measured  in  mils  (one  mil  one 
one-thousandth  of  an  inch) ;  the  third  column  shows  the  area 
of  cross-section  in  circular  mils.  It  is  usual  to  adopt  this 
method  for  round  wire  instead  of  the  old  way  of  expressing 
the  area  in  fractions  of  a  square  inch,  in  which  case  the  diameter 
is  squared  and  the  product  multiplied  by  .7854.  If  the  second 
operation  be  omitted,  and  the  diameter,  as  measured  in  thou- 
sandths of  an  inch,  be  only  squared  (or  multiplied  by  itself), 
the  result  is  expressed  in  circular  thousandths  or  circular  mils. 

Example. — What  is  the  area  in  circular  mils  of  a  wire  2 \  inches 
in  diameter? 

Answer. — 2|  inches  =  2500  mils.  25002=  2500  X 2500  -  6,250,000 
circular  mils. 

The  resistance  of  copper  wire  being  low,  a  unit  of  length  of 
1000  feet  is  usually  taken  in  tables  of  resistance,  and  this  unit 
is  considered  in  the  eighth  column. 

The  resistance  of  any  length  of  conductor  may  be  found  by 
the  following  formula: 

R=™±- 
1000* 

Where  R= required  resistance; 
L= length  of  conductor; 
#1  =  resistance  per  1000  feet  of  conductor. 


482         RESISTANCE,  ETC.,  OF  COPPER  WIRE. 


1* 


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RESISTANCE,  ETC.,  OF  COPPER  WIRE.          483 


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484       EQUIVALENTS  OF  ELECTRICAL  UNITS. 

Rule. — To  find  the  resistance  of  any  length  of  wire,  divide 
that  length  in  feet  by  1000,  and  multiply  by  the  figure  giving 
the  resistance  of  that  wire  per  thousand  feet,  as  found  in  the 
table  on  page  482. 

VOLT. — The  unit  of  electric  pressure,  or  electromotive  force, 
or  difference  of  potential,  is  called  the  volt.  We  speak  of  an 
electromotive  force  of  so  many  volts  as  we  might  speak  of  a 
head  of  water  of  so  many  feet,  or  of  a  steam  pressure  of  so 
many  pounds  per  square  inch.  Water  may  fall  from  a  higher 
to  a  lower  level,  a  certain  vertical  distance,  say  of  10  feet;  so 
of  electricity  it  is  said  to  fall  through  a  difference  of  potential 
of  say  10  volts. 

With  a  known  resistance  in  ohms  and  a  known  strength  of 
current  in  amperes,  the  electromotive  force  in  volts  is  deter- 
mined by  Ohm's  law,  for,  by  transposing, 

E 
C  =  -    may  be  written  E  =  CR. 


WATT.  —  This  unit  of  power  is  called  the  volt-ampere,  or  the 
watt.     One  watt  equals  JT-J-T  of  a  horse-power,  or  1  horse-power 

equals  746  watts.     Hence  it   is   expressed  in  electrical  work 
thus: 


Horse-power  =  or,  watts  =  H.P.  X  746. 


As  1  watt  is  the  product  of  1  ampere  and  1  volt,  it  can  be 
seen  that  work  can  be  done  at  the  same  rate  with  great  current 
strength  and  low  electromotive  force,  or  with  small  current 
strength  and  high  electromotive  force;  for  instance,  100  amperes 
X10  volts  =  1000  watts,  and  10  amperes  X 100  volts  =  1000  watts. 


EQUIVALENTS  OF  ELECTRICAL  UNITS. 

1  Horse-power  =  33, 000  foot-pounds  per  minute. 

1  Kilowatt  =  44 ,235  foot-pounds  per  minute. 

1  Horse-power  =  746  watts. 

1  Kilowatt  =  1.34  H.P. 

1  B.T.U.  (British  Thermal  Unit)  =  772  foot-pounds. 


EQUIVALENTS  OF  ELECTRICAL  UNITS.       485 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


1  Watt  =  44. 236  foot-pounds  per  minute. 

1  Watt  =  2654. 16  foot-pounds  per  hour. 

1  H.P.  =42.746  B.T.U.  per  minute. 

1  H.P.  =2564.76  B.T.U.  per  hour. 

1  K.W.  =0.955  B.T  U.  per  second. 

1  K.W.  =  57.3  B.T.U.  per  minute. 

1  K.W.  =3438  B.T.U.  per  hour. 

1  B.T.U.  =  17.452  watt  minutes. 

1  B.T.U.  =0.2909  watt  hours. 

Latent  heat  of  evaporation  of  water  =  966  B.T.U. 

Latent  heat  of  melting  of  water  =  142  B.T.U. 

To  evaporate  1  pound  water  from  and  at  212°  =  16. 859  K.W. 
minutes. 

To  evaporate  1  pound  water  from  and  at  2 12°  =  0.281  K.W. 
hours. 

Weight  per  cubic  foot  of  water  =  62. 42  pounds. 

Weight  per  gallon  of  water  =  8. 33  pounds. 


Watts  per 
Candle-power. 

50  Volts. 

52  Volts. 

100  Volts. 

3.1 

3.5 

4.0 

3.1 

3.5 

4.0 

3.1 

3.5 

8  C.P.  . 

.496 
.620 
.992 
1.240 
1.488 
1.984 

.56 
.70 
1.12 
1.40 
1.68 
2.24 

.64 
.80 
1.28 
1.60 
1.92 
2.56 

.477 
.596 
.954 
1.192 
1.431 
1.908 

.538 
.673 
1.077 
1.346 
1.615 
2.154 

.615 
.769 
1.231 
1.538 
1.846 
2.461 

.248 
.310 
.496 
.620 
.744 
.992 

.280 
.350 
.560 
.700 
.840 
1.120 

10  C.P  

16  C.P  
20  C.P  
24  C.P.  .  . 
32  C.P  

Series  Ry.  Lamps. 

Watts  per 
Candle-power. 

104  Volts. 

110  Volts. 

220V. 

500V. 

550V. 

600V. 

4.0 

.053 
.067 
.107 
.133 
.160 
.213 

3.1 

.238 
.298 
.477 
.596 
.715 
.954 

3.5 

.269 
.337 
.538 
.673 
.808 
1.077 

3.1 

.225 
.282 
.451 
.564 
.676 
.902 

3.5 

.255 
.318 
.520 
.636 
.764 
1.018 

4.0 

.145 
.182 
.291 
.363 
.436 
.582 

4.0 

4.0 

8  C.P  
10  C.P.  . 

.064 
.080 
.128 
.160 
.192 
.256 

.058 
.073 
.116 
.145 
.175 
.233 

16  C.P  
20  C.P  
24  C.P  
32  CP. 

AMPERES  PER  LAMP. — The  above  table  is  arranged  to  show 
the  amperes  per  lamp  for  lamps  of  different  candle-powers 
and  efficiencies  at  various  voltages.  The  upper  row  of  figures 
shows  the  voltage,  the  second  shows  the  watts  per  candle-power, 


486  INCANDESCENT  WIRING  TABLE. 

or  efficiency,   and  the  figures  below  show  the  corresponding 
amperes  per  lamp  for  different  candle-powers. 

This  table  is  made  in  accordance  with  the  best  information 
obtainable  from  manufacturers  on  the  efficiency  of  standard 
lamps  in  use.  Lamps  of  other  efficiencies  are  on  the  market, 
but  those  shown  are  standard  for  good  practice  at  the  present 
time. 

INCANDESCENT  WIRING  TABLE. 

The  table  on  page  487  is  arranged  to  enable  wiremen  to 
select  the  right  sizes  of  wire  for  service  connections  and 
inside  work.  The  figures  at  the  top  indicate  distance  in  feet 
to  centre  of  distribution,  in  reality  half  the  length  of  the  cir- 
cuit; the  four  columns  at  the  left  showing  the  number  of  16- 
candle-power  lamps  at  various  voltages;  the  other  figures 
showing  the  sizes  of  wire,  Brown  &  Sharpe  gauge,  to  be  used 
for  distributing  the  number  of  lamps  stated  at  the  distances 
indicated  and  with  the  loss  of  1  volt. 

For  example:  To  distribute  30  lamps  of  110  volts  at  a  dis- 
tance of  80  feet  with  a  loss  of  1  volt.  In  column  of  110- volt 
lamps  find  the  number  30,  then  follow  the  same  line  of  figures 
to  the  right  until  the  column  headed  80  is  reached,  and  it  appears 
that  No.  6  wire  must  be  used. 

The  same  table  may  be  used  for  other  losses  than  1  volt 
by  dividing  the  given  number  of  lamps  by  the  number  of  volts 
to  be  lost,  then  with  this  product  proceed  as  before  in  the  table. 

For  example:  To  distribute  30  lamps  of  110  volts  at  a  dis- 
tance of  80  feet  with  a  loss  of  2  volts,  divide  30  by  2,  which 
gives  15,  then  find  15  in  the  column  headed  110  volts  and 
follow  the  same  line  of  figures  to  the  right  until  column  headed 
80  is  reached,  and  it  is  found  that  No.  8  wire  must  be  used. 

No  wire  smaller  than  No.  14  is  shown  in  the  table,  as  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  prohibits  the  use  of  a 
smaller  size.  Odd  sizes  smaller  than  No.  5  are  not  commercial 
and  are  therefore  omitted. 

In  calculating  the  sizes  of  wire  as  shown  in  the  incandes- 
cent wiring  table  a  formula  (VI)  has  been  used  in  which  there 
is  a  constant  10.7,  the  number  of  circular  mils  in  a  copper 
wire  which  would  have  a  resistance  of  1  ohm  for  1  foot  of  length. 
1  ampere  through  1  ohm  resistance  loses  1  volt.  To  determine 
the  size  of  wire  necessary  for  carrying  a  given  current  a  given 
distance  in  feet,  multiply  the  numbe*  of  feet  by  2  to  obtain  the 


INCANDESCENT  WIRING  TABLE. 


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INCANDESCENT  WIRING  TABLE. 


TABLE  FOR  FORMULAS,  A,  B,  AND  C. 


Feet 
to  End  of 
Circuit. 

FeetX 
2X10.70 

Feet 
to  End  of 
Circuit. 

FeetX 
2X10.70 

Feet 
to  End  of 
Circuit. 

FeetX 
2X10.70 

5 

107 

300 

6,420 

690 

14,766 

10 

214 

305 

6,527 

700 

14,980 

15 

321 

310 

6,634 

710 

15,194 

20 

428 

315 

6,741 

720 

15,408 

25 

535 

320 

6,848 

730 

15,622 

30 

642 

325 

6,955 

740 

15,836 

35 

749 

330 

7,062 

750 

16,050 

40 

856 

335 

7,169 

760 

16,264 

45 

963 

340 

7,276 

770 

16,478 

50 

1070 

345 

7,383 

780 

16,692 

55 

1177 

350 

7,490 

790 

16,906 

60 

1284 

355 

7,597 

800 

17,120 

65 

1391 

360 

7,704 

810 

17,334 

70 

1498 

365 

7,811 

820 

17,548 

75 

1605 

370 

7,918 

830 

17,762 

80 

1712 

375 

8,025 

840 

17,976 

85 

1819 

380 

8,132 

850 

18,190 

90 

1926 

385 

8,239 

860 

18,404 

95 

2033 

390 

8,346 

870 

18,618 

100 

2140 

395 

8,453 

880 

18,832 

105 

2247 

400 

8,560 

890 

19,046 

110 

2354 

405 

8,667 

900 

19,260 

115 

2461 

410 

8,774 

910 

19,474 

120 

2568 

415 

8,881 

920 

19,688 

125 

2675 

420 

8,988 

930 

19,902 

130 

2782 

425 

9,095 

940 

20,116 

135 

2889 

430 

9,202 

950 

20,330 

140 

2996 

435 

9,309 

960 

20,544 

145 

3103 

440 

9,416 

970 

20,758 

150 

3210 

445 

9,523 

980 

20,972 

155 

3317 

450 

9,630 

990 

21,186 

160 

3424 

455 

9,737 

1000 

21,400 

165 

3531 

460 

9,844 

1010 

21,614 

170 

3638 

465 

9,951 

1020 

21,828 

175 

3745 

470 

10,058 

1030 

22,042 

180 

3852 

475 

10,165 

1040 

22,256 

185 

3959 

480 

10,272 

1050 

22,470 

190 

4066 

485 

10,379 

1060 

22,684 

195 

4173 

490 

10,486 

1070 

22,898 

200 

4280 

495 

10,593 

1080 

23,112 

205 

4387 

500 

10,700 

1090 

23,326 

210 

4494 

510 

10,914 

1100 

23,540 

215 

4601 

520 

11,128 

1110 

23,754 

220 

4708 

530 

11,342 

1120 

23,968 

225 

4815 

540 

11,556 

1130 

24,182 

230 

4922 

550 

11,770 

1140 

24,396 

235 

5029 

560 

11,984 

1150 

24,610 

240 

5136 

570 

12,198 

1160 

24,824 

245 

5243 

580 

12,412 

1170 

25,038 

250 

5350 

590 

12,626 

1180 

25,252 

255 

5457 

600 

12,840 

1190 

25,466 

260 

5564 

610 

13,054 

1200 

25,680 

265 

5671 

620 

13,268 

1210 

25,894 

270 

5778 

630 

13,482 

1220 

26,108 

275 

5885 

640 

13,696 

1230 

26,322 

280 

5992 

650 

13,910 

1240 

26,536 

285 

6099 

660 

14,124 

1250 

26,750 

290 

6206 

670 

14,338 

1260 

26,964 

295 

6313 

680 

14,552 

1270 

27,178 

INCANDESCENT  WIRING  TABLE. 


489 


TABLE  FOR  FORMULAS,  A,  B,  AND  C. 


Feet 
to  End  of 
Circuit. 

FeetX 
2X10.70 

Feet 
to  End  of 
Circuit. 

FeetX 
2X10.70 

Feet 
to  End  of 
Circuit. 

FeetX 
2X10.70 

1280 

27  392 

1870 

40,018 

4200 

89,880 

1290 

27  61  '6 

1880 

40,232 

4250 

90,959 

1300 

27820 

1890 

40,446 

4300 

92,020 

1310 

28,034 

1900 

40,660 

4350 

93,090 

1320 

28,248 

1910 

40,874 

4400 

94,160 

1330 

23,462 

1920 

41,088 

4450 

95,230 

1340 

23,676 

1930 

41,302 

4500 

96,300 

1350 

28,890 

1940 

41,516 

4550 

97,370 

1360 

29,104 

1950 

41,730 

4600 

98,440 

1370 

29,318 

1960 

41,944 

4650 

99,510 

1380 

29,532 

1970 

42,158 

4700 

100,580 

1390 

29,746 

1980 

42,372 

4750 

101,650 

1400 

29,960 

1990 

42,586 

4800 

102,720 

1410 

30,174 

2000 

42,800 

4850 

103,790 

1420 

30,388 

2050 

43,870 

4900 

104,860 

1430 

30,602 

2100 

44,940 

4950 

105,930 

1440 

30,816 

2150 

46,010 

5000 

107,000 

1450 

31,030 

2200 

47,080 

5050 

108,070 

1460 

31,244 

2250 

48,150 

5100 

109,140 

1470 

31,458 

2300 

49,220 

5150 

110,210 

1480 

31,672 

2350 

50,290 

5200 

111,280 

1490 

31,886 

2400 

51,360 

5250 

112,350 

1500 

32,100 

2450 

52,430   i 

5300 

113,420 

1510 

32,314 

2500 

53,500 

5350 

114,490 

1520 

32,528 

2550 

54,570 

5400 

115,560 

1530 

32,742 

2600 

55,640 

5450 

116,630 

1540 

32,956 

2650 

56,710 

5500 

117,700 

1550 

33,170 

2700 

57,780 

5550 

118,770 

1560 

33,384 

2750 

58,850 

5600 

119,840 

1570 

33,598 

2300 

59,920 

5650 

120,910 

1580 

33,812 

2850 

60,990 

5700 

121,980 

1590 

34,028 

2900 

62,060 

5750 

123,050 

1600 

34,240 

2950 

63,130 

5800 

124,120 

1610 

34,454 

3000 

64,200 

5850 

125,190 

1620 

34,668 

3050 

65,270 

5900 

126,260 

1630 

34,882 

3100 

66,340 

5950 

127,330 

1640 

35,096 

3150 

67,410 

6000 

128,400 

1650 

35,310 

3200 

68,480 

1660 

35,524 

3250 

69,550 

Miles. 

1670 

35,738 

3300 

70,620 

i 

564,96 

1680 

35,952 

3350 

71,690 

1 

112,992 

1690 

36,166 

3400 

72,760 

H 

169,488 

1700 

36,380 

3450 

73,830 

2 

225,984 

1710 

36,594 

3500 

74,900 

2* 

282,480 

1720 

36,808 

3550 

75,970 

3 

338,976 

1730 

37,022 

3600 

77,040 

3* 

395,472 

1740 

37,236 

3650 

78,110 

4 

451,968 

1750 

37,450 

3700 

79,180 

4* 

508,464 

1760 

37,664 

3750 

80,250 

5 

564,960 

1770 

37,878 

3800 

81,320 

5* 

621,456 

1780 

38,092 

3850 

82,390 

6 

677,952 

1790 

38,306 

3900 

83,460 

6* 

734,448 

1800 

38,520 

3950 

84,530 

7 

790,944 

1810 

38,734 

4000 

85,600 

7* 

847,440 

1820 

38,948 

4050 

86,670 

8 

903,936 

1830 

39,162 

4100 

87,740 

8* 

960,432 

1840 

39,376 

4150 

88,810 

9 

1,016,928 

1850 

39,590 

9* 

1,073,424 

1860 

39,804 

10 

1,129,920 

490  INCANDESCENT  WIRING  TABLE. 

,..    Feet X2X  10.7 X amperes 

(A )    Tr  ,.    , — 7 — =  circular  mils. 

Volts  lost 

Feet  X2X 10. 7  X  amperes 

CD)    ^r. : rj— =  volts  lost. 

Circular  mils 

/fr.    Circular  mils  X  volts  lost 

Feet  X2X  10.7          =amPeres- 

actual  length  of  circuit,  multiply  this  product  by  the  constant 
10.7  and  it  will  give  the  circular  mils  necessary  for  1  ohm 
resistance,  multiply  this  by  the  amperes  and  it  gives  the  circular 
mils  necessary  for  the  loss  of  1  volt.  Divide  this  last  result 
by  the  volts  lost  and  it  gives  the  circular  mils  necessary.  Hence 
the  formula  A. 

By  simply  transposing  the  terms  we  obtain  formula  B,  which 
can  be  used  to  determine  the  volts  lost  in  a  given  length  of 
wire  of  certain  size  carrying  a  certain  number  of  amperes. 

Again,  by  another  change  in  the  terms,  we  obtain  formula 
C,  which  shows  the  number  of  amperes  which  a  wire  of  given 
size  and  length  will  carry  at  a  given  number  of  volts  lost. 

The  table  on  pages  488,  489  has  been  arranged  for  the  pur- 
pose of  saving  time  in  the  use  of  these  formula.  It  shows  the 
result  of  FeetX2Xl0.7  for  various  distances  over  which  it  may 
be  desired  to  transmit  current. 

A  few  examples  will  assist  in  showing  the  use  of  the  formula) 
and  tables. 

Suppose  we  wish  to  distribute  300  16-candle-power  3.5  watt 
lamps  of  110  volts  at  a  distance  of  490  feet  with  a  loss  of  10  per 
cent: 

Using  formula  A, 

490  feet X2X  10.7  (find  it  in  table  on  page  488)  =  10.486. 
300  lamps  of  110  volts  =  152. 7  amperes. 
(See  table,  page  485,  for  amperes  per  lamp  and  multiply  by 

300.) 
10  per  cent  loss  on  110-volt  system  =  12.22  volts.     (See 

table  on  page  491.) 
10,486X152.7     amperes  =  1,601, 212     circular     mils-j- 12.22 

volts  lost  =  131 ,030  circular  mils. 

Table  on  page  482  shows  the  size  of  wire  for  this  number 
of  circular  mils  to  be  00. 

To  check  this  and  determine  exactly  the  volts  lost  in  this 
circuit  by  using  No.  00  wire,  use  formula  B,  as  follows: 

10,486X152.7   amperes  =  1,601, 212-7-133,079    circular  mils 
=  12.03  volts  lost. 


LOSS   OF  VOLTAGE. 


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INCANDESCENT  WIRING  TABLE.  493 

Suppose  it  is  desired  to  distribute  1000  lamps  at  a  distance 
of  1950  feet  by  3-wire  system,  viz.,  220  volts,  with  a  loss  of 
10  per  cent: 
Using  formula  A, 

1950  feetX2xl0.7  (see  table  on  page  489)  =41,730. 

1000  lamps  on  220- volt  system  =  291  amperes. 

(See  table  on  page  485  for  amperes  per  lamp  and  multiply 

by  1000.) 
10  per   cent  on  220-volt   system  =  24.44  volts  lost.     (See 

table  on  page  491.) 
41,730X291      amperes  =  12,143,430-r-  24.44      volts     lost  = 

496,867  circular  mils. 
500,000  circular  mils,  the  nearest  commercial  size,  should 

be  used. 
Check  this  as  before  by  formula  B. 

41 ,730  X 291  amperes  =  12,143,430-=-  500,000  circular  mils  = 

24.29  volts  lost. 

Suppose  we  wish  to  deliver  100  horse-power  to  a  500- 
volt  motor  at  a  distance  of  4850  feet  with  10  per  cent 
loss: 

Again  using  formula  A, 

4850  feetX2x  10.7  =  103,790. 

100  horse-power  at  500  volts  =  160  amperes.     (See  table 

on  page  492.) 
10  per  cent  loss  on    500- volt  system  =  55.5  volts.      (See 

table  on  page  491.) 
103,790X160     amperes  =  16,606,400-7- 55.5     volts  =  299,215 

circular  mils. 

300,000  circular  mils  cable  should  be  used. 
Check  this  as  before  by  formula  B. 

103,790  X 160  amperes  =  16,606,400-^  300,000  circular  mils  = 

55.35  volts  lost. 

To  ascertain  how  many  amperes  could  be  carried  to  a  dis- 
tance of  4850  feet  with  500  volts  with  10  per  cent  loss,  use 
formula  C: 

4850  feet X2X  10.7  =  103,790. 
10  per  cent  loss  on  500-volt  system  =  55.5  volts. 
300,000    circular    mils X 55.5    volts    lost-:- 103,790  =  160.42 
amperes,  which,  as  will  appear  by  reference  to  table  on 
page  492,  will  permit  the  use  of  100-horse-power  motor. 
The  following  table  gives  the  gauge  and  safe  carrying  capacity 
of  copper,  wire 


494      CARRYING  CAPACITY  OF  COPPER  WIRE. 
GAUGES  IN  CIRCULAR  MILS  AND  SAFE  CARRYING  CAPACITY 


d2 
Circular 

Mils. 

B.  &S. 

Brown 

& 
Sharpe 
Gauge. 

B.W.G 

Birm- 
ingham 
Wire 
Gauge. 

E.S.G. 

Edison 
Standard 
Gauge. 

Safe  Carrying  Capacity. 

Wire  heated  to  30°  F.  above  Tem- 
perature of  Surrounding  Air. 

Number 
of  Am- 
peres. 

Number 
of  55- 
volt 
Lamps, 
16  C.P. 

Number 
of  75- 
volt 
Lamps, 
16  C.P. 

Numbe 
of  110- 
volt 
Lamps 
16  C.P 

220,000 
211,600 
206,116 

0000 

obbb' 

220 

203 
197.3 
193.5 

203 
197 
193 

278 
270 
264 

406 
395 
387 

200,000 
190,000 
180,625 

;;:: 

000 

200 
190 

180 
170 

160 
150 

189.15 
182 
179.3 

189 
182 
179 

259 
249 
245 

378 
364 
359 

180,000 
170,000 
167,805 

bob' 

:::: 

174.8 
167.4 
165.8 

175 
167 
166 

240 
229 
227 

330 
335 
332 

160,000 
150,000 
144,400 

'  bo 

160 
152.5 
148.2 

160 
152 
148 

219 
208 
203 

320 
305 
296 

140,000 
133,079 
130,000 

bo 

140 
l30' 

114.8 
139.4 
136.9 

145 
139 
137 

199 
190 
188 

290 
279 
274 

120,000 
115,600 
110,000 

120 

lib' 

129 

125.4 
120.8 

129 

125 
121 

177 
171 
166 

258 
251 
242 

105,592 
100,000 
95,000 

0 

ibb' 

95 

117.2 
112.5 
108.2 

117 
112 
108 

160 
153 
148 

142 
136 
134 

234 
225 
216 

90,000 
85,000 
83,694 

"  i' 

i 

90 

85 

103.9 
99.5 
98.4 

104 
99 

98 

208 
199 
197 

191 
190 
181 

80,656 
80,000 
75,000 

2 

'so' 

75 

95.7 
95.1 
90.6 

96 
95 
91 

131 
130 
125 

70,000 
67,081 
66,373 

"2 

"3 

70 

86 
84 
83.1 

86 
84 
83 

118 
115 
114 

172 
168 
166 

65,000 
60,000 
56,644 

'  '  4 

65 
60 

55 

'so' 

81.4 
78.4 
73.4 

71.8 
69.5 
66.8 

81 
78 
73 

111 

107 
100 

163 
157 

147 

55,000 
52,634 
50,000 

3 

72 

69 
67 

99 
94 
92 

144 
139 
134 

48,400 
45,000 
41,742 

'  '  4 

5 

'45' 

65.2 
61.7 
58.4 

65 

P2 

58 

89 

85 
79 

131 
123 
117 

CARRYING  CAPACITY  OF  COPPER  WIRE.       495 

GAUGES  IN  CIRCULAR  MILS  AND  SAFE  CARRYING  CAPACITY— 

(Continued). 


a? 

Circular 
Mils. 

B.&S. 

Brown 
& 
Sharpe 
Gauge. 

B.W.G. 

Birm- 
ingham 
Wire 
Gauge. 

E.S.G. 

Edison 
Standard 
Gauge. 

Safe  Carrying  Capacity. 

Wire  heated  to  30°  F.  above  Tem- 
perature of  Surrounding  Air. 

Number 
of  Am- 
peres. 

Number 
of  55- 
volt 
Lamps, 
16C.P. 

Number 
of  75- 
volt 
Lamps, 
16  C.P. 

Number 
of  110- 
volt 
Lamps, 
16  C.P. 

116 
113 

102 

41,209 
40,000 
35,000 

6 

'  '46 
35 

57.8 
56.5 
51.1 

58 
56 
51 

79 

77 
70 

33,102 
32,400 
30,000 

5 

7 

"30 

49.1 
48.3 
46.6 

49 
48 
46 

67 
66 
63 

98 
97 
93 

27,225 
26,250 
25,000 

"  6 

8 

"25 

42.4 
41.2 
39.7 

42 
41 
40 

57 
56 
55 

85 
82 
79 

21,904 
20,816 
20,000 

•  '  y 

9 

"20 

36 
34.6 
33.6 

36 
34 
33 

49 

47 
45 

72 

69 
67 

17,956 
16,509 
15,000 

"8 

10 

"is 

'  '12 

31 
29.1 
27.1 

26.3 
24.4 
22.9 

31 

29 
27 

26 
24 
23 

42 
40 
37 

62 
58 
54 

14,400 
13,094 
12,000 

"9 

11 

36 
33 
31 

52 
49 
46 

11,881 
10,381 
9,025 

'  10 

12 
'  13 

22.7 
20.5 
18.5 

23 

20 
18 

31 

27 
25 

46 
41 
37 

8,234 
8,000 
6,889 

6,530 
5,184 
5,178 

11 

12 
'  13 

'  14 

'"8 

17.3 
16.9 
15.1 

17 
17 
15 

23 
23 
23 

34 
34 
30 

15 

14.5 
12.2 
12.2 

11.9 
10.5 
10.2 

14 
12 

12 

19 
16 
16 

29 
24 
24 

5,000 
4,225 
4,107 

3,364 
3,257 
3,000 

'  14 

'  16 

5 

12 
10 
10 

16 
14 
14 

24 
21 

20 

'  15 

17 

"3 

8.8 
8.6 
8.1 

9 
9 

8 

12 
12 
11 

17 
17 
16 

2,583 
2,401 

16 

'  18 



7.2 
6.8 

7 
7 

10 
10 

14 
14 

496 


CONDUCTORS  AND  INSULATORS. 


1.  In  this  table  it  is  estimated  that  1  55- volt,  16-candle-power 
lamp  requires  about  1  ampere  of  current;   1  75-volt,  16-candle- 
power  lamp  requires  about    0.73    ampere   of   current;    1  110- 
volt,    16-candle-power    lamp    requires    about    0.5    ampere    of 
current. 

2.  Lamps  supposed  to  be  in  multiple  arc.     On  the  3-wire 
system  the  same  current  in  amperes  will  suffice  for  a  series  of  two 
lamps.     Hence  twice  the  number  of  lamps  as  given  in  the  above 
table  can  be  safely  carried  on  the  same  size  wires. 

CONDUCTORS  AND  INSULATORS. — Bodies  in  which  the  electric 
current  moves  freely  are  called  conductors,  and  those  in  which 
it  does  not  move  freely  are  called  insulators.  There  is,  how- 
ever, no  substance  so  good  a  conductor  as  to  be  void  of  resist- 
ance, and  there  is  no  substance  of  so  high  a  resistance  as  to 
be  strictly  a  non-conductor. 

In  the  following  list  the  substances  named  are  placed  in 
order,  each  conducting  better  than  those  below  it  in  the  list: 

Silver  (best  conductor) 


Good  conductors. 


Aluminum 

Zinc 

Platinum 

Iron 

Tin 

Lead 

Nickel 

Mercury 

Charcoal 

Acids 

Water 

The  body 

Cotton 

Dry  wood 

Marble 

Paper 

Oils 

Porcelain 

Wool 

Silk 

Resin 

Gutta-percha 

Shellac 

Ebonite 

Paraffine 

Glass 

Dry  air  (worst  conductor). 


Partial  conductors. 


Non-conductors  or 
insulators. 


WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES.  497 


WIRING    FORMULA   AS    GIVEN    BY   THE   NATIONAL 
ELECTRIC  CODE. 

For  a  complete  set  of  rules  the  superintendent  should  pro- 
vide himself  with  this  Code,  which  can  be  secured  from  the 
Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Companies,  Boston. 

GENERAL  WIRING  FORMULA. 
DXWXRXB  T7    LXEXB 

-EXA  --  '  or    v=  -Too—' 

DXWXRXB  DXWXRXWQ 


~LXE*X  10,000'  1,000,000' 

V  =  volts  drop  in  line. 

D  =  distance  between  the  two  points,  in  feet  along  the  wires. 
W  =  total  powsr  delivered,  in  watts. 
E  =  voltage  at  receiving  end  of  line. 
A  =  area  of  cross-section  of  wire,  in  circular  mils. 

The  area  in  circular  mils  of  ^B.  &  S.  guage  sizes  from  No.  10 

to  No.  0000  inclusive  will  be  found  in  the  table  on  page  500. 

For  wires  smaller  than  these,  see  table  on  page  505. 
C  =  current  in  each  wire,  in  amperes. 
L  =  loss  in  line,  in  per  cent  of  W. 
P  =  total  pounds  of  copper  in  line. 
R  =  a  constant,  for  value  of  which  see  table  on  page  500. 

o  _  (  (  it  it  1  1  (  (  ii  rt  (  e  (  t  (  (  (i 
rri_.it  n  tt  it  <t  ti  tt  it  {i  ii  it 
D_«  it  tt  (t  tt  tt  tt  ft  tt  it  it 

For  direct-current  systems,  #  =  21.6,  B  =  1.00,  T  =  1.00,  and 
W  =  CxE,  so  that  the  first  two  of  the  above  formulae  reduce 

T7    DXCX21.6  DXCX21.6 

to  V  =  --  -j  --  ,  and  A  =  -  ^  -  . 

In    a    balanced    three-wire,    two-phase,    alternating-current 
system,  the  current  in  the  middle  wire  is  1.41  times  that  in  each 


498  WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES. 

outside  wire,  the  current  in  the  outside  wires  being  computed 
from  the  formula  as  if  the  system  was  a  four-wire  one. 

When  the  power  factor  cannot  be  accurately  determined, 
it  may  be  assumed  to  be  as  follows  for  any  alternating-current 
system  operating  under  average  conditions:  lighting,  with  no 
motors,  95  per  cent;  lighting  and  motors  together,  85  per  cent; 
motors  only,  80  per  cent. 

The  values  of  B  are  for  wires  18  inches  apart,  centre  to  centre, 
and  are  sufficiently  accurate  for  all  practical  purposes,  provided 
that  the  reactance  of  the  line  is  not  excessive  or  the  line  loss 
unusually  high.  They  represent  the  true  values  at  10  per  cent 
line  loss;  are  close  enough  for  all  losses  less  than  10  per  cent; 
and  are  often  close  enough  for  losses  considerably  above  10 
per  cent,,  at  least  for  frequencies  up  to  forty  cycles.  Where  the 
conductors  of  a  circuit  are  less  than  18  inches  apart,  the  value 
of  B  is  less  than  that  given  in  the  table,  and  if  they  are  close 
together,  as  with  multiple  conductor  cable,  B.  becomes  equal 
to  unity  and  can  be  omitted  from  the  formula. 

The  following  examples  are  given  to  show  how  the  different 
formulas  are  to  be  applied: 

1.  What  size  wire  is  needed  to  transmit  current  200  feet 
to  a  centre  of  distribution  for  60  incandescent  lamps  on  a  110- 
volt  direct-current  system,  with  a  drop  of  3  per  cent,  which  is 
an  actual  drop  of  3.3  volts? 

The  table  on  page  485  shows  that  a  16  c.  p.  lamp  at  110  volts 
takes  0.52  of  an  ampere,  ano\  60  lamps  would  therefore  take 
31.2  amperes. 

Hence  D  =  200,  C  =  31.2,  and  7  =  3.3,  from  which,  using 
the  simplified  formula  for  direct-current,  we  have 

200X31.2X21.6 
A  = ^ =  40,840. 


From  the  table  on  page  500,  we  see  that  the  nearest  B.  &  S. 
gauge  size. above  this  is  No.  4,  which  is  the  proper  size  to  use. 

2.  What  is  the  current  in  each  wire  of  a  three-phase  circuit 
feeding  two  motors  developing  20  H.P.  each,  the  voltage  at 
the  motors  being  550? 

40  H.P.  =40X746  watts  =  29,840  watts.  Assuming  a  power 
factor  of  85  per  cent  (see  note  above),  we  find  from  the 
table  that  the  value  of  T  for  this  power  factor  on  a  three-phase, 


WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES.  499 

three-wire  system  is  0.68.     Then  from  the  formula,  we  have 


3.  In  a  two-phase,  60-cycle  transmission  line,  with  four  No.  2 
B.  &  S.  gauge  wires  18  inches  apart,  supplying  lighting  trans- 
formers at  a  point  one  and  five-eighths  miles  from  the  generating 
station,  what  must  be  the  voltage  at  the  generator  switchboard 
to  give  a  voltage  of  2080  at  the  transformers  when  the  load 
on  the  transformers  is  188  K.W.? 

If  miles  =  8580  feet,  and  188  K.W.  =  188,000  watts.  Hence 
D  =  8580,  TF  =  188,000,  #  =  2080;  and  from  the  table  R  =  12.00, 
A  =66,600,  and  5  =  1.18,  assuming  a  power  factor  of  95  per 
cent  (see  notes  on  page  498). 

Inserting  these  values  in  the  formula?  for  L  and  V,  we  have 

T     8580X188,000X12X100 

L=          (20SO)*X66,60Q        =6'72  and 

T,    6.72X2080X1.18 

F=  -      -         =165  volts. 


Therefore  the  voltage  at  the  generator  must  be  2080  +  165  =  2245. 
The  following  rules  for  electric  wiring,  etc.,  are  taken  from 
the  "National  Electric  Code,"  and  every  superintendent  should 
have  a  copy  of  this  code,  which  can  be  obtained  from  the 
Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Companies,  Boston,  Mass.  The  rules 
referred  to  in  the  following  extract  will  be  found  in  the  above 
code. 

OUTSIDE  WORK. 

12.  WIRES.  —  a.  Service  wires  must  have  an  approved  rubber 
insulating  covering.  (See  Rule  41.)  Line  wires,  other  than 
services,  must  have  an  approved  weather-proof  or  rubber 
insulating  covering.  (See  Rules  41  and  44.)  All  tie  wires  must 
have  an  insulation  equal  to  that  of  the  conductors  which  they 
confine. 

6.  Must  be  so  placed  that  moisture  cannot  form  a  cross 
connection  between  them  not  less  than  a  foot  apart,  and  not  in 
contact  with  any  substance  other  than  their  insulating  supports 


500 


WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES. 


Values  of  T. 
Per  Cent  Power  F 


Values 
ent  Po 


cc  to  o 

COrHi-l 


ioui 

COrH  i-l 


Soo 
coco 


888 
|SSS 


Single-phase 
Two-phase  (four-wire 
Three-phase  (three-wire) 


o  -g  ^  -g 
*8J!Ai  P  ' 


40  Cycles 
Per  Cen 
Power  Fac 


25  Cycl 
Per  Ce 
Power  Fa 


OOi-H 


<r-iTt<00-*T-iOOiOCO<NOO 
COC^'-i'-Hi—  lOOOOOO 


t>r-it^COt>.O>CiOOC!OOOO 
COlOCCWrH^r-lOOOOOOOO 


CO^COOiOdOOOOOOOO 
CO<N'-H^-iOOOOOOOOOO 


"0  o£S  Vs          lc5<NCiO>CCC5<NTt<a>COOlOCOi_< 


•spunoj  '^ 
OOOT  J8d  8 
8jBg  p  ^ 


888 


-g  #  -g 


WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES.  501 

Wooden  blocks  to  which  insulators  are  attached  must  be  covered 
over  their  entire  surface  with  at  least  two  coats  of  water-proof 
paint. 

c.  Must  be  at  least  seven  feet  above  the  highest  point  of 
flat  roofs  and  at  least  one  foot  above  the  ridge  of  pitched  roofs 
over  which  they  pass  or  to  which  they  are  attached. 

d.  Must  be  protected  by  dead  insulated  guard  irons  or  wires 
from   possibility   of   contact   with   other   conducting   wires    or 
substances  to  which  current  may  leak.     Especial  precautions  of 
this  kind  must  be  taken  where  sharp  angles  occur,  or  where 
wires  of  any  other  systems  might  possibly  come  in  contact 
with  electric-light  or  power  wires. 

e.  Must   be   provided  with   petticoat   insulators   of  glass   or 
porcelain.     Porcelain  knobs  or  cleats  or  rubber  hooks  will  not 
be  approved. 

/.  Must  be  so  spliced  or  joined  as  to  be  both  mechanically 
and  electrically  secure  without  solder.  The  joints  must  then  be 
soldered  to  insure  preservation,  and  covered  with  an  insulation 
equal  to  that  on  the  conductors. 

g.  Must,  where  they  enter  buildings,  have  drip  loops  outside, 
and  the  holes  through  which  the  conductors  pass  must  be  bushed 
with  non-combustible,  non-absorptive,  insulating  tubes,  slant- 
ing upward  toward  the  inside. 

h.  Telegraph,  telephone,  and  other  signal  wires  must  not  be 
placed  on  the  same  cross-arm  with  electric-light  or  power  wires, 
and  when  placed  on  the  same  pole  with  such  wires,  the  distance 
between  the  two  inside  pins  on  each  cross-arm  must  not  be  less 
than  twenty-six  inches. 

i.  The  metallic  sheaths  of  cables  must  be  permanently  and 
effectively  connected  to  "earth." 

Trolley  Wires. — /.  Must  not  be  smaller  than  No.  0  B.  &  S. 
gauge  copper  or  No.  4  B.  &  S.  guage  silicon  bronze,  and  must 
readily  stand  the  strain  put  upon  them  when  in  use. 

k.  Must  have  a  double  insulation  from  the  ground.  In  wooden 
pole  construction,  the  pole  will  be  considered  as  one  insulation. 

I.  Must  be  capable  of  being  disconnected  at  the  power  plant, 
or  of  being  divided  into  sections,  so  that  in  case  of  fire  on  the 
railway  route  the  current  may  be  shut  off  from  the  particular 
section  to  prevent  its  interfering  with  the  work  of  the  firemen. 
This  also  applies  to  feeders. 

m.  Must  be  safely  protected  against  accidental  contact  where 
crossed  by  other  conductors. 


502  WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES. 

Ground  Return  Wires. — n.  For  the  diminution  of  electrolytic 
corrosion  of  underground  metal-work,  ground  return  wires  must 
be  so  arranged  that  the  difference  of  potential  between  the 
grounded  dynamo  terminal  and  any  point  on  the  return  circuit 
will  not  exceed  twenty-five  volts. 

Transformers. — a.  Must  not  be  placed  inside  of  any  building, 
excepting  central  stations,  unless  by  special  permission  of  the 
inspection  department  having  jurisdiction. 

6.  Must  not  be  attached  to  the  outside  walls  of  buildings, 
unless  separated  therefrom  by  substantial  supports. 

Grounding  Low-potential  Circuits. — The  grounding  of  low- 
potential  circuits  under  the  following  regulations  is  only  allowed 
when  such  circuits  are  so  arranged  that  under  normal  condi- 
tions of  service  there  will  be  no  passage  of  current  over  the 
ground  wire. 

Direct-current  Three-wire  Systems. — a.  Neutral  wire  may  be 
grounded,  and  when  grounded  the  following  rules  must  be 
complied  with: 

1.  Must  be  grounded  at  the  central  station  on  a  metal  plate 
buried   in    coke   beneath    permanent-moisture  level,    and   also 
through  all  available  underground  water-  and  gas-pipe  systems. 

2.  In  underground   systems,  the  neutral   wire  must   also   be 
grounded  at  each  distributing-box  through  the  box. 

3.  In  overhead  systems  the  neutral  wire  must  be  grounded 
every  500  feet,  as  provided  in  §§  c,  e,  f,  and  g. 

Alternating-current  Secondary  Systems. — b.  The  neutral  points 
of  transformers  or  the  neutral  wire  of  distributing  systems 
may  be  grounded,  and  when  grounded  the  following  rules  must 
be  complied  with: 

1.  Transformers  feeding  two-wire  systems  must  be  grounded 
at  the  centre  of  the  secondary  coils,  as  provided  in  §§  d,  e,  /, 
and  g. 

2.  Transformers  feeding  systems  with  a  neutral  wire  must 
have  the  neutral  wire  grounded  as  provided  in  §§  d,  e,  /,  and  g 
at  the  transformer,  and  at  least  every  250  feet  for  overhead 
systems  and  every  500  feet  for  underground  systems. 

Ground  Connections. — c.  The  ground  wire  in  direct-current 
three-wire  systems  must  not  at  central  stations  be  smaller 
than  the  neutral  wire,  and  smaller  than  No.  6  B.  &  S.  gauge 
elsewhere. 

d.  The  ground  wire  in  alternating-current  systems  must 
never  be  less  than  No.  6  B.  &  S.  gauge,  and  must  always  have  a 


WIRING  FORMULAE  AND  RULES.  503 

carrying  capacity  equal  to  that  of  the  secondary  lead  of  the 
transformer,  or  the  combined  leads  where  transformers  are 
connected  in  parallel. 

e.  The  ground  wire  must  be  kept  outside  of  buildings,  but 
may  be  directly  attached  to  the  building  or  pole.  The  wire 
must  be  carried  as  nearly  in  a  straight  line  as  possible,  and  kinks, 
coils,  and  sharp  bends  must  be  avoided. 

/.  The  ground  connections  for  central  stations,  transformer 
sub-stations,  and  banks  of  transformers  must  be  made  through 
metal  plates  buried  in  coke  ; below  permanent-moisture  level, 
and  connection  should  also  be  made  to  all  available  under- 
ground piping  systems,  including  the  lead  sheaths  of  under- 
ground cables. 

g.  For  individual  transformers  and  building  sendees,  the 
ground  connection  may  be  made  as  in  F,  or  may  be  made  to 
water  or  other  piping  systems  running  into  the  buildings.  This 
connection  may  be  made  by  carrying  the  ground  wire  into  the 
cellar  and  connecting  on  the  street  side  of  meters,  main  cocks, 
etc.,  but  connection  must  never  be  made  to  any  lead  pipes 
which  form  part  of  gas  services. 


INSIDE  WORK. 

ALL   SYSTEMS   AND    VOLTAGES. 
GENERAL  RULES. 

14.  WIRES. — (For  special  cases,  see  Rules  18, 24, 35, 38,  and  39.) 

a.  Must  not  be  of  smaller  size  than  No.  14  B.  &  S.  gauge,  except 
as  allowed  under  Rules  24,  v  and  45,  b. 

b.  Tie  wires  must  have  an  insulation  equal  to  that  of  the 
conductors  which  they  confine. 

c.  Must  be  so  spliced  or  joined  as  to  be  both  mechanically 
and  electrically  secure  without  solder.     The  joints  must  then 
be  soldered  to  insure  preservation,  and  covered  with  an  insula- 
tion equal  to  that  on  the  conductors. 

Stranded  wires  must  be  soldered  before  being  fastened  under 
clamps  or  binding-screws,  and  when  they  have  a  conductivity 
greater  than  that  of  No.  10  B.  &  S.  gauge  copper  wire,  they 
must  be  soldered  into  lugs. 

d.  Must  be  separated  from  contact  with  walls,  floors,  timbers, 
or  partitions  through  which  they  may  pass  by  non-combustible, 


504  WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES. 

non- absorptive,  insulating  tubes,  such  as  glass  or  porcelain 
except  as  provided  in  Rule  24,  u. 

e.  Must  be  kept  free  from  contact  with  gas,  water,  or  other 
metallic  piping,  or  any  other  conductors  or  conducting  material 
which  they  may  cross,  by  some  continuous  and  firmly  fixed  non-- 
conductor, creating  a  separation  of  at  least  one  inch.  Devia- 
tions from  this  rule  may  sometimes  be  allowed  by  special  per- 
mission. 

/.  Must  be  so  placed,  in  wet  places,  that  an  air  space  will 
be  left  between  conductors  and  pipes  in  crossing,  and  the  former 
must  be  run  in  such  a  way  that  they  cannot  come  in  contact 
with  the  pipe  accidentally.  Wires  should  be  run  over  rather 
than  under  pipes  upon  which  moisture  is  likely  to  gather,  or 
which  by  leaking  might  cause  trouble  on  a  circuit. 

15.  Underground  Conductors. — a.  Must  be  protected  against 
moisture  and  mechanical  injury  where  brought  into  a  building 
and  all  combustible  material  must  be  kept  removed  from  the 
immediate  vicinity. 

b.  Must  not  be  so  arranged  as  to  shunt  the  current  through 
a  building  around  any  catch-box. 

16.  Table  of  Carrying  Capacity  of  Wires. — a.  The  following 
table,  showing  the  allowable  carrying  capacity  of  copper  wires 
and  cables  of  98  per  cent  conductivity,  according  to  the  stand- 
ard adopted  by  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers, 
must  be  followed  in  placing  interior  conductors. 

For  insulated  aluminum  wire  the  safe  carrying  capacity  is 
84  per  cent  of  that  given  in  the  following  tables  for  copper  wire 
with  the  same  kind  of  insulation. 

The  lower  limit  is  specified  for  rubber-covered  wires  to  prevent 
gradual  deterioration  of  the  high  insulations  by  the  heat  of  the 
wires,  but  not  from  fear  of  igniting  the  insulation.  The  question 
of  drop  is  not  taken  into  consideration  in  the  tables. 

The  carrying  capacity  for  No.  16  and  No.  18  wire  is  given, 
but  no  smaller  than  No.  14  is  to  be  used,  except  as  allowed 
under  Rules  24,  v  and  45,  b. 

There  is  a  general  agreement  among  those  familiar  with  the 
effect  of  heat  on  rubber,  that,  if  long  life  is  desired,  the  tempera- 
ture should  not  exceed  150°  F. 

In  1889,  Mr.  A.  E.  Kennelly  made  an  elaborate  series  of 
careful  experiments  at  the  Edison  Laboratory,  to  determine 
the  temperature  rise  caused  in  wires  under  different  conditions 
by  currents  of  various  strengths. 


WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES.  505 

Table  A.  Table  B. 

Rubber-covered  Weather-proof 

Wires.  Wires. 

See  Rule  41.  See  Rules  42  to  44. 

B.  &  S.  Gauge.              Amperes.  Amperes.                   Circular  Mils. 

18 3 5 1,624 

16 6 8 2,583 

14 12 16 4,107 

12 17 23 6,530 

10 24 32 10,380 

8 33 46 16,510 

6 46 65 26,250 

5 54 77 33,100 

4 65 92 41,740 

3 76 110 52,630 

2 90 131 66,370 

1 107 156 83,690 

0 127 185 105,500 

00 150 220 133,100 

000 177 262 167,800 

0000 210 312 211,600 

Circular  Mils. 

200,000 200 300 

300,000 270 400 

400,000 330 500 

500,000 390 590 

600,000 450 680 

700,000 500 760 

800,000 550 840 

900,000 600 920 

1,000,000 650 1,000 

1,100,000 690 1,080 

1,200,000 730 1,150 

1,300,000 770 1,220 

1,400,000 810 1,290 

1,500,000 850 1,360 

1,600,000 890 1,430 

1,700,000 930 1,490 

1,800,000 970 1,550 

1,900,000 1,010 1,610 

2,000,000 1,050. 1,670 

The  currents  given  in  Table  A  are  about  60  per  cent  of  the 
currents  which  Mr.  Kennelly  found  caused  a  rise  of  75°  F.,  or 


506  WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES. 

a  final  temperature  of  about  150°F.,  assuming  75°  F.  as  the 
average  indoor  temperature.  This  margin  of  40  per  cent  is  to 
allow  for  inevitable  increase  of  current,  such  as  that  produced 
by  the  changing  from  one  size  lamp  to  those  of  a  larger  candle- 
power,  the  adding  of  more  lamps  to  a  circuit,  the  overloading 
of  a  motor,  etc.  The  currents  given  in  Table  A  cause  a  rise  of 
temperature  of  about  29°  F.  above  the  surroundings,  but  varying 
somewhat  with  the  size  of  the  wire.  It  is  well  to  remember 
in  this  connection  that  the  heating  effect  increases  about  as 
the  square  of  the  current,  i.e.,  if  the  current  is  doubled,  for 
instance,  the  heating  effect  increases  four  times. 

The  limiting  temperature  for  weather-proof  insulation  is 
about  the  same  as  for  rubber,  but  a  smaller  factor  of  safety 
is  allowable,  as  the  covering  on  this  class  of  wire  is  not  greatly 
depended  on  for  insulation,  the  insulation  of  the  system  being 
secured  by  the  porcelain  or  glass  supports  to  which  the  wire 
is  attached.  The  currents  in  Table  B,  therefore,  were  obtained 
by  taking  90  per  cent  of  the  currents  which  Mr.  Kennelly  found 
caused  the  wire  to  reach  a  temperature  of  150°  F.,  when  the 
surrounding  air  was  at  75°  F.  This  allows  a  margin  of  only 
10  per  cent  instead  of  the  40  per  cent  considered  necessary  in 
Table  A. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that,  for  any  given  size  of  wire,  a 
current  about  three  times  as  great  as  that  given  in  Table  A 
causes  all  ordinary  insulations  to  begin  to  smoke. 

Owing  to  the  cooling  effect  of  air-currents,  the  safe  carrying 
capacity  of  outdoor  conductors  may  be  several  times  greater 
than  the  above,  without  causing  any  dangerous  rise  of  tempera- 
ture. As  the  conditions  will  vary  so  widely,  and  as  such  out- 
door conductors  are  not  at  all  liable  to  cause  fire,  no  table  has 
been  made  for  them. 

The  following  table  shows,  to  the  nearest  one-hundredth  of 
an  ampere,  the  current  consumed  by  incandescent  lamps  of 
various  candle-powers,  at  the  voltages  in  most  common  uses 
This  table  is  figured  on  the  basis  of  an  efficiency  of  3.6  watt. 
per  candle-power  for  the  52-,  104-,  and  110-volt  lamps,  and 
4.0  watts  per  candle-power  for  the  220- volt  lamps. 

17  Switches,  Cut-outs,  Circuit-breakers  etc. — (For  construc- 
tion requirements,  see  Rules  51,  52,  and  53.) 

a.  Must,  whenever  called  for,  unless  otherwise  provided 
(for  exceptions  see  Rules  8,  c  and  22,  c),  be  so  arranged  that 
the  cut-outs  will  protect,  and  the  opening  of  the  switches  or 


WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES. 


507 


Volt- 
age. 

8  C.P. 

10  C.P. 

16  C.P. 

20  C.P. 

24  C.P. 

32  C.P. 

50  C.P. 

52 

.55 

.69 

1.11 

1.38 

1.66 

2.22 

3.46 

104 

.28 

.35 

.55 

.69 

.83 

1.11 

1.73 

110 

.26 

.33 

.52 

.65 

.78 

1.05 

1.64 

220 

.15 

.18 

.29 

.36 

.44 

.58 

.91 

circuit-breakers  will  disconnect,  all  of  the  wires;  that  is,  in  a 
two-wire  system  the  two  wires,  and  in  a  three-wire  system  the 
three  wires,  must  be  protected  by  the  cut-out  and  disconnected 
by  the  operation  of  the  switch  or  circuit-breaker. 

b.  Must  not  be  placed  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  easily 
ignitable  material  or  where  exposed  to  inflammable  gases  or 
dust  or  to  combustible  flyings. 

c.  Must,  when   exposed  to  dampness,  be  either  inclosed  in 
a  water-proof  box  or  mounted  on  porcelain  knobs. 


CONSTANT-CURRENT  SYSTEMS. 

PRINCIPALLY  SERIES  ARC  LIGHTING. 

18.  WIRES. — a.  Must   have   an   approved   rubber   insulating 
covering.     (See  Rule  41.) 

b.  Must  be  arranged  to  enter  and  leave  the  building  through 
an   approved  double-contact  service  switch    (see   Rule   51,   b}, 
mounted  in  a  non-combustible  case,  kept  free  from  moisture, 
and  easy  of  access  to  police  or  firemen. 

c.  Must   always  be  in  plain  sight,  and  never  incased,  except 
when  required  by  the    inspection  department   having  jurisdic- 
tion. 

d.  Must  be  supported  on  glass  or  porcelain  insulators  which 
separate  the  wire  at  least  one  inch  from  the  surface  wired 
over,  and  must  be  kept  rigidly  at  least  eight  inches  from  each 
other,  except  within  the  structure  of  lamps,  on  hanger-boards, 
or  in  cut-out  boxes  or  like  places,  where  a  smaller  distance  is 
necessary. 

e.  Must,  on  side  walls,  be  protected  from  mechanical  injury 
by  a  substantial  boxing,  retaining  an  air  space  of  one  inch 
around  the  conductors,  closed  at  the  top    (the  wires  passing 
through  bushed  holes),  and  extending  not  less  than  seven  feet 
from  the  floor.     When  crossing  floor-timbers  in  cellars  or  rooms, 


508  WIRING  FORMULAS  AND  RULES. 

where  they  might  be  exposed  to  injury,  wires  must  be  attached 
by  their  insulating  supports  to  the  under  side  of  a  wooden  strip, 
not  less  than  one-half  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

19.  SERIES    ARC    LAMPS.  —  (For  construction    requirements, 
see  Rule  57.) 

a.  Must  be  carefully  isolated  from  inflammable  material. 

b.  Must  be  provided  at  all  times  with  a  glass  globe,  sur- 
rounding the  arc  and  securely  fastened  upon  a  closed  base. 
Broken  or  cracked  globes  must  not  be  used. 

c.  Must  be  provided  with  a  wire  netting   (having  a  mesh 
not  exceeding  one  and  one-fourth  inches)  around  the  globe,  and 
an  approved  spark-arrester  (see  Rule  58),  when  readily  inflam- 
mable material  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lamps,  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  sparks  of  melted   copper  or  carbon.     It  is  recom- 
mended  that  plain   carbons,   not   copper-plated,   be  used  for 
lamps  in  such  places. 

d.  Where  hanger-boards   (see  Rule  56)  are  not  used,  lamps 
must  be  hung  from  insulating  supports  other  than  their  con- 
ductors. 

20.  INCANDESCENT    LAMPS    IN    SERIES    CIRCUITS. — a.  Must 
have  the  conductors  installed  as  required  in  Rule  18,  and  each 
lamp  must  be  provided  with  an  automatic  cut-out. 

6.  Must  have  each  lamp  suspended  from  a  hanger-board  by 
means  of  a  rigid  tube. 

c.  No  electromagnetic  device  for  switches  and  no  multiple- 
series  or  series-multiple  system  of  lighting  will  be  approved. 

d.  Must   not,  under  any  circumstances,  be  attached  to  gas 
fixtures. 


CONSTANT-POTENTIAL  SYSTEMS. 

GENERAL  RULES— ALL  VOLTAGES. 

21.  AUTOMATIC  CUT-OUTS. — Fuses  and  Circuit-breakers. — (For 
construction  requirements,  see  Rules  52  and  53.)  (See  also 
Rule  17.) 

a.  Must  be  placed  on  all  service  wires,  either  overhead  or 
underground,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  point  where  they  enter 
the  building,  and  inside  the  walls,  and  arranged  to  cut  off  the 
entire  current  from  the  building. 

b.  Must  be  placed  at  every  point  where  a  change  is  made 


WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES.  509 

in  the  size  of  wire,  unless  the  cut-out  in  the  larger  wire  will 
protect  the  smaller.     (See  Rule  16.) 

c.  Must  be  in  plain    sight,  or  inclosed  in  an  approved   box 
(see  Rule  54),  and  readily  accessible.     They  must  not  be  placed 
in  the  canopies  or  shells  of  fixtures. 

d.  Must  be   so   placed   that   no   set   of   incandescent   lamps 
requiring  more  than  660  watts,  whether  grouped  on  one  fix- 
ture or  on  several  fixtures  or  pendants,  will  be  dependent  upon 
one  cut-out.     Special  permission  may  be  given  in  writing  by 
the  inspection   department    having    jurisdiction  for  departure 
from  this  rule  in  the  case  of  large  chandeliers,  stage  borders, 
and  illuminated  signs. 

e.  The  rated  capacity  of  fuses  must  not  exceed  the  allow- 
able carrying  capacity  of  the  wire  as  given  in  Rule  16.     Cir- 
cuit-breakers must  not  be  set  more  than  30  per  cent  above  the 
allowable  carrying  capacity  of    the  wire  unless  a  fusible  cut- 
out is  also  installed  in  the  circuit. 

22.  SWITCHES. — a.  Must  be  placed  on  all  service  wires,  either 
overhead  or  underground,  in  a  readily  accessible  place,  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  point  where  the  wires  enter  the  building  and 
arrange  to  cut  off  the  entire  circuit. 

b.  Must    always    be    placed    in    dry,    accessible    places,    and 
should  be  grouped  as  far  as  possible.     Knife  switches  must  be 
so  placed  that  gravity  will  tend  to  open  rather  than  to  close 
them. 

c.  Must   not   be   single-pole   when   the   circuits   which   they 
control  supply  devices  which  require  over  660  watts  of  energy, 
or  when  the  difference  of  potential  is  over  300  volts. 

d.  Where  flush  switches  are  used,  whether  with  conduit  sys- 
tems or  not,  they  must   be  inclosed  in  boxes  constructed  of 
or    lined    with    fire-resisting    material.     No    push-buttons    for 
bells,  gas-lighting  circuits,  or  the  like  shall  be  placed  in  the 
same  wall  plate  with  switches  controlling  electric-light  or  power 
wiring. 

e.  Where  possible,  at  all  switch  or  fixture  outlets,  a  seven- 
eighths-inch  block  must  be  fastened    between  studs   or  floor- 
timbers,  flush  with  the  back  of  lathing,  to  hold  tubes  and   to 
support   switches   or   fixtures.       When    this    cannot   be   done, 
wooden  base  blocks  not  less  than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  securely  screwed  to  lathing,   must  be  provided  for 
switches,  and  also  for  fixtures  which  are  not  attached  to  gas- 
pipes  or  conduit  tubing. 


510  WIRING  FORMULAE  AND  RULES. 

23.  ELECTRIC  HEATERS. — a.  Must,   if  stationary,   be   placed 
in  a  safe  situation,  isolated  from  inflammable  materials,  and 
must  be  treated  as  sources  of  heat. 

b.  Must  each  have  a  cut-out  and  an  indicating  switch.     (See 
Rule  17,  a.) 

c.  The  attachments  of  feed  wires   to  the  heaters  must  be 
in  plain  sight,  easily  accessible,  and  protected  from  interfer- 
ence, accidental  or  otherwise. 

d.  The  flexible  conductors  for  portable  apparatus,  such  as 
irons,  etc.,  must  have  an  approved  insulating  covering.     (See 
Rule  45,  g.) 

e.  Must   each  be   provided  with   a  name-plate,   giving   the 
maker's  name  and  the  normal  capacity  in  volts  and  amperes. 

LOW-POTENTIAL  SYSTEMS,  550  VOLTS  OR  LESS. 

• 

Any  circuit  attached  to  any  machine  or  combination  of  machines 
which  develops  a  difference  of  potential  between  any  two  wires  of 
over  10  volts  and  less  than  550  volts  shall  be  considered  as  a  low- 
potential  circuit  and  as  coming  under  this  class,  unless  an  ap- 
proved transforming  device  is  used  which  cuts  the  difference  of 
potential  down  to  10  volts  or  less.  The  potential  difference  on 
the  primary  circuit  must  not  exceed  3500  volts. 

Before  pressure  is  raised  above  300  volts  on  any  previously  exist- 
ing system  of  wiring,  the  whole  must  be  strictly  brought  up  to  all 
of  the  requirements  of  the  rules  at  date. 

24.  WIRES. 

GENERAL  RULES. 
(See  also  Rules  14,  15,  and  16.) 

a.  Must  be  so  arranged  that  under  no  circumstances  will  there 
be  a  difference  of  potential  of  over  300  volts  between  any  bare 
metal  parts  in  any  distributing  switch  or  cut-out  cabinet  or  equiva- 
lent centre  of  distribution. 

b.  Must  not  be  laid  in  plaster,  cement,  or  similar  finish,  and 
must  never  be  fastened  with  staples. 

c.  Must  not  be  fished  for  any  great  distance,  and  only  in  places 
where  the  inspector  can  satisfy  himself   that   the   rules   have 
been  complied  with. 

d.  Twin  wires  must  never  be  used,  except  in  conduits  or  where 
flexible  conductors  are  necessary. 

/.  When  run  immediately  under  roofs  or  in  proximity  to 
water  tanks  or  pipes  will  be  considered  as  exposed  to  moisture. 


WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES.  511 


SPECIAL  RULES  FOR  OPEN  WORK. 

IN  DRY  PLACES. — g.  Must  have  an  approved  rubber  or  "slow- 
burning  weather-proof"  insulation.  (See  Rules  41  and  42.) 

h.  Must  be  rigidly  supported  on  non-combustible,  non-absorp- 
tive insulators,  which  will  separate  the  wires  from  each  other 
and  from  the  surface  wired  over  in  accordance  with  the  following 
table: 

VnUawo  Distance  from  Distance  between 

oltage'  Surface.  Wires. 

0  to  300  |  inch  2£  inch 

300  to  550  1       "  4       " 


Rigid  supporting  requires,  under  ordinary  conditions,  where 
wiring  along  flat  surfaces,  supports  at  least  every  four  and  one- 
half  feet.  If  the  wires  are  liable  to  be  disturbed,  the  distance 
between  supports  should  be  shortened.  In  buildings  of  mill  con- 
struction, mains  of  Xo.  8  B.  &  S.  gauge  wire  or  over,  where  not 
liable  to  be  disturbed,  may  be  separated  about  four  inches  and 
run  from  timber  to  timber,  not  breaking  around,  and  may  be 
supported  at  each  timber  only. 

This  rule  will  not  be  interpreted  to  forbid  the  placing  of  the 
neutral  of  an  Edison  three-wire  system  in  the  centre  of  a  three- 
wire  cleat  where  the  difference  of  potential  between  the  outside 
wires  is  not  over  300  volts,  provided  the  outside  wires  are  sepa- 
rated two  and  one-half  inches. 

In  damp  places,  such  as  breweries,  sugar-houses,  packing- 
houses, stables,  dye-houses,  paper-mills,  pulp-mills,  or  other 
buildings  especially  liable  to  moisture  or  to  acid  or  other  fumes 
which  might  injure  the  wires  or  their  insulation: 

i.  Must  have  an  approved  rubber  insulating  covering.  (See 
Rule  41.) 

/.  Must  be  rigidly  supported  on  non-combustible,  non-absorp- 
tive insulators  which  separate  the  wire  at  least  one  inch  from 
the  surface  wired  over,  and  must  be  kept  apart  at  least  two  and 
one-half  inches  for  voltages  up  to  300,  and  four  inches  for  higher 
voltages. 

k.  Must  have  no  joints  or  splices. 

FOR  MOULDING  WORK.—  ?.  Must  have  an  approved  rubber 
insulating  covering.  (See  Rule  41.) 


512  WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES. 

m.  Must  never  be  placed  in  moulding  in  concealed  or  damp 
places,  or  where  the  difference  of  potential  between  any  two  wires 
in  the  same  moulding  is  over  300  volts. 

FOR  CONDUIT  WORK. — n.  Must  have  an  approved  rubber  insu- 
lating covering.  (See  Rule  47.) 

o.  Must  not  be  drawn  in  until  all  the  mechanical  work  on  the 
building  has,  as  far  as  possible,  been  completed. 

p.  Must,  for  alternating-current  systems,  have  the  two  or  more 
wires  of  a  circuit  drawn  into  the  same  conduit. 

FOR  CONCEALED  KNOB  AND  TUBE  WORK. — q.  Must  have  an 
approved  rubber  insulating  covering.  (See  Rule  41.) 

r.  Must  be  rigidly  supported  on  non-combustible,  non-absorp- 
tive insulators  which  separate  the  wire  at  least  one  inch  from  the 
surface  wired  over.  Must  be  kept  at  least  ten  inches  apart,  and, 
when  possible,  should  be  run  singly  on  separate  timbers  or  stud- 
dings.  Must  be  separated  from  contact  with  the  walls,  floor- 
timbers,  and  partitions  through  which  they  may  pass  by  non- 
combustible,-  non-absorptive  insulating  tubes,  such  as  glass  or 
porcelain. 

s.  When  from  the  nature  of  the  case  it  is  impossible  to  place 
concealed  wiring  on  non-combustible  supports  of  glass  or  porce- 
lain, an  approved  armored  cable  with  single  or  twin  conductors 
(see  Rule  48)  may  be  used,  where  the  difference  of  potential 
between  conductors  is  not  over  300  volts,  provided  i't  is  installed 
without  joints  between  outlets,  and  that  the  cable  armor  prop- 
erly enters  all  fittings  and  is  rigidly  secured  in  place;  or,  if  the 
difference  of  potential  between  wires  is  not  over  300  volts,  and 
if  the  wires  are  not  exposed  to  moisture,  they  may  be  fished  on 
the  loop  system  if  separately  incased  throughout  in  approved 
flexible  conduits. 

t.  Conduit  used  for  mixed  "concealed  knob  and  tube"  and 
" conduit"  work  must  be  continuous  from  outlet  to  outlet,  and 
must  comply  throughout  with  rules  for  conduit  work.  (See 
Rules  24,  n  to  24,  p,  and  25.) 

u.  Must,  at  outlets  for  combination  fixtures,  be  bushed  with 
approved  flexible  insulating  tubes,  extending  in  continuous 
lengths  from  the  last  porcelain  support  to  one  inch  beyond  the 
outlet,  except  that  an  approved  outlet  insulator  may  be  used. 
At  outlets  where  there  are  no  gas-pipes,  either  this  class  of  con- 
struction or  porcelain  bushing  tubes  may  be  used. 

v.  Must  have  an  approved  rubber  insulating  covering  (see  Rule 
46),  and  must  not  be  smaller  than  No^  18  B.  &  S.  gauge. 


WIRING  FORMULA  AND  RULES.  513 

w.  Supply  conductors,  and  especially  the  splices  to  fix- 
ture wires,  must  be  kept  clear  of  the  grounded  part  of  gas- 
pipes,  and  where  shells  or  outlet  boxes  are  used,  they  must 
be  made  sufficiently  large  to  allow  the  fulfilment  of  this  require- 
ment. 

x.  Must,  when  fixtures  are  wired  outside,  be  so  secured  as 
not  to  be  cut  or  abraded  by  the  pressure  of  the  fastenings  or 
motion  of  the  fixture. 

25.  INTERIOR    CONDUITS. — a.  No    conduit    tube    having    an 
internal  diameter  of  less  than  five-eighths   of  an  inch  shall  be 
used.     With  lined  conduit,  this  measurement  is  to  be  taken 
inside  the  metal  tube. 

b.  Must   be   continuous  from   one  junction  box  to   another, 
or  to  fixtures,  and  the  conduit  tube  must  properly  enter  all 
fittings. 

c.  Must    first    be    installed   as   a    complete    conduit    system, 
without  the  conductors. 

d.  Must  be  equipped  at  every  outlet  with  an  approved  out- 
let box  or  plate. 

e.  Metal  conduits,  where  they  enter  the  junction  boxes,  and 
at  all  other  outlets,  etc.,  must  be  supplied  with  a  capping  of 
approved  material,  fitted  so  as  to  protect  the  wire  from  abrasion. 

/.  The  metal  of  the  conduit  must  be  permanently  and 
effectually  grounded. 

26.  FIXTURES. — (See  also  Rules  22,  e,  and  24,  v  to  24,  x.} — a. 
Must,  when    supported  from  the  gas-piping  or  any  grounded 
metal-work  of  a  building,  be  insulated    from  such  piping  or 
metal-work    by  means  of  approved  insulating  joints  (see  Rule 
59)   placed  as  close  as  possible  to  the  ceiling. 

b.  Must   have   all   burrs,    or   fins,    removed   before   the   con- 
ductors are  drawn  into  the  fixtures. 

c.  Must  be  tested  for   "contacts"   between  conductors  and 
fixtures,    for    "short    circuits"    and    for    ground    connections, 
before  they  are  connected  to  their  supply  conductors. 

27.  SOCKETS. — (For  construction  requirements,  see  Rule  55.) — 
a.  In  rooms  where  inflammable  gases  may  exist,   the  incan- 
descent lamp  and  the  socket  must  be  inclosed  in  a  vapor-tight 
globe    and  supported  on  a  pipe-hanger,  wired  with  approved 
rubber-covered  wire  (see  Rule  41)  soldered   directly  to  the  cir- 
cuit. 

b.  In  damp  or  wet  places,  or  over  especially  inflammable 
material,  water-proof  sockets  must  be  used. 


514  HEATING. 

28.  FLEXIBLE  CORD. — a.  Must  have  an  approved  insulation 
and  covering.     (See  Rule  45,  c.) 

b.  Must  not  be  used  where  the  difference  of  potential  between 
the  two  wires  is  over  300  volts. 

c.  Must  not  be  used  as  a  support  for  clusters. 

d.  Must  not  be   used  except  for  pendants,  portable  lamps, 
or  motors,  and  portable  heating  apparatus. 

e.  Must  not  be  used  in  show  windows. 

/.  Must  be  protected  by  insulating  bushings  where  it  enters 
the  socket. 

g.  Must  be  so  suspended  that  the  entire  weight  of  the  socket 
and  lamp  will  be  borne  by  knots  under  the  bushing  in  the 
socket  and  above  the  point  where  the  cord  comes  through  the 
ceiling  block  or  rosette,  in  order  that  the  strain  may  be  taken 
from  the  joints  and  binding  screws. 

29.  ARC  LIGHTS  ON  CONSTANT-POTENTIAL  CIRCUITS. — a.  Must 
have  a  cut-out  (see  Rule  17,  a)  for  each  lamp  or  each  series  of 
lamps. 

6.  All  resistances  or  regulators  must  be  inclosed  in  non- 
combustible  material  and  must  be  treated  as  sources  of  heat. 
Incandescent  lamps  must  not  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

c.  Must  be  supplied  with  globes  and  protected  by  spark- 
arresters  and  wire  netting  around  the  globe,  as  in  the  case  of 
series  arc  lamps.  (See  Rules  19  and  58.) 

30.  ECONOMY  COILS. — a.  Economy  and  compensator  coils  for 
arc  lamps  must  be  mounted  on  non-combustible,  non-absorp- 
tive insulating  supports,  such   as  glass  or    porcelain,  allowing 
an  air  space  of  at  least  one  inch  between  frame  and  support, 
and  must,  in  general,  be  treated  as  sources  of  heat. 

Soldering  Fluid. — The  following  formula  for  soldering 
fluid  for  electric  wires  is  recommended  by  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters,  in  the  "National  Electrical  Code": 


Saturated  solution  of  zinc  chloride 5  parts. 

Alcohol 4  parts. 

Glycerine 1  part. 

Heating". — During  the  progress  of  this  part  of  the  work, 
the  superintendent  must  pay  strict  attention  to  the  running 
of  pipes,  location  of  valves,  registers,  radiators,  etc. 


HEATING.  515 

If  the  system  to  be  used  is  a  simple  hot-air  system,  he  must 
see  that  all  hot-air  pipes  are  run  as  direct  as  possible  to  their 
respective  outlets;  there  should  be  as  few  bends  or  angles  as 
possible,  and  where  a  turn  is  made  it  should  be  done  with  an 
easy  elbow  and  not  with  a  square  turn,  as  is  often  done. 

He  should  see  that  the  pipes  are  so  run  that  there  will  be 
no  woodwork  close  enough  to  them  to  cause  danger  from 
fire. 

LOCATION  OF  REGISTERS. — The  bottom  register  when  placed 
in  the  wall  of  a  room  should  be  just  high  enough  to  clear  the 
base,  and  the  one  at  the  ceiling  just  low  enough  to  clear  the 
cornice  or  border. 

A  more  evenly  heated  room  will  be  the  result  if  the  registers 
are  placed  in  an  outside  wall  than  if  placed  in  an  inside  wall, 
but  this  point  is  often  ignored,  as  it  requires  more  pipe,  and 
the  hot-air  pipes  in  the  wall  have  to  be  covered  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  heat. 

He  should  see  that  the  outlets  of  all  hot-air  or  vent  pipes 
are  so  arranged  that  the  register  plate  can  be  fastened  on  with- 
out any  trouble,  and  he  should  also  see  that  the  flange  of  the 
outlet  projects  just  far  enough  to  receive  the  plaster;  work- 
men are  usually  very  careless  regarding  this  point  and  often 
leave  the  flange  project  too  far,  and  the  plasterer  will  work 
to  it  and  thus  make  a  crooked  job  of  plastering. 

STEAM  OR  HOT-WATER  SYSTEMS. — When  either  of  the  aboves 
systems  are  used  the  superintendent  must  see  that  the  pipes 
are  run  and  given  the  proper  fall  from  the  radiators,  to  carry 
back  to  the  boiler  the  condensed  steam,  or  the  cold  water.  In 
a  one-pipe  system,  which  is  the  simplest  form  of  steam  heating, 
there  is  but  one  line  of  pipe  from  the  boiler  to  the  radiators 
and  this  pipe  must  be  given  fall  enough  to  carry  back  the  con- 
densed steam.  In  the  two-pipe  system  there  are  two  lines 
of  pipes,  and  the  steam  or  hot  water  makes  a  circuit  through 
the  radiator  and  back  to  the  boiler  in  the  return  pipe. 

The  superintendent  must  see  that  valves  are  placed  where 
called  for,  or  shown  on  the  drawings,  and  he  should  see  that 
all  valves  used  are  the  full  capacity  or  of  equal  area  of  the 
pipe  which  they  control. 

In  taking  branch  lines  from  the  main  they  should  always 
be  taken  from  the  top  of  the  pipe  so  that  all  drippings  or  con- 
densation can  run  back  without  trapping  the  pipe. 

All  radiator  connections,  and  all  T  or  branch  outlets,  should 


516  HEATING. 

be  plugged  or  capped  as  soon  as  put  in  place  to  prevent  any 
dirt  from  getting  in  the  pipe  and  possibly  damaging  the  valves. 

In  running  all  pipes  care  must  be  taken  to  provide  for  expan- 
sion and  contraction,  and  suitable  provision  made  so  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  breaking  a  pipe  or  connection. 

After  the  piping  is  all  in  place  it  should  be  tested  before 
being  covered  up;  this  should  be  done  by  filling  the  pipes  full 
of  water  and  applying  pressure  with  a  force-pump  to  100  or 
150  pounds,  then  if  possible  a  steam  test  should  be  made  before 
covering  the  pipes. 

All  hot-water  or  steam  pipes  should  be  kept  clear  of  all 
woodwork  or  other  combustible  material  by  about  4  inches. 

PRESSURE  OF  SYSTEMS. — The  high-pressure  system  is  applied 
with  steam  at  any  pressure  over  10  pounds. 

The  low-pressure  system  is  operated  with  a  pressure  of  from 
2  to  5  pounds. 

LOCATION  OF  RADIATORS. — Radiators  should  always  be  placed 
at  outside  walls,  and  near  or  under  the  window,  so  as  to  counter- 
act the  entrance  of  the  cold  air  at  the  window.  This  will  give 
a  more  even  temperature  in  the  room  than  if  the  radiator  were 
located  at  the  other  side  of  the  room. 

In  piping  for  a  hot-water  system  all  bends  and  angles  should 
be  made  as  easy  as  possible  so  as  to  prevent  friction. 

DATA  FOR  HOT-WATER  HEATING. 
TABLE  OF  RATIOS. 

-T.      ir  One  Square  Foot  of  Radiating 

Dwellings.  Surface  will  Heat 

Living-rooms,  one  side  exposed 30  cubic  feet. 

' '         ,  two  sides  exposed 28 

"         ,  three  sides  exposed 28 

Sleeping-room From  30  to    40 

Hall-room "      20  "    30 

Bath-room "      20"    30     " 

Public  Buildings. 

School-rooms "  30"    50  "  " 

Offices "  30"    50  "  " 

Factories "  50  '•    70  "  " 

Stores "  60"    70  "  " 

Auditoriums "  80 'MOO  "  " 

Churches "  80  «  100  "  '• 


HEATING.  517 

The  above  ratios  are  for  direct  heating  and  an  average  tempera- 
ture of  163°  Fahr.  in  the  water. 

If  indirect  radiators  are  used,  allow  not  less  than  50  per  cent 
more  surface  and  for  direct-indirect  25  per  cent  more. 

Due  care  must  be  exercised  to  provide  for  any  special  condi- 
tions, such  as  exposure  of  buildings,  material  of  construction, 
location  and  length  and  size  of  mains  governing  plant  under  con- 
sideration. 

Allowances  should  also  be  made  for  loose  construction  of  doors 
and  windows,  which  admit  large  volumes  of  cold  air,  and  pro- 
vide for  outside  doors  which  are  used  frequently  and  open  di- 
rectly into  the  room. 

In  estimating  the  radiating  surface,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  a  large  surface  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature  gives 
a  much  pleasanter  atmosphere  than  a  small  surface  at  a  high 
temperature. 

LIST  OF  SIZES  OF  HOT-WATER  MAINS. 
Radiation. 

75  square  feet 1  inch  pipe. 

75  to    125      "         "   1±"  " 

125  "     175      "        "   1J  "  " 

175  "     300      "        "   2    "  " 

300"     475      "        "   2%  "  " 

475  "     700      "        "   3    "  " 

700"     950       "       ."   3£  "  " 

950  "  1200      "        " 4    "  " 

1200  "  1575      "        "   4J  " 

1575  "  1975      "        "   5    "  " 

1975  "  2375      "        "   5£  "  " 

2375  "  2S50      "        " 6    "  " 

Inch  Mains.  Branches. 

1  will  supply  two    f  in. 

-i  i     <  c  ft  ''1      " 

1J     "  "  "     li" 

2  "        "        "    1%" 

2%  "  "        "    1J  "  and  one  U  in.,  or  one  2  in.  and  one  1  Jin. 

3  "  "  one  2^  "  and  one  1  in.,  or  two  2  in.  and  one  1J  in. 
3i  "  "  two  2£  "  or  one  3  in.  and  one  2  in.,  or  three  2  in. 

4  "  "  one  3J  "  and  one  2£  in.,  or  two  3  in.,  or  four  2  in. 
4J  "  "        "    3|  "  and  one  3  in.,  or  one  4  in.  and  one  2£  in. 

5  "  "  "4    "  and  one  3  in.,  or  one  4 J  in.  and  one  2|  in. 

6  "  "  two  4    ' '  and  one  3  in.,  or  four  3  in.  or  ten  2  in. 

7  ' '  "  one  6    ' '  and  one  4  in.,  or  two  4  in.  and  one  2  in. 

8  "  ' '  two  6    ' '  and  one  5  in.,  or  five  4  in.  and  two  2  in. 


518 


HEATING  BY  STEAM. 


APPROXIMATE     NUMBER     OF     CUBIC    FEET   OF    AIR    ONE 
SQUARE  FOOT  OF   RADIATION   WILL  HEAT.     (NASON.) 


One  Square  Foot  of  Radiating 
Surface  will  Heat  with 

In  Dwellings, 
Schoolrooms, 
Offices,  etc. 
Cubic  Feet. 

In  Halls, 
Stores,  Lofts, 
Factories,  etc. 
Cubic  Feet. 

In  Churches, 
Large  Audi- 
toriums, etc. 
Cubic  Feet. 

Direct-steam  radiation.  . 

60  to  80 

75  to  100 

150  to  200 

Indirect-steam  radiation  
High  temperature,   direct  hot- 
water  radiation  
Low   temperature,    direct   hot- 
water  radiation  
High  temperature,  indirect  hot- 
water  radiation  
Low  temperature,  indirect  hot- 
water  radiation 

40  to  50 
50  to  70 
30  to  50 
30  to  60 
20  to  40 

50  to    70 
65  to    90 
35  to    65 
35  to    75 
25  to    50 

100  to  140 
130  to  180 
70  to  130 
70  to  150 
50  to  100 

The  above  proportions  will  give  a  temperature  in  the  buildings 
described  of  70°  Fahr.,  the  thermometer  being  at  zero  in  the 
outside  atmosphere. 

While  there  is  no  iron-clad  rule  for  computing  the  proper 
amount  of  radiation  for  heating  buildings  owing  to  the  variable 
conditions  that  enter  into  the  calculation,  the  above  table  will 
prove  valuable  if  allowances  are  made  for  extreme  cases. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  small  rooms,  rooms  with  large 
window  surfaces  or  exposed  sides,  and  rooms  with  exception- 
ally thick  walls  or  fire-proof  tiling  require  more  radiating  surface 
in  proportion  to  space  than  is  ordinarily  needed.  Frame  build- 
ings require  more  radiation  than  stone,  and  stone  more  than 
brick. 

The  following  rules  regarding  heating  by  steam  are  given 
by  Babcock  &  Wilcox : 

Heating  by  Steam. — In  heating  buildings  by  steam,  the 
amount  of  boiler  and  heating  pipes  depends  largely  on  the  kind 
of  building  and  its  location.  Wooden  buildings  require  more 
than  stone,  and  stone  more  than  brick.  Iron  fronts  require 
still  more,  and  glass  in  windows  demands  twenty  times  as  much 
heat  as  the  same  surface  in  brick  walls.  Also  if  the  heating 
be  done  by  indirect  radiation  from  50  to  100  per  cent  more  sur- 
face will  be  required  than  when  direct  radiation  is  used.  -No 
rules  can  be  given  which  will  not  require  a  liberal  application 
of  "the  coefficient  of  common  sense." 

Radiating  surface  may  be  calculated  by  the  rule:  Add  together 
the  square  feet  of  glass  in  the  windows,  the  number  of  cubic  feet 
of  air  required  to  be  changed  per  minute,  and  one-twentieth  the 


HEATING  BY  STEAM.  519 

surface  of  external  wall  and  roof;  multiply  this  sum  by  the  differ- 
ence between  the  required  temperature  of  the  room  and  that  of  the 
external  air  at  its  lowest  point  and  divide  the  product  by  the  differ- 
ence in  temperature  between  the  steam  in  the  pipes  and  the  required 
temperature  of  the  room.  The  quotient  is  the  required  radiating 
surface  in  square  feet.  Each  square  foot  of  radiating  surface 
may  be  depended  upon  in  average  practice  to  give  out  three 
heat-units  per  hour  for  each  degree  of  difference  in  tempera- 
ture between  the  steam  inside  and  the  air  outside,  the  range 
under  different  conditions  being  about  50  per  cent  above  or 
below  that  figure.  In  indirect  heating  the  efficiency  of  the 
radiating  surface  will  increase,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air 
will  diminish,  when  the  quantity  of  the  air  caused  to  pass 
through  the  coil  increases.  Trius  one  square  foot  radiating 
surface,  with  steam  at  212°,  has  been  found  to  heat  100  cubic 
feet  of  air  per  hour  from  zero  to  150°,  or  300  cubic  feet  from 
zero  to  100°  in  the  same  time. 

The  best  results  are  attained  by  using  indirect  radiation  to 
supply  the  necessary  ventilation,  and  direct  radiation  for  the 
balance  of  the  heat.  The  best  place  for  a  radiator  in  a  room 
is  beneath  a  window.  Heated  air  cannot  be  made  to  enter  a 
room  unless  means  are  provided  for  permitting  an  equal  amount 
to  escape.  The  best  place  for  such  exit  openings  is  near  the 
floor. 

Small  pipes  are  more  effective  than  large.  When  the  diameter 
is  doubled,  20  per  cent  additional  surface  should  be  allowed,  and 
for  three  times  the  diameter  30  per  cent  additional  is  required. 
For  indirect  radiation  that  surface  is  most  efficient  which  secures 
the  most  intimate  contact  of  the  current  of  air  with  the  heated 
surface.  Rooms  on  windward  side  of  house  require  more  radi- 
ating surface  than  those  on  sheltered  side. 

Where  the  condensed  water  is  returned  to  the  boiler,  or  where 
low  pressure  of  steam  is  used,  the  diameter  of  mains  leading  from 
the  boiler  to  the  radiating  surface  should  be  equal,  in  inches, 
to  one-tenth  the  square  root  of  the  radiating  surface,  mains  in- 
cluded, in  square  feet.  Thus  a  1-inch  pipe  will  supply  100  square 
feet  of  surface,  itself  included.  Return  pipes  should  be  at 
least  f  inch  in  diameter,  and  never  less  than  one-half  the  diam- 
eter of  the  main — longer  returns  requiring  larger  pipes.  A 
thorough  drainage  of  steam-pipes  will  effectually  prevent  all 
cracking  and  pounding  noises  therein. 


520  HEATING  BY  STEAM. 

The  amount  of  air  required  for  ventilation  is  from  4  to  16 
cubic  feet  per  minute  for  each*  person,  the  larger  amount  being 
for  prisons  and  hospitals.  From  J  to  1  cubic  foot  per  minute 
should  be  allowed  for  each  lamp  or  gas-burner  employed. 

One  square  foot  of  boiler  surface  will  supply  from  7  to  10 
square  feet  of  radiating  surface,  depending  upon  the  size  of 
boiler  and  the  efficiency  of  its  surface,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
radiating  surface.  Small  boilers  for  house  use  should  be  much 
larger  proportionately  than  large  plants.  Each  horse-power  of 
boiler  will  supply  from  240  to  380  feet  of  1-inch  steam-pipe,  or 
from  80  to  120  square  feet  of  radiating  surface. 

Cubic  feet  of  space  has  little  to  do  with  amount  of  steam  or 
surface  required,  but  is  a  convenient  factor  for  rough  calcula- 
tions. Under  ordinary  conditions  one  horse-power  will  heat, 
approximately,  in 

Brick  dwellings,  in  blocks,  as  in  cities.  .  .  15,000  to  20,000  cu.  ft. 

Brick  stores,  in  blocks 10,000  to  15,000  cu.  ft. 

Brick  dwellings,  exposed  all  round 10,000  to  15,000  cu.  ft. 

Brick  mills,  shops,  factories,  etc 7,000  to  10,000  cu.  ft. 

Wooden  dwellings,  exposed 7,000  to  10,000  cu.  ft. 

Foundries  and  wooden  shops 6,000  to  10,000  cu.  ft. 

Exhibition  buildings,  largely  glass,  etc.  4,000  to  15,000  cu.  ft. 

The  system  of  heating  mills  and  manufactories  by  means  of 
pipes  placed  overhead  is  being  largely  adopted,  and  is  recom- 
mended by  the  Boston  Manufacturers'  Mutual  Fire  Insurance 
Company,  in  preference  to  radiators  near  the  floor,  particularly 
for  rooms  in  which  there  are  shafting  and  belting  to  circulate 
the  air. 

In  heating  buildings  care  should  be  taken  to  supply  the 
necessary  moisture  to  keep  the  air  from  becoming  "dry"  and 
uncomfortable.  The  capacity  of  air  for  moisture  rises  rapidly 
as  it  is  heated,  it  being  four  times  as  great  at  72°  as  at  32°.  For 
comfort,  air  should  be  kept  at  about  "50  per  cent  saturated." 
This  would  require  one  pound  of  vapor  to  be  added  to  each 
2,500  cubic  feet  heated  from  32°  to  70°. 

A  much-needed  attachment  has  recently  been  introduced, 
which  acts  automatically  upon  the  steam-valves  of  the  radiators, 
or  upon  the  hot-air  registers  and  ventilators,  and  maintains 
the  temperature  in  a  room  to  within  one-half  a  degree  of  any 
standard  desired. 


HEATING  BY  STEAM. 


521 


A  "separator"  acting  by  centrifugal  force  has  been  recently 
tested,  and  is  very  efficient,  in  trapping  out  all  the  water  en- 
trained in  steam.  It  will  be  found  valuable,  particularly  where 
the  steam  has  to  be  carried  a  long  distance  from  the  boiler, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  "hammering"  of  water  in 
the  pipes. 

RESISTANCE  TO  FLOW  BY  BENDS,  VALVES,  ETC. — Mr.  Briggs 
states  in  "Warming  Buildings  by  Steam,"  that  the  resist- 
ance at  the  entrance  to  a  pipe  consists  of  two  parts,  namely, 

v2 
the  head,  — ,  which  is  necessary  to   create  the  velocity  of  flow 

and  the  head,  0.505—,  which  overcomes  the  resistance  to  en- 

"JgF 

trance  offered  by  the  mouth  of  the  pipe.     The  total  loss  of  head 

v2 
at  entrance  then  equals  the  sum  of  these,  or  1.505— ,  in  which 

v=  velocity  of  flow  of  steam    in  the  pipe,  in  feet  per  second, 
and  g=  acceleration  due  to  gravity,  or  32.2. 

The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Company  state  in  "Steam"  that  the 
resistance  at  the  opening  and  that  at  a  globe  valve  are  each 
about  the  same  as  that  caused  by  an  additional  length  of  straight 
pipe,  as  computed  by  the  formula 

A  , ,.,.       ,,       ,,     .    .         1 14 X diameter  of  pipe 

Additional  length  of  pipe  =  —  «S , 

1+ (3. 6 ^diameter)  ' 

from  which  has  been  computed  the  following  table: 


Diameter  in  inches  

2 

7 

2* 

in 

3 
13 

3* 
16 

4 
20 

5 

28 

6 
36 

7 
44 

8 

10 

12 

15 

18 

20 

22 

24 

Additional  length,  feet  

53 

70 

88 

115 

143 

162 

181 

200 

The  resistance  to  flow  at  a  right-angled  elbow  is  about  equal 
to  f  that  of  a  globe  valve. 

The  above  values  are  to  be  considered  as  being  only  approxi- 
mations to  the  truth. 

Example. — Find  the  discharge  from  a  steam-pipe  when  the 
given  length  =  120  feet  and  the  diameter =8  inches,  the  pipe 
containing  6  right-angled  elbows  and  two  globe  valves,  the 
pressure  at  the  two  ends  being  respectively  105  and  103  pounds 
per  square  inch  gauge. 


522  HEATING  BY  STEAM. 

The  resistance  to  entrance,  from  the  above  table,  for  8-inch 
pipe  =53  feet;  the  resistance  of  6  elbows  =  6  X  53  Xf  =  212  feet; 
the  resistance  of  two  globe  valves  =  2X53  =  106  feet;  making 
a  total  resistance  =  53 +  212+ 106  =371  feet  of  additional  length 
of  pipe.  Therefore  the  steam  would  encounter  the  same  resist- 
ance flowing  through  a  straight  8-inch  pipe  whose  length 
equals  120  +  371,  or  491  feet,  as  it  would  in  flowing  through 
the  given  pipe  with  its  various  resistances. 

Then  in  the  formula 


W  = 


L=491  feet;    p  =105  pounds  per  square  inch;    p2  =  103  pounds 
per   square  inch;    d=8   inches;     c,  for  an  8-inch  pipe,  =60.7; 
and  w,  from  table  of  Properties  of  Saturated  Steam,  =0.27. 
Substituting  in  formula  we  get 


491 


The  pipe,  then,  under  the  stated  conditions,  would  dis- 
charge approximately  364  pounds  of  steam  per  minute,  or 
21,800  pounds  per  hour;  which,  on  the  basis  of  30  pounds 
per  horse-power  hour,  would  have  a  capacity  of  728  boiler 
horse-powers.  Since  one  pound  of  steam  at  104  pounds  gauge 
has  a  volume  of  3.7  cubic  feet,  the  pipe  would  discharge  1,350 
cubic  feet  per  minute,  or  81,000  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

NON-CONDUCTING  COVERINGS  FOR  STEAM-PIPES. — A  bare  pipe 
carrying  steam,  and  made  of  iron,  steel,  or  other  conducting  mate- 
rial, loses  heat  by  convection  to  the  surrounding  air  and  by 
radiation  to  the  surrounding  objects,  both  of  which  cause  a  loss 
of  steam  by  condensation. 

This  loss  is  lessened  in  practice  by  covering  the  outer  surface 
of  the  steam-pipe  with  a  material  that  will  offer  a  greater  resist- 
ance to  the  flow  of  heat  than  that  offered  by  the  material  of  the 
pipe. 

A  good  material  for  this  purpose  should  not  suffer  serious 
deterioration  from  the  heat  or  vibration  to  which  it  would  be 
subjected  in  practice;  and  in  aii  cases  where  damage  from  fire 
might  result,  it  should  never  consist  of  combustible  matter. 
Under  the  conditions  of  practice,  especially  jn  places  where  il 


HEATING  BY  STEAM.  523 

may  become  damp,  a  good  pipe  covering  should  consist  of  mate- 
rials that  will  not  rapidly  deteriorate,  and  should  contain  nothing 
that  will  seriously  corrode  the  pipe. 

Since  air  does  not  take  up  heat  by  radiation,  but  receives 
heat  by  contact  with  a  hot  body  only,  it  would  appear  that  the 
greater  the  porosity  of  a  material — that  is,  the  greater  the  per- 
centage of  volume  of  finely  divided  air  it  contains — the  greater 
will  be  its  non-conducting  qualities.  This  is  noticeably  the  case 
in  the  commercial  pipe  coverings  that  consist  substantially  of 
the  same  materials,  when  these  materials  contain  different  per- 
centages of  still  air.  In  every  case  the  more  porous  the  mate- 
rial, other  things  being  equal,  the  greater  will  be  its  non-con- 
ducting properties. 

The  following  table  contains  averages  made  up  from  results 
obtained  by  a  number  of  carefully  conducted  tests,  and  repre- 
sent approximately  what  may  be  expected  when  these  materials 
are  properly  applied  as  steam-pipe  coverings  in  practice.  The 
table  gives  the  quantity  of  heat  transmitted  through  covered 
steam-pipes,  when  that  transmitted  through  a  naked  pipe  is 
taken  as  100,  the  covering,  except  where  otherwise  indicated, 
being  one  inch  thick. 

~K i'nri  nt  rwarinn  Relative  Amount  of 

Covering.  Heat  Transmitted. 

Naked  pipe 100 

Hair-felt,  asbestos  lined  and  canvas  covered 16  to  18 

Wool  felt,       "          "        "         "  "       20  "  22 

Two  layers  of  asbestos  paper 70  "  SO 

Four      "     "        "          "     45  "  55 

Asbestos  mixed  with  some  plaster  of  Paris 28  l '  34 

Magnesia  mixed  with  a  little  asbestos  fibre,  canvas  cov- 
ered     18  "  20 

Best  mineral  wool,  lined  and  canvas  covered 18  "  20 

Pipe  painted  with  black  asphaltum about  105 

"          "          "      white  glossy  paint "        95 

For  coverings  having  values  less  than  25  in  the  above  table, 
the  values  for  thicknesses  of  covering  of  1£  and  2  inches  (those 
in  the  table  being  for  1  inch,  as  noted)  may  be  approximately 
obtained  by  multiplying  respectively  by  0.78  and  0.58.  Thus 
a  pipe  covered  with  magnesia  and  canvas  covered  would  trans- 
mit an  amount,  if  1$  inches  thick,  =  (18  to  20)  X  0.78  =  14  to  15.5; 
and  if  2  inches  thick  an  amount  =  (18  to  20)  X  0.58  =  10.5  to  11.5, 


524  STEAM. 

that  transmitted  by  a  similar  bare  pipe  being  100  in  the  same 
length  of  time. 

The  following  table  gives  the  result  of  tests  made  by  G.  B. 
Dunford,  of  Hamilton,  Ont.,  of  various  materials  in  regard  to 
their  quality  as  a  non-conductor  of  heat. 

Combination   of   asbestos,  hair-felt,  air   space, 

and  wood 100  per  cent. 

Asbestos  and  hair-felt  chopped  and  mixed  with 

lime  putty 87  "  " 

A  plastic  cement  manufactured  by  parties  at 

Troy,  N.  Y.,  with  £  inch  hair-felt  outside  .  .  86 . 6  ' '  " 
Paper  pulp  mixed  with  lime  putty,  1  inch,  cov- 
ered with  sheeting  of  wood  pulp 85  "  ' ' 

Mineral  wool  cased  with  wood 81  "  " 

Mineral  wool  cased  with  sheet  iron 79  "  " 

Charcoal . 60  "  " 

Sawdust 41  "  " 

Loam  and  chopped  straw  sealed  with  wood.  ...  32  "  " 

Asbestos 29  "  " 

Coal  ashes 24  "  " 

Airspace..... 20  "  " 

Fire-brick 15  '"  " 

Redbrick 12  "  " 

Sand 9.3  "  " 

Steam. — Under  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure  of  14.7 
pounds  per  square  inch,  water  boils  at  212°  F.,  passing  off 
as  steam,  the  temperature  at  which  it  boils  varying  with  a 
variation  in  the  pressure. 

DRY  STEAM  is  steam  not  containing  any  free  moisture.  It 
may  be  either  saturated  or  superheated. 

WET  STEAM  is  steam  containing  free  moisture  in  the  form 
of  spray  or  mist,  and  has  the  same  temperature  as  dry  satu- 
rated steam  of  the  same  pressure. 

SATURATED  STEAM  is  steam  in  its  normal  state,  that  is,  steam 
whose  temperature  is  that  due  its  pressure;  by  which  is  meant 
steam  at  the  same  temperature  as  that  of  the  water  from  which 
it  was  generated  and  upon  which  it  rests. 

SUPERHEATED  STEAM  is  steam  at  a  temperature  above  that 
due  to  its  pressure. 

A  BRITISH  THERMAL  UNIT  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required 


STEAM.  525 

to  raise  one  pound  of  water  at  39°.  1  F.  through  one  degree 
of  temperature. 

THE  TOTAL  HEAT  OF  THE  WATER  is  the  number  of  British 
thermal  units  needed  to  raise  one  pound  of  water  from  32°  F. 
to  the  boiling-point  under  the  given  pressure. 

THE  LATENT  HEAT  OF  STEAM  is  the  number  of  British  thermal 
units  required  to  convert  one  pound  of  water,  at 'the  boiling- 
point  into  steam  of  the  same  temperature. 

THE  TOTAL  HEAT  OF  SATURATED  STEAM  is  the  number  of  heat- 
units  required  to  raise  a  pound  of  water  from  32°  F.  to  the 
boiling-point,  at  the  given  pressure,  plus  the  number  required 
to  evaporate  the  water  at  that  temperature. 

THE  SPECIFIC  HEAT  OF  STEAM  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  steam  through  one 
degree  of  temperature.  In  British  units  and  near  the  satura- 
tion temperature  it  equals,  at  constant  pressure,  0.48. 

THE  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  STEAM  at  any  temperature  and 
pressure,  as  compared  with  air  of  same  temperature  and  pres- 
sure, is  approximately  0.622.  One  cubic  inch  of  water  evapo- 
rated into  steam  at  212°  F.  becomes  1646  cubic  inches,  that  is, 
nearly  1  cubic  foot. 

Water  in  contact  with  saturated  steam  has  the  same  tem- 
perature as  the  steam  itself.  Water  introduced  into  super- 
heated steam  will  be  vaporized  until  the  steam  becomes  satu- 
rated and  its  temperature  becomes  that  due  its  pressure.  Cold 
water,  or  water  at  a  lower  temperature  than  that  of  the  steam, 
introduced  into  saturated  steam  will  condense  some  of  it, 
thus  lowering  both  the  temperature  and  pressure  of  the  rest 
until  the  temperature  again  equals  that  due  its  pressure. 

USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION. — Steam, — A  cubic  inch  of 
water  evaporated  under  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure  is  con- 
verted into  1  cubic  foot  of  steam  (approximately). 

The  specific  gravity  of  steam  (at  atmospheric  pressure)  is  0.411 
that  of  air  at  34°  Fahr.,  and  0.0006  that  of  water  at  the  same 
temperature. 

27,222  cubic  feet  of  steam  weigh  1  pound;  13,817  cubic  feet  of 
air  weigh  1  pound. 

Locomotives  average  a  consumption  of  3,000  gallons  of  water 
per  100  miles  run. 

The  best-designed  boilers,  well  set,  with  good  draft  and  skil- 
ful firing,  will  evaporate  from  7  to  10  pounds  of  water  per  pound 
of  first-class  coal. 


526  STEAM. 

In  calculating  horse-power  of  tubular  or  flue  boilers,  consider 
15  square  feet  of  heating  surface  equivalent  to  one  nominal 
horse-power. 

On  1  square  foot  of  grate  can  be  burned  on  an  average  from  10 
to  12  pounds  of  hard  coal,  or  18  to  20  pounds  of  soft  coal,  per 
hour,  with  natural  draft.  With  forced  draft  nearly  double 
these  amounts  can  be  burned. 

Steam-engines,  in  economy,  vary  from  14  to  60  pounds  of  feed- 
water  and  from  1J  to  7  pounds  of  coal  per  hour  per  indicated 
horse-power.  See  table  below  for  duty  of  high-grade  engines. 

Condensing-engines  require  from  20  to  30  gallons  of  water,  at 
an  average  low  temperature,  to  condense  the  steam  represented 
by  every  gallon  of  water  evaporated  in  the  boilers  supplying 
engines — approximately  for  most  engines,  we  say,  from  1  to  1| 
gallons  condensing  water  per  minute  per  indicated  horse-power. 

Surface  condensers  should  have  about  2  square  feet  of  tube 
(cooling)  surface  per  horse-power  for  a  compound  steam-engine. 
Ordinary  engines  will  require  more  surface  according  to  their 
economy  in  the  use  of  steam.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
place  air-pumps  below  condensers  to  get  satisfactory  results. 

RATIO  OF  VACUUM  TO  TEMPERATURE  (FAHRENHEIT)  OF  FEED- 
WATER. 

00    inches  vacuum 212° 

11        "  "       190° 

18        ".'.'         "        170° 

22£      "  "        150° 

25*     "  "        135° 

27J      "  "        112° 

28£      "  "        92° 

29        "  "       72° 

29J      "  "       52° 

WEIGHT  AND  COMPARATIVE  FUEL  VALUE  OF  WOOD. 

1  cord  air-dried  hickory  or  hard  maple  weighs  about  4500 
pounds,  and  is  equal  to  about  2000  pounds  coal. 

1  cord  air-dried  white  oak  weighs  about  3850  pounds,  and  is 
equal  to  about  1715  pounds  coal. 

1  cord  air-dried  beech,  red  oak,  or  black  oak  weighs  about 
3250  pounds,  and  is  equal  to  about  1450  pounds  coal. 

*  Usually  considered  the  standard  point  of  efficiency — condenser  and  air- 
pump  being  well  proportioned. 


STEAM. 


527 


1  cord  air-dried  poplar  (whitewood),  chestnut,  or  elm  weighs 
about  2350  pounds,  and  is  equal  to  about  1050  pounds  coal. 

1  cord  air-dried  average  pine  weighs  about  2000  pounds,  and 
is  equal  to  about  925  pounds  coal. 

From  the  above  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  1\  pounds  of  dry- 
wood  is  equal  to  1  pound  average  quality  of  soft  coal,  and  that 
the  full  value  of  the  same  weight  of  different  woods  is  very  nearly 
the  same — that  is,  a  pound  of  hickory  is  worth  no  more  for  fuel 
than  a  pound  of  pine,  assuming  both  to  be  dry.  It  is  important 
that  the  wood  be  dry,  as  each  10  per  cent  of  water  or  moisture 
in  wood  will  detract  about  12  per  cent  from  its  value  as  fuel. 

PIPE  DATA. 


•S'o  g 

•gi 

ro 

»J 

®^«2 

4>  § 

a 

o 

*« 

'SI 

<0 

.2 

"08 

SdJa 

fcfc 

1 

c  o 

|« 

jj 

ll 

1 

M 

i! 

a>  C 

rH   O^*-< 

a;  be 

III 

cc  S 

o 
s*^ 
S| 

SI 

S 

*J 

•s^;  • 

il 

SM 

IS 

gp< 

111 

|s^ 

fi^ 
V  bl 

•*=  0} 

o  a 

ll 

jl 

a 
i—  i 

0 

£ 

0 

^ 

i 

.3048 

2.652 

4.502 

.221 

.0102 

1  —  0.84 

14 

i 

.5333 

3.299 

3.637 

.274 

.0230 

i—  1.126 

14 

i 

.8627 

4.134 

2.903 

.344 

.0408 

1  —  1.670 

HI 

H 

1.496 

5.215 

2.301 

.434 

.0638 

1±—  2.258 

HI 

il 

2.038 

5.969 

2.010 

.497 

.0918 

11—  2.694 

HI 

2 

3.355 

7.461 

1.611 

.621 

.1632 

2  —  3.667 

111 

21 

4.783 

9.032 

1.328 

.752 

.2550 

21—  5.773 

8 

3 

7.368 

10.99 

1.091 

.916 

.3673 

3  —  7.547 

8 

31 

9.837 

12.56 

.955 

1.044 

.4998 

31—  9.055 

8 

4 

12.730 

14.13 

.849 

1.178 

.6528 

4  —10.728 

8 

41 

15.939 

15.70 

.765 

1.309 

.8263 

41—12.492 

8 

5 

19.990 

17.47 

.629 

1.656 

1  .  0200 

5  —14.564 

8 

6 

28.889 

20.81 

.577 

1.733 

1  .  5500 

6  —18.767 

8 

DUTY  OF  STEAM-ENGINES. — A  well-known  engineer  of  high 
authority  gives  the  following  comparative  figures,  showing  the 
economy  of  high-grade  steam-engines  in  actual  practice : 


Type  of  Engine. 


Non-condensing 

Condensing 

Compound  jacketed 

Triple-expansion  jacketed. 


£2 

3    Bj 


B-a 

»i 


210° 
100° 
100° 
100° 


2  >  ®  3  o 
§W  aoo 


10.5 
9.4 
9.4 
9.4 


00  o:^ 


2.75 
2.12 
1.81 
1.44 


528  STEAM. 

The  effect  of  a  good  condenser  and  air-pump  should  be  to 
make  available  about  10  pounds  more  mean  effective  pressure 
with  the  same  terminal  pressure;  or  to  give  the  same  mean 
effective  pressure  with  a  correspondingly  less  terminal  pressure. 
When  the  load  on  the  engine  requires  20  pounds  M.E.P.,  the 
condenser  does  half  the  work;  at  30  pounds,  one- third  of  the 
work;  at  40  pounds,  one-fourth,  and  so  on.  It  is  safe  to  assume 
that  practically  the  condenser  will  save  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
third  of  the  fuel,  and  it  can  be  applied  to  any  engine,  cut-off,  or 
throttling  where  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  is  available. 

DATA  FOR  STEAM  HEATING. — Under  ordinary  conditions,  one 
square  foot  of  direct  radiating  surface  will  heat  approximately  in 

Bathroom,  living-room,  with  two  or  three  expo- 
sures and  large  amount  of  glass 40  cu.  ft. 

Living-room,  one  or  two  exposures,  with  large 

amount  of  glass 50  cu.  ft. 

Living-room,  one  exposure,  amount  of  glass .  .  60  cu.  ft. 

Sleeping-rooms . 55  to    70  cu.  ft. 

Halls 50  to    70  cu.  ft. 

Schoolrooms 60  to    80  cu.  ft. 

Churches  and  auditoriums  of  large  cubic  con- 
tents and  high  ceilings 65  to  103  cu.  ft. 

Lofts,  workshops,  and  factories 75  to  150  cu.  ft. 

If  indirect  radiators  are  used,  allow  not  less  than  50  percent 
more  surface  than  for  direct,  and  for  direct  indirect,  25  per 
cent  more. 

In  estimating  the  radiating  surface  make  due  allowance  for 
exposure  of  building,  material  of  construction,  location,  length 
and  size  of  main  location  and  capacity  of  boiler,  also  loose  con- 
struction of  doors  and  windows. 

COMPARISON  OF  THERMOMETRIC  SCALES. — To  convert  the 
degrees  of  Centigrade  into  those  of  Fahrenheit,  multiply  by  9 
divide  by  5,  and  add  32. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Centigrade  into  those  of  Reaumur,  mul- 
tiply by  4  and  divide  by  5. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  into  those  of  Centigrade, 
deduct  32,  multiply  by  5,  and  divide  by  9. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  into  those  of  Reaumur, 
deduct  32,  divide  by  9,  and  multiply  by  4. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Reaumur  into  those  of  Centigrade, 
multiply  by  5  and  divide  by  4. 


STEAM. 


529 


LIST  OF  SIZES  OF  STEAM  MAINS. 


Radiation. 

One-pipe  Work. 

Two-pipe  Work. 

40  to        50  squ 
100  to      125 
125  to      250 
250  to      400 
400  to      650 
650  to      900 
900  to    1250 
1250  to    1600 
1600  to    2050 
2050  to    2500 
2500  to    3600 
3600  to    5000 
5000  to    6500 
6500  to    8100 
8100  to  10000 

are  fe 

2t  

1     inc 
H 

1* 
f 

3* 

1* 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

5h 

f  X    i  inc 
1    X    i     ' 
liXl 
HXH    ' 
2    XH     ' 
2}X2 
3    X2£ 
3^X3 
4    X3* 
4}X4 
5    X4* 
6    X5 
7    X6 
8    X6 
9    X6 

h 

TABLE   OF   EXPANSION   OF   WROUGHT-IRON   PIPE. 


Temperature  of 
the  Air  when 
the  Pipe  is 
Fitted. 

Length  of  Pipe 
when  Fitted. 

Length  of  Pipe  when  Heated. 

160  Degrees. 

180  Degrees. 

200  Degrees. 

Degrees 
Fahr. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

In. 

Feet. 

In. 

Feet. 

In. 

1.60 
1.34 
1.09 

0 
32 

64 

100 
100 
100 

100 
100 
100 

1.28 
1.02 

.77 

100 
100 
100 

1.44 
1.18 
.93 

100 
100 
100 

To  convert  degrees  of  Reaumur  into  those  of  Fahrenheit, 
multiply  by  9,  divide  by  4,  and  add  32. 

In  De  Lisle's  thermometer,  used  in  Russia,  the  graduation 
begins  at  boiling-point,  which  is  marked  zero,  and  the  freezing- 
point  is  150. 

The  following  rules  regarding  the  installation  of  heating 
apparatus  are  taken  from  the  New  York  Building  Code: 


HEATING  APPARATUS,  DRYING-ROOMS,   GAS-  AND 
WATER-PIPES. 

Sec.  84.  Heating-furnace  sand  Boilers.  —  A  brick-set  boiler 
shall  not  be  placed  on  any  wood  or  combustible  floor  or  beams. 
Wood  or  combustible  floors  and  beams  under  and  not  less  than 
three  feet  in  front  and  one  foot  on  the  sides  of  all  portable  boilers 


530      RULES  FOR  HEATING  APPARATUS,  ETC. 

shall  be  protected  by  a  suitable  brick  foundation  of  not  less 
than  two  courses  of  brick  well  laid  in  mortar  on  sheet  iron; 
the  said  sheet  iron  shall  extend  at  least  twenty-four  inches 
outside  of  the  foundation  at  the  sides  and  front.  Bearing 
lines  of  bricks,  laid  on  the  flat,  with  air-spaces  between  them, 
shall  be  placed  on  the  foundation  to  support  a  cast-iron  ash-pan 
of  suitable  thickness,  on  which  the  base  of  the  boiler  shall  be 
placed,  and  shall  have  a  flange,  turned  up  in  the  front  and  on 
the  sides,  four  inches  high;  said  pan  shall  be  in  width  not  less 
than  the  base  of  the  boiler  and  shall  extend  at  least  two  feet 
in  front  of  it.  If  a  boiler  is  supported  on  a  cast-iron  base  with 
a  bottom  of  the  required  thickness  for  an  ash-pan,  and  is  placed 
on  bearing  lines  of  brick  in  the  same  manner  as  specified  for  an 
ash-pan,  then  an  ash-pan  shall  be  placed  in  front  of  the  said 
base  and  shall  not  be  required  to  extend  under  it.  All  lath-and- 
plaster  and  wood  ceilings  and  beams  over  and  to  a  distance 
of  not  less  than  four  feet  in  front  of  all  boilers  shall  be  shielded 
with  metal.  The  distance  from  the  top  of  the  boiler  to  said 
shield  shall  be  not  less  than  twelve  inches.  No  combustible 
partition  shall  be  within  four  feet  of  the  sides  and  back  and 
six  feet  from  the  front  of  any  boiler,  unless  said  partition  shall 
be  covered  with  metal  to  the  height  of  at  least  three  feet  above 
the  floor,  and  shall  extend  from  the  end  or  back  of  the  boiler 
to  at  least  five  feet  in  front  of  it;  then  the  distance  shall  be  not 
less  than  two  feet  from  the  sides  and  five  feet  from  the  front 
of  the  boiler.  All  brick  hot-air  furnaces  shall  have  two  covers, 
with  an  air-space  of  at  least  four  inches  between  them;  the 
inner  cover  of  the  hot-air  chamber  shall  be  either  a  brick  arch 
or  two  courses  of  brick  laid  on  galvanized  iron  or  tin,  supported 
on  iron  bars ;  the  outside  cover,  which  is  the  top  of  the  furnace, 
shall  be  made  of  brick  or  metal  supported  on  iron  bars,  and 
so  constructed  as  to  be  perfectly  tight,  and  shall  be  not  less 
than  four  inches  below  any  combustible  ceiling  or  floor-beams. 
The  walls  of  the  furnace  shall  be  built  hollow  in  the  following 
manner:  One  inner  and  one  outer  wall,  each  four  inches  in  thick- 
ness, properly  bonded  together  with  an  air-space  of  not  less 
than  three  inches  between  them.  Furnaces  must  be  built  at 
least  four  inches  from  all  woodwork.  The  cold-air  boxes  of 
all  hot-air  furnaces  shall  be  made  of  metal,  brick,  or  other  incom- 
bustible material,  for  a  distance  of  at  least  ten  feet  from  the 
furnace.  All  portable  hot-air  furnaces  shall  be  placed  at  least 
two  feet  from  any  wood  or  combustible  partition  or  ceiling, 


RITLES  FOR  HEATING   APPARATUS,  ETC.      531 

unless  the  partitions  and  ceilings  are  properly  protected  by 
a  metal  shield,  when  the  distance  shall  be  not  less  than  one 
foot.  Wood  floors  under  all  portable  furnaces  shall  be  protected 
by  two  courses  of  brickwork  well  laid  in  mortar  on  sheet  iron. 
Said  brickwork  shall  extend  at  least  two  feet  beyond  the  furnace 
in  front  of  the  ash-pan. 

Sec.  85.  Registers. — Registers  located  over  a  brick  furnace 
shall  be  supported  by  a  brick  shaft  built  up  from  the  cover  of 
the  hot-air  chamber;  said  shaft  shall  be  lined  with  a  metal 
pipe,  and  all  wood  beams  shall  be  trimmed  away  not  less  than 
four  inches  from  it.  Where  a  register  is  placed  on  any  wood- 
work in  connection  with  a  metal  pipe  or  duct  the  end  of  the 
said  pipe  or  duct  shall  be  flanged  over  on  the  woodwork  under 
it.  All  registers  for  hot-air  furnaces  placed  in  any  woodwork 
or  combustible  floors  shall  have  stone  or  iron  borders  firmly 
set  in  plaster  of  Paris  or  gauged  mortar.  All  register-boxes 
shall  be  made  of  tin  plate  or  galvanized  iron  with  a  flange  on 
the  top  to  fit  the  groove  in  the  frame,  the  register  to  rest  upon 
the  same;  there  shall  be  an  open  space  of  two  inches  on  all 
sides  of  the  register-box,  extending  from  the  under  side  of  the 
border  to  and  through  the  ceiling  below.  The  said  opening 
shall  be  fitted  with  a  tight  tin  or  galvanized-iron  casing,  the 
upper  end  of  which  shall  be  turned  under  the  frame.  When 
a  register-box  is  placed  in  the  floor  over  a  portable  furnace, 
the  open  space  on  all  sides  of  the  register-box  shall  be  not  less 
than  three  inches.  When  only  one  register  is  connected  with  a 
furnace  said  register  shall  have  no  valve. 

Sec.  86.  Drying-rooms. — All  walls,  ceilings,  and  partitions 
inclosing  drying-rooms,  when  not  made  of  fire-proof  material, 
shall  be  wire-lathed  and  plastered,  or  covered  with  metal,  tile, 
or  other  hard  incombustible  material. 

Sec.  87.  Ranges  and  Stoves. — Where  a  kitchen  range  is  placed 
from  twelve  to  six  inches  from  a  wood  stud-partition,  the  said 
partition  shall  be  shielded  with  metal  from  the  floor  to  the 
height  of  not  less  than  three  feet  higher  than  the  range;  if  the 
range  is  within  six  inches  of  the  partition,  then  the  studs  shall 
be  cut  away  and  framed  three  feet  higher  and  one  foot  wider 
than  the  range,  and  filled  in  "to  the  face  of  the  said  stud-par- 
tition with  brick  or  fire-proof  blocks,  and  plastered  thereon. 
All  ranges  on  wood  or  combustible  floors  and  beams  that  are 
not  supported  on  legs  and  have  ash-pans  three  inches  or  more 
above  their  base,  shall  be  set  on  suitable  brick  foundations, 


532      RULES  FOR  HEATING  APPARATUS,  ETC. 

consisting  of  not  less  than  two  courses  of  brick  well  laid  in  mor- 
tar on  sheet  iron,  except  small  ranges  such  as  are  used  in  apart- 
ment houses  that  have  ash-pans  three  inches  or  more  above 
their  base,  which  shall  be  placed  on  at  least  one  course  of  brick- 
work on  sheet  iron  or  cement.  No  range  shall  be  placed  against 
a  furred  wall.  All  lath-and-plaster  or  wood  ceilings  over  all 
large  ranges,  and  ranges  in  hotels  and  restaurants,  shall  be 
guarded  by  metal  hoods  placed  at  least  nine  inches  below  the 
ceiling.  A  ventilating-pipe  connected  with  a  hood  over  a  range 
shall  be  at  least  nine  inches  from  all  lath-and-plaster  or  wood 
work,  and  shielded.  If  the  pipe  is  less  than  nine  inches  from 
lath-and-plaster  and  wood  work,  then  the  pipe  shall  be  covered 
with  one  inch  of  asbestos  plaster  on  wire  mesh.  No  ventilating- 
pipe  connected  with  a  hood  over  a  range  shall  pass  through  any 
floor.  Laundry-stoves  on  wood  or  combustible  floors  shall 
have  a  course  of  bricks,  laid  on  metal,  on  the  floor  under  and 
extended  twenty-four  inches  on  all  sides  of  them.  All  stoves 
for  heating  purposes  shall  be  properly  supported  on  iron  legs 
resting  on  the  floor  three  feet  from  all  lath-and-plaster  or  wood 
work ;  if  the  lath-and-plaster  or  wood  work  is  properly  protected 
by  a  metal  shield,  then  the  distance  shall  be  not  less  thar 
eighteen  inches.  A  metal  shield  shall  be  placed  under  anc 
twelve  inches  in  front  of  the  ash-pan  of  all  stoves  that  are 
placed  on  wood  floors.  All  low  gas-stoves  shall  be  placed  or 
iron  stands,  or  the  burners  shall  be  at  least  six  inches  above  th( 
base  of  the  stoves,  and  metal  guard-plates  placed  four  inches 
below  the  burners,  and  all  wood  work  under  them  shall  be 
covered  with  metal. 


PAET  V. 

'      x        \  . '      /        S.  ) 

DRAWING.  LAYING  OUT  WORK.  MEN- 
SUB  ATIOK  GEOMETRICAL  MENSURA- 
TION. VARIOUS  ENGINEERING  FOR- 
MULAS. 


Drawing. — To  BISECT  A  RIGHT  ANGLE. — Take  a  as  centre, 
Fig.  242,  and  any  radius,  and  draw  the  arc  be.  Now,  with  be 
as  centres  and  the  same  radius,  draw  the  arcs  bisecting  be  in  1 
and  2;  draw  lines  from  a  through  1  and  2. 


FIG.  242. 


FIG.  213. 


To  DRAW  A  TRIANGLE  WHEN  THE  LENGTHS  OF  THE  SIDES  ARE 
GIVEN. — Draw  the  length  of  one  side,  as  ab,  Fig.  243;  then,  with 
a  as  centre  and  the  length  of  one  of  the  other  sides,  describe  an 
arc,  as  shown;  then,  with  b  as  centre,  describe  an  arc,  as  shown, 
using  the  length  of  the  third  side  as  radius;  then  connect  this 
intersection  and  ab. 

To  DRAW  THE  FIVE-POINT  STAR  (Fig.  245). — Draw  the  cir- 
cumference and  divide  it  into  5  equal  parts,  1,  2,  3,  etc.;  connect 
1  and  3,  3  and  5,  5  and  2,  2  and  4,  and  4  and  1. 

To  DRAW  A  SQUARE  WHEN  THE  DIAGONAL  is  GIVEN. — Draw 
the  diagonal,  ab,  Fig.  244;  bisect  it  at  c  and  draw  the  line  de  at 
right  angles  to  ab;  then  with  ac  as  radius  and  c  as  centre  strike 

533 


534 


DRAWING. 


a  circle;    then  connect  ad,  db,  be,  and  ea,  which  is  the  square 
required. 


FIG.  244. 


FIG.  245. 


To  FIND  A  SQUARE  TWICE  THE  AREA  OF  A  GIVEN  SQUARE. — 
Draw  the  given  square,  as  abed,  Fig.  246;  then,  with  the  diagonal, 
cb,  as  one  side,  draw  the  square  cbef,  which  will  be  twice  the  area 
of  the  first  square. 

To  DRAW  A  SQUARE  HAVING  THE  AREA  OF  Two  GIVEN 
SQUARES. — Draw  one  side  of  each  of  the  given  squares  so  as  to 
form  a  right  angle,  as  ab  and  be,  Fig.  247;  connect  ac,  and,  with 


FIG.  247. 


FIG.  248. 


this  line  as  one  side,  draw  the  square,  3,  which  is  equal  in  area 
to  1  and  2. 

The  above  rule  applies  to  circles  as  well  as  squares;  ab  and 
AC,  Fig.  248,  represent  the  diameters  of  the  smaller  circles,  and 
CB  the  diameter  of  a  circle  which  is  equal  in  area  to  the  two 
small  ones. 

To  DRAW  A  TRIANGLE  WHEN  THE  LENGTH  OF  ONE  SIDE  is 
GIVEN. — Draw  the  side  or  base,  as  ab,  Fig.  249;  then,  with  ab 


DRAWING. 


535 


as  radius,  strike  the  arc  ac\  then  with  the  same  radius  and  a  as 
centre,  find  point  d;  connect  ad  and  db. 

To  DRAW  AN  EQUILATERAL  TRIANGLE  WHEN  THE  PERPENDIC- 
ULAR is  GIVEN. — Draw  ab  for  the  perpendicular,  Fig.  250;  then 
draw  cd  and  gh  at  right  angles  to  ab ;  then,  with  any  radius  and 


FIG.  249. 


a  as  centre,  draw  the  semicircle,  cefd;  then,  with  c  as  centre, 
find  the  point  e;  then,  with  d  as  centre,  find  the  point  /;  then 
draw  the  line  ah  through  the  point  /;  then  draw  the  line  ag 
through  e. 

To  DRAW  AN  ANGLE  OF  60°  OR  30°.— Draw  the  line  ab,  Fig. 
251,  and  with  any  point  on  ab,  as  c,  for  centre  and  ca  as  radius, 
draw  the  arc  al,  2d.  With  a  as  centre  and  same  radius  find 
point  1 ;  draw  line  from  a  through  1 ;  lac  =  60°;  with  d  as  centre 
and  same  radius  find  point  2;  2ad=30°. 

To  DRAW  A  REGULAR  POLYGON  OF  ANY  NUMBER  OF  SIDES, 
WHEN  THE  LENGTH  OF  ONE  SIDE  is  GIVEN. — Take  the  length  of 
the  side  for  a  base,  as  ab,  Fig.  252; 
then  with  ab  as  radius  and  a  as 
centre,  draw  the  semicircle,  db] 
then  divide  the  semicircle  into  as 
many  equal  parts  as  there  are 
sides  to  the  polygon,  in  this  case 
7;  then,  as  we  have  one  side,  ab, 
we  skip  the  first  division  and  1 
connect  a  and  2;  then  from  the 
centre  of  a2  and  ab  draw  lines  at 
right  angles  until  they  meet  at  c, 
which  is  the  centre  of  the  poly- 
gon. Then,  with  c  at  centre  and  ca  as  radius,  draw  the  circle; 
then  draw  lines  from  a  through  points  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  striking 
the  circ  e  at  h,  g,  f,  and  e;  now  connect  2h,  hg,  gf,  fe,  and  eb. 

To  DRAW  AN  OCTAGON. — When  you  have  the  distance  from 


FIG.  252. 


536 


DRAWING. 


one  side  to  the  other  given,  to  draw  the  octagon,  first  draw 
a  square,  Fig.  253,  of  that  size;  then  draw  diagonal  lines  from 
each  corner,  as  aa,  aa;  then  take  the  distance  from  the  centre 
to  the  outside,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line,  and  measure  the 
same  distance  from  the  centre  on  the  lines,  aa;  then  draw 


f   N 


FIG,  253. 


FIG.  254. 


lines  from  this  point  at  right  angles  to  aa  and  you  have  the 
octagon. 

To  DRAW  AN  OCTAGON  WHEN  THE  SIDE  OR  BASE  is  GIVEN. — 
Draw  the  line,  ab,  for  the  base,  Fig.  254,  and  from  a  and  b  draw 
two  indefinite  perpendicular  lines;  then  take  the  distance  from 
a  to  b  and  describe  the  two  half-circles;  then,  using  the  same 
radius,  from  point  c  find  point  d  on  the  perpendicular,  from 
which  draw  a  horizontal  line  connecting  at  e;  then,  with  the 
same  raidus,  find  point  /,  from  which  draw  a  horizontal  line 
connecting  at  g,  thus  forming  the  square,  d,  e,  f,  g.  Then  from 
g  draw  the  line  gh,  equal  in  length  to  gb;  then  the  line  ei,  then 
ej,  dk,  dl,  and  fm — all  equal  to  gb]  then  connect  bh,  hi,  ij,  jk, 
kl,  Im,  and  ma. 

To  DIVIDE  A  CIRCLE  INTO  CONCENTRIC  RINGS  HAVING  EQUAL 
AREAS. — Divide  the  radius,  ac,  Fig.  255,  into  as  many  parts 
as  areas  required,  as  1,  2,  3,  etc.  With  ac  as  a  diameter  draw 
the  semicircle  a,  4,  5,  6,.  c;  draw  lines  from  points  1,  2,  3  at 
right  angles  to  ac,  meeting  the  semicircle  at  4,  5,  6;  with  c  as 
centre  and  c4,  c5,  and  cG  as  radii  draw  the  concentric  circles. 

To  DRAW  ANY  NUMBER  OF  TANGENTIAL  ARCS  OF  CIRCLES 
HAVING  A  GIVEN  DIAMETER. — Draw  a  polygon  of  as  many 
sides  as  arcs  required  (four  and  six).  With  each  angle  as  centre 
and  half  of  one  side  as  radius  draw  the  arcs,  as  shown  in  Figs. 
256  and  257. 

To  DRAW  AN  ELLIPSE. — Draw  the  rectangle  abed,  Fig.  258. 
ab  represents  the  long  diameter  and  ac  half  the  short  diam- 


DRAWING. 


537 


eter;    divide  ab  into  two  equal  parts,  as  ae  and  eb;   then  divide 
ae  and  ac  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts,  as  1,  2,  3,  etc.; 

FIG.  256. 


FIG.  255. 


FIG.  257. 


then  draw  lines  from  c  to  5,  6,  7,  etc. ;  then  draw  lines  from 
e  to  1,  2,  3,  etc.;  then  draw  the  curved  line  through  the 
intersections,  as  shown. 


FIG.  2580 

To  DRAW  AN  ELLIPSE  WITH  A  STRING. — Draw  the  long  diam- 
eter, Fig.  259,  as  ab;  then  half  the  short  diameter,  as  cd;  then, 
with  c  as  centre  and  ad  as  radius,  describe  arcs  bisecting  ab 
at  1  and  2,  at  which  points  drive  a  nail  to  fasten  the  string ; 
then  fasten  the  string  at  1  and  stretch  to  c,  at  which  point  place 
a  pencil  inside  the  string  and  carry  the  string  to  2  and  make 
fast;  then  keep  the  string  tight  and  run  the  pencil  along  on 
the  inside  of  the  string  and  the  mark  will  be  the  ellipse;  3  and 
4  show  position  of  pencil  and  string  on  the  curve. 

To  DRAW  AN  ELLIPSE  WITH  THE  SQUARE. — Take  a  strip  of 
wood,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2GO,  say  |"Xl",  to  use  as  a  rule;  then 
drive  a  nail  through  the  stick  about  an  inch  from  one  end,  as  1  ; 
then  make  the  distance  between  1  2  equal  one-half  the  short 


538 


DRAWING. 


diameter  of  the  ellipse  and  2  3  equal  to  one-half  the  long  diam- 
eter;  drive  another  nail  at  3  and  at  2  make  a  hole  for  a  pencil, 


FIG.  259. 


FIG.  260. 


place  the  pencil  in  the  hole  and  slide  the  stick  from  a  perpen- 
dicular position  to  a  horizontal  one,  keeping  the  nails  against 
the  inside  of  the  square,  and  the  pencil  will  describe  an  ellipse. 
WHEN  THE  Two  AXES  ARE  GIVEN,  TO  DRAW  A  CURVE  AP- 
PROXIMATING AN  ELLIPSE. — With  cd  as  the  major  axis  and 
ag  the  minor  axis,  Fig.  261,  draw  lines  connecting  ad  andac; 
then,  with  b  as  centre  and  ba  as  radius,  draw  the  semicircle, 
•  finding  points  e  and  /,  from  which  points  draw  lines  at  right 
angles  to  ad  and  ac,  intersecting  at  g;  then,  with  ga  as  radius 
and  g  as  centre  strike  arc  1  2;  then,  with  i  as  centre  and  i2 
as  radius,  strike  arc  2d  and  repeat  same  for  other  side. 


/    \    \ 

b            /    \  N^ 

h\ 

/i 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

.  -      ' 

f.   . 

"**] 

/ 

FIG. 

261. 

To  DRAW  AN  ELLIPSE  WITH  THE  TRAMMEL. — Tack  a  frame 
to  the  floor  or  drawing-board,  as  shown  by  1,  2,  3,  Fig.  262, 
leaving  a  space  between  the  strips  of  three-eighths  of  an 
inch;  then,  on  the  trammel,  make  de  equal  to  the  semi-minor 
axis  and  df  equal  to  the  semi-major  axis;  then  put  a  f-inch  pin 
in  the  trammel  at  e  and  /  and  place  the  same  on  the  frame  with 


DRAWING. 


539 


the  pins  in  the  slot;    then  draw  the  trammel  around  and  d 
will  describe  the  ellipse. 


FIG.  262. 


To  DRAW  AN  OVAL. — With  ab  as  the  short  diameter  and  ag 
as  radius,  Fig.  263,  draw  a  circle;  then  draw  the  line  cd  at 
right  angles  to  ab  through  the  centre  g;  then  draw  the  lines  af 
and  be  through  d;  then,  with  b  as  centre  and  ba  as  radius,  draw 
the  arc  ae;  then,  with  a  as  centre  and  same  radius,  draw  the 
arc  b/;  then,  with  b  as  centre  and  de  as  radius,  draw  the  arc  ef. 

UPON  A  GIVEN  LINE,  ab,  TO  DRAW  AN  OVAL. — Bisect  ab  at  c, 
Fig.  264,  and  draw  at  right  angles  cd',  with  b  as  centre  and  ba  as 


b 
FIG.  264. 


radius  draw  the  arc  ad.  Bisect  the  quarter  circle  ae  in  /  and 
through  /  draw  bg,  which  gives  ag  as  the  first  part  of  the  curve. 
Now  bisect  cd  in  h  and  draw  hd;  then  the  intersection  i  is  the 
centre  and  ig  the  radius  for  the  second  part  of  the  curve.  Bisect 
el  in  m  and  through  m  draw  in,  which  gives  gn  as  the  second 
part  of  the  curve.  Bisect  ch  in  o  and  draw  od;  the  intersection 


540  DRAWING. 

p  is  the  centre  and  pn  the  radius  for  the  third  part  of  the  curve. 
From  p  draw  pet  through  e  and  nt  is  the  third  part  of  the  curve; 
with  e  as  centre  and  radius  et  draw  the  curve  to  the  line  cd. 
Repeat  the  operation  for  the  other  half  of  the  curve.  On  the 
diameter  ah  draw  a  semicircle,  thus  completing  the  oval. 

To  DRAW  AN  INVOLUTE  OF  A  SQUARE. — With  the  square  as 
1,  2,  3,  4,  first  continue  the  sides,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines, 
Fig.  265;  then,  with  1  as  centre  and  1  4  as  radius,  draw  arc  4  5; 
then,  with  2  as  centre  and  2  5  as  radius,  draw  arc  5  6;  then, 
with  3  as  centre  and  3  6  as  radius,  draw  arc  6  7;  then,  with 
4  as  centre  and  4  7  as  radius,  draw  arc  7  8,  etc. 

To  DRAW  A  SPIRAL  COMPOSED  OF  SEMICIRCLES  WHOSE  RADII 
SHALL  BE  IN  GEOMETRICAL  PROGRESSION. — Draw  an  indefinite 
line,  as  ab;  Fig.  266.  With  1  as  centre  and  1  2  as  radius,  draw 
first  semicircle  2  3;  then,  with  2  as  centre  and  2  3  as  radius, 
draw  semicircle  3  4;  then,  with  3  as  centre  and  3  4  as  radius, 
draw  semicircle  4  5,  etc. 


FIG.  266. 

To  DRAW  A  SPIRAL  COMPOSED  OF  SEMICIRCLES,  THE  RADII 
BEING  IN  ARITHMETICAL  PROGRESSION. — Draw  an  indefinite 
line,  as  ab,  Fig.  267;  then  take  any  point  as  centre  and  the  radius 
of  the  small  semicircle,  as  1  2;  with  2  as  centre  draw  the  semi- 
circle 1  3;  then,  with  1  as  centre  and  1  3  as  radius,  draw  the 
semicircle  3  4;  then,  with  2  as  centre  and  4  2  as  radius,  draw 
the  semicircle  4  5,  etc. 

To  DRAW  A  SPIRAL  OF  ONE  TURN. — First  draw  a  circle, 
Fig.  268,  as  large  as  the  spiral  is  to  be;  then  divide  it  into  any 
number  of  equal  parts  (in  this  case  twelve),  as  lines  abc,  etc.; 
then  divide  any  one  of  these  lines  into  as  many  equal  parts  as 
the  circle  is  divided;  then  with  centre  c  and  radius  ell  draw 


DRAWING. 


541 


lie;  then,  with  same  centre  and  radius  clO,  draw  arc  10/;  then, 
with  same  centre  and  radius  c9,  draw  arc  9gr  and  continue  until 
all  the  points  are  found;  through  these  intersections  draw  the 
curves. 

FIG.  267. 


FIG.  268. 

To  DRAW  A  SPIRAL  OF  ANY  NUMBER  OF  TURNS  (IN  THIS  CASE 
Two). — Draw  a  circle  the  size  of  the  spiral,  Fig.  269,  then  divide 
it  off  into  any  number  of  equal  spaces,  say  12,  as  a,  e,  d,  etc.; 
then  divide  any  radius,  as  ac,  into  as  many  equal  parts  aa  there 
are  turns  to  the  spiral;  then  divide  these  spaces  into  as  many 
equal  parts  as  the  circle,  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.;  then,  with  c  as  centre 
and  c2  as  radius,  draw  arc  intersecting  ec\  then,  with  c  as  centre 
and  c3  as  radius,  draw  arc  intersecting  dc,  etc.;  continue  up  to 


542 


DRAWING. 


12;    then  commence  with  c  as  centre  and  c+2  as  radius  and 
draw  arc  to  ec\    then  through  these  points  draw  the  curve. 


FIG.  269. 

Fig.  270  shows  how  to  draw  a  tapering  scroll  composed  of 
semicircles;  these  scrolls  are  used  in  laying  out  vines  and  other 
ornamentation. 


FIG.  270. 


To  DRAW  A  SCROLL  FOR  A  STAIR  RAILING. — Draw  the  eye  of 
the  scroll,  as  the  circle  acbd,  Fig.  271;  draw  the  diameters  ab 
and  cd;  connect  c  and  b;  bisect  co  at  e  and  draw  el  parallel  to 
ab;  draw  a  line  from  6  parallel  to  cd,  as  6k;  bisect  eo  at  3  and 
draw  3  2;  make  o4  equal  to  o3  and  draw  ?5  parallel  to  ab;  bisect 
o7  and  draw  1  2;  with  1  as  centre  and  I/  as  radius  draw  arc 
fg;  with  2  as  centre  and  2g  as  radius  draw  arc  gh;  with  3  as 
centre  draw  arc  hi,  etc.  To  draw  the  inner  curve  take  7  as 
centre  and  7/  as  radius  and  draw  arc  fm;  with  6  as  centre  and 
6m  as  radius  draw  arc  "mn. 


DRAWING. 


543 


To  DRAW  A  SPIRAL  WHEN  ITS  GREATEST  DIAMETER  is  GIVEN 
(IN  THIS  CASE  ONE  OF  THREE  TURNS). — Divide  the  diameter 


FIG.  271. 

op,  Fig.  272,  into  eight  equal  parts,  as  1,  2,  3,  etc.;  with  4  5 
as  diameter  draw  the  circle  acbd  for  the  eye  of  the  spiral.  Draw 
the  two  diameters  ab  and  cd  and  divide  them  into  twice  as 
many  equal  parts  as  there  are  turns  to  the  spiral,  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
6,  etc.,  in  the  enlarged  eye.  Now,  with  1  as  centre  and  16  as 
radius  draw  the  arc  &/  to  strike  a  horizontal  line  from  2  through 
1;  with  2  as  centre  and  2/  as  radius  draw  arc  fg  to  strike  a 
perpendicular  line  from  3  through  2;  with  3  as  centre  and  3g 
as  radius  draw  arc  gh  to  strike  a  line  from  4  through  3,  and 
so  continue  until  the  spiral  is  completed. 

In  a  spiral  of  one  turn  the  diameter  of  the  eye  is  about  three- 
tenths  of  the  length  of  the  greatest  diameter;  in  one  of  two 
turns,  about  one-sixth;  in  one  of  three  turns,  about  one-eighth; 
in  one  of  four  turns,  about  one-tenth. 

To  DRAW  AN  IONIC  VOLUTE. — Let  ab  be  the  vertical  measute 
of  the  volute,  Fig.  273;  divide  ab  into  seven  equal  parts  and 
from  point  4  draw  a  line  at  right  angles  to  ab;  at  any  point  on 
this  line  draw  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  equal  to  one  of  the 
divisions  on  ab.  Draw  the  square  abed;  bisect  each  of  its  sides 
and  draw  the  square  e!2,  ll/;  draw  the  diagonals  ell,  /12; 


544 


FIG.  272. 


FIG,  273. 


DRAWING. 


545 


divide  the  diagonal  121  into  three  equal  parts  and  draw  8  7  and 
4  3  and  continue  the  lines  as  shown,  making  hg  equal  to  one- 
half  ^7;  with  1  as  centre  and  la  as  radius  draw  arc  ab  to  meet 
a  line  through  1  and  2;  with  2  as  centre  and  26  as  radius  draw 
arc  be  to  meet  a  line  through  23;  with  3  as  centre  and  3c  as 
radius  draw  arc  cd  to  meet  a  line  through  4  3,  etc.  The 
centres  to  draw  the  inner  curve  are  shown  by  the  dots  on  the 
diagonals,  which  is  the  centre  of  the  space  between  the  angles 
of  the  squares. 

To  DRAW  A  PARABOLA  WHEN  THE  ABSCISSA  ab  AND  THE  OR- 
DINATE  ac  ARE  GIVEN. — Draw  the  rectangle  abed,  Fig.  274,  and 

1  2          3  * 


FIG.  274. 


divide  cd  and  db  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts;  draw- 
lines  from  b  to  meet  points  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  on  cd',  then  draw  lines 
from  points  on  db  parallel  to  ab;  draw  line  1  until  it  intersects 
16;  draw  line  2  until  it  intersects  26,  etc.;  these  intersections 
are  points  on  the  line  of  the  curve. 

To  DRAW  AN  HYPERBOLA  WHEN  THE  DIAMETER,  ab,  THE 
ABSCISSA,  be,  AND  THE  DOUBLE  ORDINATE,  de,  ARE  GIVEN. — Com- 
plete the  rectangle  bcdf,  Fig.  275,  and  divide  fd  and  dc  into  the 
same  number  of  equal  spaces,  as  1,  2,  3,  etc. ;  from  6  draw  61,  62, 
etc.,  and  from  a  draw  the  intersecting  lines  al,  a2,  etc. ;  through 
the  intersections  of  these  lines  draw  the  curve  bd.  Repeat  for 
the  other  half  of  the  curve. 

To  DRAW  A  CYCLOID. — Draw  the  rolling  circle,  as  6,  1,  2,  3, 
etc.,  Fig.  276,  and  divide  the  semicircle  into  any  number  of 
equal  parts,  as  1,  2,  3,  etc. ;  make  the  spaces  on  ab  equal  to  those 
on  the  semicircle;  draw  a  line  from  d  parallel  to  ab;  draw  lines 
from  the  points  on  ab  perpendicular  to  meet  the  line  ed  at  ooo, 


546 


DRAWING. 


which  are  the  centres  of  the  rolling  circle  in  its  several  positions; 
with  these  points  as  centres  and  the  radius  of  the  rolling  circle 


2    3   4 

—  --  - • 


FIG.  275. 

draw  the  arcs  12c,  lie,  lOc.     From  1  2,  etc.,  the  points  on  the 
semicircle,  draw  lines  parallel  to  ab  to  meet  the  arcs  12c,  lie, 


FIG.  277. 

etc.,  at  cc,  etc.;  draw  the  curve  through  points  c,  c,  c,  etc.     Foi 
the  other  half  of  the. curve  reverse  and  proceed  as  above. 


DRAWING. 


547 


To  DRAW  AN  EPICYCLOID  ;  ALSO  TO  DRAW  A  HYPOCYCLOID.— 
Draw  the  curve  of  the  directing  circle,  as  ab,  Fig.  277,  and  the 
curve  of  the  rolling  circle,  as  6,  1,  2,  etc.;  divide  the  semicircle 
bd  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  1,  2,  3,  etc.;  make  the 
spaces  on  ab  equal  to  those  on  the  semicircle  bd,  spacing  from 


FIG.  278. 

6;  with  the  centre  of  the  directing  circle  as  a  centre,  draw  an 
arc  from  c,  giving  the  line  of  centres  of  the  rolling  circle.  Draw 
lines  from  the  centre  of  the  directing  circle  radiating  through 


FIG.  279. 


the  points  k,  j,  i,  etc.,  thus  finding  the  centres  of  the  rolling  cir- 
cle in  its  several  different  positions,  as  o,  o,  o,  etc. ;  with  these 
points  as  centres  and  radius  of  the  rolling  circle  draw  the  arcs 
k,  c,  /,  c,  etc. ;  with  the  centre  of  the  directing  circle  as  centre 


548  THE  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 

draw  arcs  from  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  to  meet  the  arcs  from  e,  f,  g,  etc.; 
the  intersections  of  these  arcs  are  points  on  the  curve,  as  shown ; 
draw  the  curve  through  the  points  c,  c,  c,  etc.  To  draw  the 
hypocycloid,  see  Fig.  278.  When  the  diameter  of  the  rolling 
circle  is  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  directing  circle  the  hypo- 
cycloid  becomes  a  straight  line. 

To  DESCRIBE  THE  INVOLUTE  OF  A  CIRCLE. — Divide  the  given 
circle,  Fig.  279,  into  any  number  of  equal  spaces,  as  1,2,  3,  etc. ; 
draw  a  line  from  2  tangent  to  the  circle  and  equal  in  length  to 
the  arc  1  2;  draw  line  from  3  tangent  to  the  circle  and  equal  in 
length  to  the  arc  3  1.  Repeat  at  each  of  the  points  and  draw 
the  curve  through  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  etc. 

The  Orders  of  Architecture.  —  Order  of  Architec- 
ture is  the  term  applied  to  any  of  the  systems  used  by  the  archi- 
tects of  the  Classic  period  to  proportion  the  various  parts  and 
details  of  their  buildings.  There  are  five  of  these  orders — the 
Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  Tuscan,  and  Composite. 

Each  order  has  its  distinguishing  features,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  following  figures. 

The  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders  were  originated  by 
the  Greeks,  while  the  Tuscan  and  Composite  orders  are  modifi- 
cations or  improvements  made  by  the  Romans. 

Each  order  consists  principally  of  three  divisions — the  Stylo- 
bate,  which  forms  the  base  or  foundation;  the  Column,  which  is 
the  shaft  which  supports  the  superstructure  and  which  is  usu- 
ally composed  of  a  base,  shaft,  and  capital;  and  the  Entablature, 
which  is  the  superstructure  proper.  It  consists  of  three  princi- 
pal divisions — the  Architrave,  Frieze,  and  Cornice. 

THE  DORIC  ORDER. — The  Doric  order,  Fig.  280,  is  the  most 
ancient  of  all  the  orders,  and  is  also  the  most  simple;  it  has 
few  members  and  little  ornamentation.  Fig.  281  shows  the 
Roman  modification  of  this  order. 

THE  IONIC  ORDER. — Fig.  282  shows  the  Grecian  Ionic  order, 
and  Fig.  283  the  Roman  modification.  The  distinguishing 
feature  of  this  order  is  the  capital  of  the  column,  which 
consists  of  a  contracted  echinus  and  a  small  torus,  over  which 
the  spirals  or  volutes  are  turned. 

THE  CORINTHIAN  ORDER. — This  order,  shown  by  Fig.  284, 
is  the  most  elaborate  of  the  three  Grecian  orders;  the  column 
is  more  slender  than  the  preceding  orders  and  the  capital  has 
more  enrichment.  The  ornament  on  the  Corinthian  capital 
consists  of  a  number  of  caules,  or  husks,  out  of  which  the  cauli- 


THE  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


549 


culi,  or  twisted  stems,  spring,  forming  small  spirals  or  volutes 
at  the  sides  and  angles  of  the  abacus.  Fig.  285  shows  the 
Roman  modification  of  the  order. 


FIG.  280. 


FIG.  281. 


THE  TUSCAN  ORDER. — This  is  the  most  simple  of  the  Roman 
orders,  as  is  shown  by  Fig.  286.  In  the  Roman  orders  the 
pedestal  is  always  one-third  and  the  entablature  one-fourth 
the  height  of  the  column. 

THE  COMPOSITE  ORDER. — This  order,  shown  by  Fig.  287, 
was  invented  by  the  Romans  to  secure  something  more  elab- 


THE  ORDERS   OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


Name  of  Order. 

Grecian 
Doric. 

Grecian 
Ionic. 

Grecian 
Corinthian. 

Orders  of  Architecture. 

Entablature. 

H. 

P. 

H. 

P. 

H. 

P 

Cornice.  .  \ 

Cymatium  "1 
Corona  \ 
Bed-mould  j 

23 

55* 

37| 

M 

48* 

81 

Frieze  

42g 

28A 

471 
501 

27^0 

44 

~52*~ 

31* 

Architrave. 

Tsenia  

42$ 

28^ 

28 

30 

Column. 

Capital.  .  .  •( 

I 

Abacus  
Echinus.  .  .  . 
Necking.  .  .  . 

'27*' 

32 

:*« 

34 

85*' 

47 

Shaft. 

Astragal.  .  .  . 
Cincture.  .  .  . 

;  5  diameters,  21  minutes.  ; 

• 

30 

i 

a 

a 

1 

J 

TJ 

25 
30 

25 
30 

1 

1 

jte 

a 
i 

00 

Base  of       \ 
Column,  j 

Base  mould. 
Plinth  

No 
base 

11 

47reo 

22* 

46$ 

o 

o  ^ 
m 

Cap  j 

Corona. 
Bed-mould. 

Base  mould. 
Plinth  

I 

Stylobate  of 
3  steps,  50is  minutes. 

No  pedestal 

Die. 

Base.  .  .  .  ] 

THE  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE, 


551 


Roman 
Doric. 

Roman 
Ionic. 

Roman 
Corinthian. 

Composite. 

Tuscan. 

H. 

P. 

H. 

P. 

H. 

P. 

H. 

p. 

H. 

P. 

45 

86* 

52* 

76$ 

60 

88* 

60 

85 

40 

68* 

45 

25 

45 

25 

45 

25 

45 

25 

35 

23* 

30 

25 

37* 

25 

45 

25 

45 

25 

30 

23* 

•jqi 

33  j 

45 

45 

36i 

30 

25 

70 

70 

30 



25 

25 

25 

25 

23* 

I 

j 

j 

a 

3 

a 

g 

§ 

.*• 

H" 

CO 

H 

rH 

| 

i 

» 

g 

ri 

i 

•  s 

a 

I 

a 

1 

a 

| 

.2 

.2 

1 

1 

t- 

00 

oo 

00 

o 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

42* 

30 

32 

42 

32* 

41$ 

32* 

411 

30 

41} 

15 

57* 

16$ 

58$ 

25 

551 

25 

55 

15 

51} 

42* 

42 

41$ 

41$ 

411 

1 

1 

"S 

i 

j 

a 

i 

p 

t*c 

a 

H« 

a 

CO 

3 

§ 

00 

£ 

e 

£ 

03 

-2 

-2 

-2 

-2 

g 

§ 

a 

i 

a 

rt 

.2 

^ 

""O 

T3 

•a 

•^ 

"T3 

(N 

<& 

<fc 

M 

« 

25 

53* 

16$ 

55* 

25 

54* 

2H 

55 

15 

51* 

orate  than  the  Corinthian  order;    as  will  be  seen,  it  is  a  com- 
bination of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian. 

PROPORTIONS  OF  THE  VARIOUS  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. — 
All  the  different  members  of  the  various  architectural  orders 


Fio.  282. 


FIG.  283. 


are  proportioned  from  the  large  diameter  of  the  column.  For 
convenience  we  divide  this  diameter  into  sixty  parts,  called 
minutes  or  parts,  and  the  different  members  are  proportioned 
by  this  scale. 


The  chart  on  pp.  550,  551  shows  the  sizes  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  different  orders,  the  figures  denoting  sixtieth  parts 
of  the  diameter,  or  minutes.  Those  in  the  columns  marked 


FIG.  284. 


FIG.  285. 


H  are  the  heights,  and  those  in  the  columns  marked  P  give 
the  projection  of  the  member  from  the  centre  line  or  axis  of 
the  column. 


FIG  286. 


FIG   287. 


LAYING  OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


555 


Laying  Out  Work,  etc. — To  APPROXIMATE  THE  NUMBER 
OF  SQUARES  IN  A  ROOF. — If  J  pitch,  find  the  floor  surface  and 
multiply  by  1J;  if  \  pitch,  multiply  by  1£;  if  \  pitch,  multiply 
by  li,  etc. 

Example. ^^Find  the  number  of  squares  in  a  roof  30X40  feet,  | 
pitch:  30X40  =  1200;  1200X1^=1800,  or  18  squares. 

THE  LENGTH  OF  RAFTERS  FOR  THE  MOST  COMMON  PITCHES 
may  be  found  as  follows: 

One-quarter  pitch,  multiply  the  span  by  0.559;  £  pitch,  mul- 
tiply the  span  by  0.6;  f  pitch,  multiply  the  span  by  0.625;  £ 
pitch,  multiply  the  span  by  0.71;  f  pitch,  multiply  the  span 
by  0.8;  Gothic  or  full  pitch,  multiply  by  1.12. 

BACKING  OF  HIP-RAFTERS.  —  Draw  1 2  and  2  3,  Fig.  288, 
to  represent  the  plates  of  the  building,  then  the  seat  of  the  hip, 
as  2  4;  then  the  hip,  as  2  5.  Take  any  point  of  the  hip,  as  c, 
and  draw  a  line  at  right  angles  to  2  5  until  it  strikes  the  seat, 
2  4;  then  continue  the  line  at  right  angles  to  the  scat,  or  2  4, 


FIG.  288. 


FIG.  289. 


until  it  strikes  the  plate,  as  point  d;  then,  with  a  as  centre  and 
ac  as  radius,  strike  an  arc  bisecting  2  4  at  6;  then  draw 
line  from  b  to  point  d  on  the  plate;  then  the  bevel  at  6  is  the 
bevel  for  backing  the  hip.  Fig.  289  shows  application. 

To  FIND  THE  BEVEL  FOR  BACKING  THE  HIP-RAFTERS  FOR  AN 
OCTAGON  ROOF. — Draw  the  plate  as  ade,  Fig.  290;  then  draw 
the  common  rafter,  as  ab;  then  the  seat  and  full  size  of  hip, 
as  df;  then  draw  line  from  5  to  6;  then,  with  d  as  centre  and 
dl  as  radius,  describe  arc  1  2;  then  draw  line  from  2  parallel 
to  ad  to  point  3,  and  continue  parallel  to  ab.  Then  lay  off 


556 


LAYING  OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


the  thickness  of  the  rafter  on  3  4,  and  draw  the  bevel  lines  as 
shown.     This  rule  applies  to  any  roof. 

To  FIND  THE  BEVEL  FOR  BACKING  HIP-RAFTERS. — Take  the 
length  of  the  hip  on  the  blade  of  the  square  and  the  rise  of  the 
roof  on  the  tongue  and  the  tongue  will  give  the  desired  bevel. 


FIG.  290. 

To  GET  THE  BEVELS  TO  MITRE  PURLINS  WHEN  THE  PURLIN 
SETS  SQUARE  WITH  THE  RAFTERS. — Draw  ace,  representing  the 
slope  of  the  roof,  Fig.  291  j  then  continue  ce,  making  it  equal  in 
length  to  ac,  as  de;  connect  a  and  d,  thus  finding  the  bevel  for 
the  top  or  face  of  purlins,  as  shown  at  a.  Now  drop  the  perpen- 
dicular from  e  indefinitely;  then  draw  a  line  from  a  at  right 
angles  to  ac  until  it  strikes  the  perpendicular  at  /.  Make  ag 
on  ac  equal  to  ae\  connect  g  and  /,  and  the  bevel  at  g  will  be 
the  bevel  for  the  side  of  the  purlin. 

To  FIND  THE  LENGTHS  AND  BEVELS  OF  HIP-  AND  CRIPPLE- 
RAFTERS.— Draw  the  plates  as  ab  and  be,  Fig.  292,  then  the 
seat  of  the  hip,  as  bd,  then  the  seats  of  the  cripples,  as  1  1,  2  2, 
3  3,  etc.;  then  draw  the  rise  of  the  common  rafter,  as  de,  then  e 
to  1  is  the  length  of  the  common  rafters;  then  draw  the  rise  of 
the  hip,  as  df,  then  fb  is  the  length  of  the  hip;  then  continue 
the  seat  of  the  common  rafter  until  it  equals  the  length  of  the 
rafter  as  lg;  then  draw  gb,  which  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the 
hip,  then  continue  the  seats  of  the  cripples  until  they  strike  the 
hip,  gb,  which  gives  the  lengths  of  the  cripples,  also  the  top 
bevel,  which  is  shown  at  h;  then  draw  line  from  g  parallel  to 


LAYING  OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


557 


de,  which  gives  the  top  bevel  of  the  hip  as  shown  at  g,  but  the  bevel 
must  not  be  used  until  after  the  hip  has  been  backed.     The  length 


FIG.  292. 

of  the  cripples  are  shown  by  the  lines  2  6,  3  7,  4  8,  etc.  The  bevel 
at  b  is  the  bevel  of  the  foot  of  the  hip;  the  one  at  the  top  is 
shown  at  /.  The  bevel  of  the  foot  of  the  common  and  cripple 
rafters  is  shown  at  e.  The  top  bevel  of  cripple  is  shown  at  h. 

To  FIND  THE  BEVELS  TO  CUT  SHEATHING  FOR  A  ROOF. — Draw 
level  line,  as  ab,  Fig.  293,  then  draw  cb,  showing  the  pitch  of  the 
roof;  then  from  any  point  on  this  line  let  fall  a  perpendicular, 
as  dg;  then  let  fall  a  perpendicular  from  b,  as  bf.  Now,  with  d 
as  centre  and  db  as  radius,  strike  an  arc  intersecting  ab  at  ej 


FIG.  293=  FIG.  294. 

now,  from  the  intersection  of  the  perpendicular  line,  dg,  pro- 
duced at  /,  draw  line  parallel  to  ab,  intersecting  perpendicular, 
bf;  now  from  this  point  draw  a  line  to  d,  thus  giving  the  bevel 
for  the  face  of  the  board.  Then,  with  g  as  centre  and  gh  as  radius, 
strike  an  arc  at  i;  then  draw  a  line  from  i  to  e,  thus  giving  the 
bevel  for  the  edge  of  the  boards. 


558 


LAYING  OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


To  LAY  OUT  A  RAKE  MOULDING  TO  JOIN  THE  MOULDING  ON 
THE  SQUARE  SET  ON  A  PLUMB  FACIA. — Mark  out  the  square 
moulding,  as  a,  with  be  as  the  facia,  Fig.  294;  then  draw  lines 
at  right  angles  to  the  facia,  joining  all  the  breaks  in  the  mould- 
ing, as  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.;  then  draw  lines  from  these  points  on  the 
moulding  with  the  fake  of  the  roof,  as  11,22,  33,  etc.,  and 
draw  a  line  at  right  angles  to  these,  as  1  7  at  d;  make  line  1  1  at 
d  the  same  length  as  1  1  at  a  and  2  2  at  d  same  as  at  a,  etc. ; 
then  join  these  points  as  shown,  thus  giving  the  profile  of  the 
rake  moulding. 

To  REDUCE  A  SQUARE  STICK  TO  AN  OCTAGON. — Place  the  blade 
of  the  square  on  the  stick  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  295,  and 


FIG.  295. 

7  and  17  on  the  blade  will  give  the  chamfer  lines,  as  shown. 
To  LAY  OUT  PERPENDICULAR  SHEATHING  FOR  A  DOME  ROOF. 

— Draw  the  spring  of  the  roof,  as  adb,  Fig.  296,  and  divide  it  in 

half  by  cd]  then  divide  db 
into  equal  parts  (as  many  as 
desired),  and  from  these  points 
let .  fall  perpendiculars  to  the 
base  line  cb;  then  with  c  as 
centre,  continue  these  lines  as 
semicircles,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines;  then  continue 
the  line  dc  indefinitely;  now 
on  the  outside  of  the  circle  lay 
off  the  width  desired  for  the 
boards  at  the  base,  as  5  5,  and 
draw  a  line  from  this  point  to 
c,  as  c5;  this  shows  the  ground 
plan  and  width  of  the  board 
at  the  several  different  points. 
Now  on  the  indefinite  line 
make  5  11  equal  to  db  on  the 
circle;  this  is  the  length  of  the 
FlQ  gge  board.  Then  divide  this  line 

into  as  many  equal  parts  as  the 

circle  of  the  roof  and  make  6  6  equal  to  11,  77  equal  to  2  2, 


LAYING  OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


559 


8  8  equal  to  3  3,  etc.;   now  connect  56,  67,  etc.,  which  gives 
the  pattern  of  the  sheathing  boards. 

The  same  rule  applies  to  any  shape  roof  having  a  circular  base. 

To  LAY  OUT  HORIZONTAL  SHEATHING  FOR  A  DOME  ROOF. — 
Draw  the  roof  as  shown  by  abc,  Fig.  297>  and  divide  it  in  half 
by  a  perpendicular  line,  which 
continue  up  indefinitely;  then 
divide  ab  into  as  many  spaces 
as  you  desire  boards,  as  1,  2, 
3,  etc.  Then  draw  a  line  from 
a,  striking  point  1,  and  continue 
until  it  bisects  the  perpen- 
dicular, which  is  the  centre, 
and  this  point  and  a  and  this 
point  and  1  is  the  radius  for 
the  first  board;  then  draw  a 
line  from  1  through  2  and  con- 
tinue to  the  perpendicular,  thus 
giving  the  centre  and  radius 
for  second  board;  then  draw 
the  line  2  6  and  repeat  the  operation,  etc. 

This  rule  applies  to  any  shape  roof  of  a  circular  base. 

To  GET  THE  LENGTH  AND  CUT  OF  CRIPPLE-RAFTERS  IN  A 
CURVE  ROOF. — Draw  the  plates,  as  ab  and  be,  Fig.  298,  and  the 
seat  of  the  hip,  as  ac.  Now  draw  the  rise  and  profile  of  the 
common  rafter,  as  ce  and  eb;  lay  off  the  seats  of  the  cripples,  as 


12,  34,  etc.,  making  1  3  the  thickness  of  the  cripple  rafter. 
Now  continue  these  lines  from  where  they  strike  the  seat  of  the 
hip  parallel  to  ab  until  they  strike  the  profile  of  the  common 
rafter;  then  64  will  be  the  length  of  the  cripple,  4  will  be  the 


560 


LAYING  OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


long  length  and  2  the  short  length,  or  4  will  be  the  line  of  the 
cut  on  one  side  and  2  the  line  of  the  cut  on  the  other  side. 

To  GET  THE  CUT  OF  BRACES  WHERE  THEIR  DIAGONAL  is 
PLUMB  WHEN  IN  POSITION. — (As  shown  in  Fig.  299.)  Take 
the  run  of  the  brace,  multiplied  by  0.70711,  on  the  blade  of 
the  square  and  the  rise  on  the  tongue,  and  the  angle  formed 
by  a  line  drawn  between  these  two  points  and  the  blade  of 
the  square  is  the  bevel  to  cut  the  brace,  applied  on  all  four 
sides. 


FIG.  299. 


FIG.  300. 


Example. — Find  the  cut  of  a  brace  6  feet  run  and  6  feet 
rise.  The  run,  6  feet,  by  0.70711  =4.24266.  Now  draw  a  line 
from  4.24+  on  the  blade  to  6  on  the  tongue,  and  the  bevel  on 
the  blade  is  the  bevel  to  cut  the  brace,  as  shown  in  Fig.  300.  ( 
For  the  top  multiply  the  rise  by  0.70711  and  proceed  as 
above. 

To  LAY  OUT  THE  PLANCHER  FOR  A  CONICAL  ROOF. — The 
following  diagram,  Fig.  301,  will  show  how  to  lay  out  the  plancher 
for  a  conical  roof:  a  and  b  is  the  radius  for  the  plancher,  and 
cd,  which  is  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  rafter  until  it  strikes 
the  centre  line,  ad,  is  the  radius  for  the  facia,  if  it  is  put  on 
square  to  the  rafter. 

To  FIND  THE  PROFILE  OF  HIP-  AND  VALLEY-RAFTERS  FOR 
CONCAVE  OR  CONVEX  ROOFS.  —  In  Fig.  302,  bcde  represents 
a  quarter  section  of  the  floor  plan;  be  is  the  seat  of  the  com- 
mon rafter  and  ce  is  the  seat  of  the  hip.  Now  draw  the  profile 
of  the  common  rafter,  as  ac;  then  divide  the  base,  be,  into 
any  number  of  spaces,  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  and  through  these  spaces 
draw  lines  at  right  angles  to  be,  continuing  then  to  the 
profile  of  the  common  rafter,  ac,  and  the  seat  of  the  hip, 
ec;  then  from  these  intersections  on  the  seat  of  the  hip  con- 
tinue the  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  seat  of  the  hip, 
making  the  line  1  1  on  the  hip  equal  to  1 1  on  the  common 


LAYING   OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


561 


FIG.  301. 


rafter,  and  2  2  on  the  hip  equal  to  2  2  on  the  common  rafter, 
3  3  equal  to  3  3,  etc  The  points  thus  found  by  these  lines 
are  points  on  the  profile  of  the  hip;  connect  cl,  1  2,  etc.,  as 
shown,  thus  giving  profile  of  hip. 

To  LAY  OUT  THE  JOINTS  IN  AN  ELLIP- 
TIC ARCH. — Draw  the  arch  abc,  Fig.  303, 
and  divide  the  curve  into  equal  spaces, 
as  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  making  as  many  spaces 
as  joints  required  in  the  arch;  draw  lines 
from  the  foci  dd  to  the  points  on  the 
curve  and  bisect  the  angle  thus  formed, 
as  shown.  The  lines  bisecting  this  angle 
are  the  lines  of  the  joints.  Repeat  the 
operation  for  each  joint. 

To  LAY  OFF  AN  OCTAGON  BAY  WHEN 
THE  LENGTH  OF  ONE  SIDE  is  GIVEN. — • 
First  draw  a  line  to  represent  the  side 
of  the  house,  as  ab,  Fig.  304;  then  with 
the  trammel  set  the  length  of  the  side, 
place  the  foot  at  a  and  find  point  d;  make 
the  distance  from  d  to  c  five-twelfths  of 
ad;  then,  with  the  foot  of  the  compasses 
at  c,  find  point  b;  with  the  foot  at  b, 
strike  the  arc  cf;  with  the  foot  at  d,  find 
point  1 ;  with  the  foot  at  a,  strike  the  arc 
de;  with  the  foot  at  c,  find  point  2; 
then  connect  ae,  ef,  and  fb. 

To  LAY  OUT  A  HEXAGON  BAY  WINDOW 
WHEN  THE  LENGTH  OF  ONE  SIDE  is 
GIVEN. — Draw  the  line  ac  as  side  of  the  FIG.  302. 

house,  Fig.  305;    then,  with  a  as   centre 
and  the  given  side  as  radius,  strike  arc  db;  then,  with  b  as 


FIG.  303. 


FIG.  304. 


centre,  find  point  c;  then,  with  c  as  centre,  strike  arc  eb;  now  with 
b  as  centre,  strike  semicircle  adec;  now  connect  ad,  de,  and  ec. 


562 


LAYING  OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


To  find  the  side  of  an  octagon  bay  when  the  length  on  the 
house  is  given:  Divide  the  distance  on  the  house  by  25/i2,  and 
the  answer  will  be  the  length  of  the  side. 


FIG.  305. 

To  find  the  distance  on  the  house  when  the  side  is  given: 
Multiply  the  side  by  2&/i2,  and  the  answer  will  be  the  diameter 
of  the  octagon. 

To  STRIKE  AN  OGEE  FOR  A  BRACKET. — Lay  off  the  width 
and  length  of  the  bracket,  as  ac  and  ab,  Fig.  306;  then  draw 
the  line  shown  at  the  back  of  bracket  an  inch,  or  more  if  desired, 
from  the  edge  of  board;  then  draw  the  diagonal  cd;  then  divide 


FIG.  306. 


FIG.  307. 


cd  into  two  equal  parts  at  3;  then,  with  3  as  centre  and  3c  as 
radius,  strike  arc  -at  1 ;  then,  with  c  as  centre  and  same  radius, 
strike  arc  intersecting  at  1 ;  then,  with  1  as  centre,  strike  arc 
c3;  then,  with  3d  as  centre,  strike  arcs  intersecting  at  2;  then, 
with  2  as  centre,  strike  arc  3d. 

ANOTHER  WAY  TO  LAY  OFF  A  BRACKET. — With  fg  as  edge 
of  board  and  fb  as  end  or  top  of  bracket,  Fig.  307,  draw  the 
dotted  line,  as  shown;  then  draw  the  diagonal  ab  and  divide 
it  into  two  equal  parts  at  e;  then,  with  eb  as  centres  and  eh  as 
radius,  strike  arcs  intersecting  at  c;  then,  with  same  radius 
and  c  as  centre,  strike  arc  be;  then,  with  same  radius  and  ae  as 


LAYING  OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


563 


centres,  strike  arcs  intersecting  at  d\  then;  with  d  as  centre,  strike 
arc  ea. 


FIG.  308. 

To  LAY  OUT  THE  VENTILATING  HOLE  OF  A  PRIVY  DOOR. — bac 
represents  the  top  edge  of  the  door,  Fig.  308;  with  a  as  centre 
and  the  desired  radius,  draw  the  semicircle  b  I  2  c;  now,  with 
be  as  radius  and  b  and  c  as  centres,  draw  arcs  intersecting  at 
e;  then,  with  same  radius  and  a  as  centre,  draw  arcs  at  d  and  /; 
now,  with  ac  as  radius  and  e  as  centre,  draw  arcs  intersecting 
these  at  d  and  /,  and  with  same  radius  and  these  intersections 
as  centres,  draw  the  arcs  \e  and  2e. 

To  LAY  OUT  A  PRIVY  SEAT. — Draw  two  lines  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  as  2  4  and  3  8,  Fig.  309;  make  2  4  about 


JBenci 


FIG.  310. 

8  inches  long;  with  1  as  centre  and  1  4  as  radius,  draw  a  circle; 
now  draw  lines  from  2  and  4  through  7;  then,  with  2  4  as  radius 
and  2  4  as  centre,  draw  the  arcs  4  6  and  2  5;  now,  with  7  as 
centre  and  7  6  as  radius,  draw  the  arc  5  6,  completing  the 
oval;  now  find  the  centre  of  the  line  3  8,  as  9,  and  with  this 


564 


LAYING  OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


point  as  centre  and  2  7  as  radius,  draw  the  circle  aaaa;  saw 
out  to  the  oval  line  and  round  off  to  the  circle. 

To  LAY  OUT  A  HOLE  IN  A  ROOF  FOR  A  STOVEPIPE  OR  FLAG- 
STAFF.— Draw  a  section  of  the  pipe  or  staff,  as  c,  and  lay  off  the 
slope  of  the  roof,  as  ab,  and  the  run  as  db,  Fig.  310;  now,  with 
ab  and  db  as  axis,  draw  an  ellipse,  as  shown  at  Fig.  311,  which 
will  be  the  shape  and  size  of  the  hole. 

Fig.  312  shows  a  diagram  to  obtain  cuts  or  degrees  on  a  square; 


FIG.  312. 


for  instance,  if  angle  of  30°  is  desired  7  and  12  on  the  square 
will  give  it. 

To  MITRE  A  CIRCLE  AND  STRAIGHT  MOULDING. — Draw  a 
full-size  plan  of  the  two  mouldings,  as  shown  in  Fig.  313;  draw 
abc,  as  shown,  in  the  centre  of  the  space  between  the  two 
outside  lines;  connect  d  and  b  and  b  and  c;  bisect  db  and 
be  and  draw  lines  at  right  angles  to  them  to  meet  at  /;  then 
fd  is  the  radius  of  the  mitre  joint. 

To  FIND  MITRES  ON  THE  STEEL  SQUARE. — 12X12  equals 
square  mitre;  7X4  equals  triangle  mitre;  13fXlO  equals 


LAYING  OUT  WORK,  ETC. 


565 


pentagon  mitre;  4X7  equals  hexagon  mitre;  12^X6  equals 
heptagon  mitre;  7X17  equals  octagon  mitre;  22^X9  equals 
nonagon  mitre;  9^X3  equals  decagon  mitre. 

All  plumb  lines  radiate  from  the  centre  of  the  earth,  showing 


FIG  313. 


that  if  it  were  possible  to  make  walls  perfectly  plumb  they 
would  not  be  parallel. 

All  level  lines  are  at  right  angles  to  an  imaginary  line  from 
the  centre  of  the  level  to  the  centre  of  the  earth.     If  a  line 


FIG.  314. 


is  drawn  parallel  to  the  earth's  surface  it  has  a  curve  of  eight 
inches  to  the  mile. 


566 


TO  LAY  OUT  ARCHES. 


Figo  314  shows  some  of  the  various  methods  of  splicing  or 
joining  timber. 

To  Lay  Out  Arches. — LANCET  GOTHIC  ARCH. — A  lancet 
Gothic  arch  is  one  whose  radius  is  greater  than  its  width,  as 
shown  in  Figo  315. 


FIG.  315. 


To  DRAW  THE  GOTHIC  ELLIPTICAL  ARCH. — Divide  the  span 
ab  into  three  equal  parts  at  c  and  d,  Fig.  316;  with  be  as  radius 


FIG.  316. 

and  a,  c,  d,  b  as  centres,  draw  the  arcs,  as  shown,  finding  points 
e  and  /;  now,  from  e  and  /  draw  lines  through  c  and  d,  as  shown; 
with  c  and  d  as  centres  and  ac  as  radius  draw  arcs  ag  and  hbf 


FIG.  317. 


and  with  e  and  /  as  centres  and  eh  as  radius  draw  arcs  gi  and 
ih,  completing  the  curve  of  the  arch. 


TO  LAY  OUT  ARCHES. 


567 


To  DRAW  THE  LANCET  GOTHIC  ARCH  WHEN  THE  SPAN  AND 
RISE  ARE  GIVEN. — On  the  base  line,  Fig.  317,  mark  the  span 
ab  and  from  the  centre  draw  the  rise  cd;  now  connect  ad  and 
db,  and  from  the  centre  of  these  lines  draw  a  line  at  right  angles 
to  strike  the  base  line,  as  gf  and  eh',  now  g  is  the  centre  and 
gb  the  radius  to  draw  the  arc  db,  and  h  the  centre  and  same 
radius  to  draw  the  arc  ad, 

GOTHIC  ARCH. — The  most  common  Gothic  arch  is  one  whose 
radius  is  equal  to  its  width,  as  shown  in  Fig.  318, 


FIG.  318. 

All  Gothic  arches  are  easily  struck  from  the  centre,  usually 
shown  on  the  drawings. 

To  PRAW  A  FLAT-POINTED  ARCH  TO  A  GIVEN  WIDTH  AND  RISE. 
— -Praw  the  width,  as  AB,  Fig.  319,  and  the  height,  as  OC,  while 
CD  is  a  line  tangent  to  the  upper  circle;  now  draw  C3  at  right  angles 
to  DC,  and  from  A  draw  the  perpendicular  AD;  now  find  point  7, 


A    i 


FIG.  319. 


making  A I  equal  to  AD;   now  find  point  E,  making  CE  equal 
to  AD,  and  connect  7  and  E;   now  bisect  the  line  El,  as  shown, 


568 


TO  LAY  OUT  ARCHES. 


and  draw  a  line  to  meet  C3;  now  from  3  draw  a  line  through 
point  I  as  3D,  and  /  and  3  will  be  the  centres  to  strike  the 
arch;  then  transfer  the  points  across  to  2  and  4  for  the  centres 
for  the  other  half. 

DROP  ARCH. — A  drop  arch  is  one  whose  radius  is  less  than  its 
width,  as  shown  in  Fig,  320. 

Another  form  of  drop  arch  is  shown  in  Fig,  321. 


\ 


1      / 

Centre 


Centre 


FIG.  320. 


Fio.  321. 


THREE-CENTRE  ARCH. — With  ab  as  width  of  arch  and  e  as 
centre,  Fig.  322,  take  ea  as  radius  and  strike  semicircle  ab; 
then,  with  a  as  centre  and  ab  as  radius,  strike  arc  6c;  then, 


with  6  as  centre  and  same  radius,  strike  arc  ad;  then,  with  c 
as  centre  and  cf  as  radius,  strike  arc  gf;  then,  with  d  as  centre 
and  same  radius,  strike  arc  gh,  thus  completing  the  arch. 


TO  LAY  OUT  ARCHES. 


569 


FOUR-CENTRE  ARCH. — To  strike  a  four-centre  arch  divide  the 
width  into  four  equal  spaces,  as  1,  2,  3,  Fig.  323;  then,  with 
1  as  centre  and  la  as  radius,  strike  semicircle  a2;  then,  with 
3  as  centre  and  same  radius,  strike  semicircle  26;  then,  with 
oh  as  radius  and  a  as  centre,  strike  arc  be;  then,  with  same 
radius  and  b  as  centre,  strike  arc  ad;  then,  with  c  as  centre 
and  ce  as  radius,  strike  arc  ge;  then,  with  same  radius  and  d 
as  centre,  strike  arc  fg,  completing  the  arch. 

To  DRAW  THE  TUDOR  OR  GOTHIC  ARCH. — Let  ab  be  the  span 
and  cd  the  rise,  Fig.  324;  with  ab  as  radius  and  c  as  centre 


FIG.  324. 

draw  an  arc  through  the  perpendicular  at  e,  connect  c  and  et 
make  ag  and  bh  equal  to  c/;  now,  with  ab  as  radius  and  g  and  h 
as  centres,  find  points  1  1  and  2  2  on  the  base  line;  drive  a 
nail  in  each  of  these  points  to  attach  a  string;  fasten  the  string 
at  2  and  carry  it  around  the  pencil  at  c  and  make  fast  at  point 
1  on  the  opposite  side;  now  draw  the  pencil  from  c  to  a,  keeping 
the  string  tight,  and  it  will  describe  the  arch;  then  reverse  the 
string  for  other  side. 

AT  POINT  c  ON  THE  LINE  ab  TO  DRAW  Two  ARCS  OF  CIRCLES 
TANGENT  TO  ab  AND  THE  Two  PARALLELS  ah  AND  be  FORMING 
AN  ARCH. — Make  ad,  Fig.  325,  equal  to  ac  and  be  equal  to  be; 
draw  cf  at  right  angles  to  ab  and  dg  at  right  angles  to  ah;  with 
g  as  centre  and  radius  gd  draw  the  arc  dc ;  draw  ef  at  right  angles 
to  be;  with  /  as  centre  and  fc  as  radius  draw  the  arc  ce,  com- 
pleting the  arch. 

To  SPACE  THE  KERFING  OF  MOULDINGS,  ETC. — Strike  a  circle 
of  the  same  dimensions  as  that  which  it  is  desired  to  spring 
the  moulding  around;  take  a  piece  of  the  moulding  and  make 
a  kerf  in  it  and  place  the  moulding  across  the  circle  as  shown 
by  Fig.  326,  with  the  kerf  at  the  centre;  now  hold  that  part 


570 


TO  LAY  OUT  ARCHES. 


of  the  moulding  marked  A  solid  and  bend  the  part  marked  B 
until  the  kerf  or  saw  cut  comes  together.     The  distance  the  piece 


FIG.  325. 


FIG.  326. 


of  moulding  B  has  moved  on  the  circle  will  be  the  distance 
apart  to  space  the  kerfs. 
To  LAY  OUT  AN  ARCH  OR  CURVE  SIMILAR  TO  AN  ELLIPSE, 

BUT   WHOSE     AXES    DO     NOT    STAND    AT    RlGHT   ANGLES. Draw 

a  parallelogram  whose   sides   equal   the   axis,  as  A,B,C,  and 
D,  Fig.  327;    now   draw   the  two   centre  lines   EF  and  GH; 


FIG.  327. 

divide  AE  and  BF  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  1,2,  3, 
etc.;  then  divide  El  and  IF  into  the  same  number  of  parts 
and  draw  lines  radiating  from  G  to  points  1,  2,  3,  etc.;  then 
draw  lines  radiating  from  H  through  points  6,  7,  8  etc.,  to 
strike  the  lines  radiating  from  G,  and  through  these  intersec- 
tions draw  the  curve  as  shown. 

WHEN  ANY  THREE  POINTS  ARE  GIVEN,  TO  DRAW  A  CIRCLE 
WHOSE  CIRCUMFERENCE  SHALL  STRIKE  EACH  OF  THE  THREE 
POINTS. — With  a,  b,  and  c  as  the  points,  Fig.  328,  join  a  and  b 


TO  LAY  OUT  ARCHES. 


571 


and  a  and  c  together,  and  draw  lines  at  right  angles  from  the 
centre  of  ab  and  ac,  bisecting  at  d,  which  is  the  centre  of  the 
circle,  and  da  the  radius. 


FIG.  328. 

To  FIND  THE  CENTRE  OF  A  CIRCLE. — Take  any  three  points  on 
the  circumference  and  join  them,  as  a,  b,  c,  Fig.   329;    then 


FIG.  329. 


FIG.  330. 


draw  lines  at  right  angles  from  the  centre  of  ab  and  ac  and 
the  bisecting  point  d  is  the  centre. 

To  FIND  THE  DIAMETER  OR  RADIUS  OF  A  CIRCLE  WHEN  THE 
CHORD  AND  RISE  OF  AN  ARC  ARE  GIVEN. — Draw  the  chord  as 


d 
FIG.  331. 


ab,  then  the  rise  de,  Fig.  330;    then  connect  ad  and  db-,   then 
draw  lines  Ic  and  2c  at  right  angles,  and  from  the  centre  of 


572 


TO  LAY  OUT  ARCHES. 


ad  and  db,  until  they  intersect  at  c,  which  is  the  centre  and 
cd  the  radius. 

To  DRAW  AN  ARC  BY  INTERSECTING  LINES  WHEN  THE 
CHORD  AND  RISE  ARE  GIVEN. — Draw  the  chord  as  ab,  Fig. 
331;  then  draw  cd  equal  to  twice  the  rise,  divide  ac  and  cb 
into  the  same  number  of  equal  spaces  and  draw  the  lines  as 
shown. 


1       d    1  12  32*       3 
FIG.  332. 


To  DRAW  AN  ARC  BY  BENDING  A  LATH  OR  STRIP.— Let  ab 
be  the  span  and  cd  the  rise,  Fig.  332;  with  cd  as  radius  and 
d  as  centre,  draw  the  quarter-circle  ce\  now  divide  ce  and  ed 
into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts,  as  1,  2,  3,  etc.;  now 
divide  db  and  da  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  de;  now  con- 
nect 1,  2,  3  on  the  quarter-circle  and  1,  2,  3  on  de,  as 
shown;  now  draw  lines  from  the  points  on  ad  and  db,  at 
the  same  angle  and  equal  in  length  to  the  ones  on  the  quarter- 
circle,  as  1  1,  2  2,  etc.;  drive  nails  in  these  points  and  bend  the 
strips  around. 

WHEN  THE  SPAN  AND  RISE  OF  AN  ARC  ARE  GIVEN,  TO  DRAW 
THE  CURVE. — Draw  the  span  ab  and  rise  c,  Fig.  333;  then,  with 


FIG.  333. 


a  and  b  as  centres  and  ab  as  radius,  draw  arcs  ae  and  bf;  now 
draw  lines  from  a  and  6  through  c  until  they  strike  ae  and  bf, 
as  al  and  61;  divide  al  on  ae  and  61  on  bf  into  any  number 
of  equal  spaces,  as  1,2,  3,  etc. ;  make  5,  6,  7  equally  distant 


TO   LAY  OUT  ARCHES. 


573 


and  draw  the  lines  as  shown;    draw  the  curve  through  the 
intersections  as  shown. 

WHEN  THE  CHORD  AND  RISE  OF  AN   ARC  ARE  GIVEN,  TO 
DRAW   THE    ARC.  —  Take    two    strips    and    joint   the    edges 


FIG.  334. 

straight  and  make  a  frame,  as  shown  in  Fig.  334;  be  is  the 
chord  and  ad  the  rise  of  the  arc.  Drive  a  nail  in  the  floor 
or  drawing-board  on  the  outside  edge  of  the  frame  at  b  and 


FIG.  335. 

another  one  at  c;  then  place  the  pencil  at  the  point  of  the 
frame,  a,  and  slide  the  frame  around,  keeping  it  tight  against 
the  nails,  when  the  pencil  will  describe  the  curve,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  335. 

WHEN  THE  CHORD  AND  RISE  OF  AN  ARC  ARE  GIVEN,  TO  FIND 
THE  RADIUS. — Square  one-half  the  chord,  divide  this  product 
by  the  rise  and  to  this  answer  add   the 
rise    and    divide    by    2;     the   answer    is 
the    radius.     In    Fig.    336,  one-half    the 
chord    is   4,    which    squared    equals    16,  a' 
which    divided    by    the    rise    equals    5J, 
to  which  add  the  rise,  equals  8£,  which 
divided  by  2  equals  4£,  the  radius. 

LAYING  OUT  MANSARD  AND  GAMBREL  ROOFS. — To  propor- 
tion a  mansard  or  gambrel  roof,  draw  a  half-circle  to  a  scale 
using  the  width  of  the  building  as  the  diameter,  then  draw  the 
two  slopes  of  the  roof  so  that  they  intersect  on  the  circle,  as 
shown  by  Fig.  337. 


FIG.  336. 


574 


TO  LAY  OUT  ARCHES. 


LAYING  OUT  CIRCLE  HEADS  IN  CIRCLE  WALLS. — This  can  be 
done  with  lines  and  circles,  but  the  quickest  way  for  the  work- 


FIG.  337. 


FIG.  338. 

man  is  to  cut  out  the  head-piece  to  the  desired  circle  for  the 
frame;  then  make  two  templates  equal  to  the  circle  of  the 
wall  and  tack  them  on  the  drawing-board  or 
floor,  as  shown  by  Fig.  338;  now  with  a  couple 
of  straight-edges  and  pencil  mark  out  the  circle 
of  the  wall  by  sliding  the  strips  over  the  tem- 
plates. 

To  LAY  OUT  ENTASIS  OF  COLUMNS,  ETC. — Draw 
length  of  column,  as  AB,  Fig.  339;   then  AC,  the 
radius  of  the  column  at  the  bottom,  and  DB,  the 
radius  of  the  column  at  the  top;    now  describe  the 
quarter-circle  CE,  and  let  fall  the  perpendicular  DF. 
Divide  the  length  of  the  column  into  spaces  equal 
to  the  bottom  radius,  spacing  from  E  as  G,  H,  I, 
and  J;   divide  the  arc  CF  into  the  same  number 
of  equal  spaces;    now  draw  lines  from  the  points 
on  the  centre  line  and  at  right  angles  to  it,  as  £"6, 
G7,  etc.,  and  draw  perpendicular  lines  from  points 
1,  2,  etc.,  on  the  arc  to  strike  the  lines  from  the 
FIG.  339.       centre  line,  as  shown  at  6,  7,  8,  etc.,  and  through 
these  points  draw  the    curve.       Fig.  339    is   drawn  with  con- 
siderable swell,  so  that  the  lines  can  be  seen  more  plainly. 


TO   LAY  OUT  ARCHES. 


575 


Names  of  Parts  of  an  Entablature. 

?« — Cymatium 
J< —  Abacus 
-Echinus 

r.  Annulets  or  Fillets 
-Callarinoor  Neck 
< — Astragal  or  Necking 
fe — Cincture 


Apophyga 

-< — Torus 
^ — Cavetto  or  Scotia 

-  Torus 
—Plinth 


-Sub-Plinth 


FIG.  340. — Names  of  Parts  of  a  Column. 


576       MENSURATION  TABLES,  ETC. 
MENSURATION  TABLES,  ETC. 

LINEAR  MEASURE. 

1  hair's  breadth =  ^  inch. 

3  barleycorns  (lengthwise)  . .  =     1  inch. 

7 . 92  inches =     1  link. 

12  inches =     1  foot  =  0 . 3048  metre. 

3  feet =     1  yard  =  0 . 91438  metre. 

5|  yards =     1  rod,  perch,  or  pole. 

4  poles  or  100  links =     1  chain. 

10  chains =     1  furlong. 

8  furlongs =     1  mile  =  1 . 6093  kilometres 

=  5280  ft. 

3  miles  (nautical) =     1  league. 

1  line =    rg  inch. 

1  nail  (cloth  measure) =     2f  inches. 

1  palm =     3  inches. 

1  hand     (used      for      height 

of  horses) =     4  inches. 

1  span =     9  inches. 

1  cubit =   18  inches. 

1  pace  (military) =     1\  feet. 

1  pace  (common) =     3  feet. 

1  Scotch  ell. =   37 .06  inches. 

1  vara  (Spanish) =   33 . 3  inches. 

1  English  ell =   45  inches. 

1  fathom =     6  feet. 

1  cable's  length =120  fathoms. 

1  "knot" =6082.66  feet. 

1  degree  of  equator =  69 . 1613  statute  miles. 

1  degree  of  meridian =  69 . 046  statute  miles 

1  degree  of  equator =   60  geographical  miles. 

1  degree  of  meridian =  59 . 899  geographical  miles. 

1 . 1527  statute  miles =     1  geographical  mile. 

6086 . 07  feet.  .    =     Iminute   of  longitude  = 

nautical  mile. 

SQUARE  OR  SURFACE  MEASURE. 

144  square  inches =  1  square  foot. 

9  square  feet =1  square  yard  =  1296  square  inches. 

100  square  feet =lsquare  (builders'  mea'sure). 


MENSURATION  TABLES,  ETC.  577 

LAND  MEASURE. 

30 1  square  yards =1  square  rod. 

40    square  rods =1  square  rood  =  1210  square  yards. 

4    square  roods =1  acre  =  4840  square  yards. 

640  acres =1  square  mile. 

208.71  feet  square =1  acre. 

1  square  mile ==1  section  of  land. 

160  acres. =  |  section  of  land. 

CUBIC  MEASURE. 

1728  cubic  inches =1  cubic  foot. 

27  cubic  feet =1  cubic  yard. 

128  cubic  feet =1  cord. 

40  eubic  feet =1  American  shipping  ton. 

42  cubic  feet =1  British  shipping  ton. 

108  cubic  feet =1  stack  of  wood. 

24 . 75  cubic  feet  of  stone =1  perch. 

Note. — Custom  has  made  the  number  of  feet  in  a  perch  vary 
in  different  localities.  For  instance,  in  Philadelphia  a  perch  is 
22  cubic  feet,  while  in  some  of  the  New  England  States  it  is 
16.5  cubic  feet. 

A  ton,  in  computing  the  tonnage  of  vessels,  is  100  cubic  feet 
of  their  internal  space. 

AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT  (ORDINARY  COMMERCIAL  WEIGHT). 

16  drams =       1  ounce,  oz. 

16  ounces =       1  pound,  Ib. 

28  Ibs.  (old) =       1  quarter,  qr. 

4  quarters  (old)  )  ,      .  ,  . 

ii^JJ  >  •  •  =       1  hundredweight. 

100  Ibs.,  pounds      } 

20  hundredweight .  . .  =       1  ton. 

100  pounds =       1  cental. 

175  troy  pounds =   144  avoirdupois. 

1  troy  pound =5760  grains. 

1  avoirdupois  pound  =  7000  grains. 

Avoirdupois  weight  is  used  to  weigh  all  coarse  articles,  as  hay, 
meat,  fish,  potash,  groceries,  flax,  butter,  cheese,  etc.,  and  metals, 
except  precious  metals.  Formerly  the  usual  custom  was  to 
allow  112  pounds  for  a  hundredweight  and  28  pounds  for  a 


578  MENSURATION  TABLES,  ETC. 

quarter,  but  this  practice  has  very  nearly  passed  away.     The 
custom-house  still  adheres  to  the  old  usage. 


APOTHECARIES'  MEASURE— LIQUID. 

60  minims  or  drops,  m.,=l  fluid  drachm. 

8  fluid  drachms =1  fluid  ounce. 

16  fluid  ounces =1  pint  (octarius). 

8  pints . .  =1  gallon  (congius). 

These  apothecarie  '  weights  and  measures  are  used  by  apoth- 
ecaries and  physicians  in  compounding  medicines,  but  drugs 
and  medicines  are  bought  and  sold  by  avoirdupois  weight. 

The  standard  avoirdupois  pound  is  the  weight  of  27.7015 
cubic  inches  of  distilled  water  weighed  in  air  at  39. 1°,  the  barom- 
eter at  30  inches. 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT— DRY. 

20  grains.  .  =  1  scruple. 

3  scruples  =  1  dram. 

8  drams. .  =  1  ounce. 

12  ounces    =1  pound. 

LIQUID  OR  WINE  MEASURE. 

4    gills =1  pint,  pt. 

2    pints =1  quart,  qt. 

4    quarts =1  gallon,  gal. 

42    gallons =1  tierce. 

1£  tierces  or  63  gallons.  ...  =1  hogshead,  hhd. 
84    gallons =1  puncheon. 

1£  puncheons  or  126  gallons  =  1  pipe. 

2    pipes =1  tun. 

231    cubic  inches =1  gallon. 

10    gallons =1  anker. 

18         "      =1  runlet. 

31J       "      =1  barrel. 

This  measure  is  used  to  measure  water,  wine,  spirits,  cider,  oil, 
honey,  etc.  In  London  the  gill  is  usually  called  a  quartern. 


MENSURATION  TABLES,  ETC.  579 


ALE  OR  BEER  MEASURE. 

2    pints =1  quart. 

4    quarts.  .  . .  =  1  gallon. 
9    gallons.  .  ..  =  1  firkin. 
2    firkins.  .  .  .  =  1  kilderkin. 
2    kilderkins  =1  barrel. 
1£  barrels.  .  ..  =  1  hogshead. 
1J  hogsheads  =1  puncheon. 
1J  puncheons  =  1  butt. 

Used  to  measure  beer,  ales,  porter,  etc.     An  ale  gallon  meas- 
ures 282  cubic  inches. 

ENGLISH  WINE  MEASURE. 

18    U.  S.  gallons.  ...  =1  runlet. 

25    English  gallons  ) 

v  =1  tierce. 
42    U.    S.    gallons  | 

1\  English  gallons.  .  =  1  firkin  of  beer. 
4    firkins =1  barrel. 

52i  English  gallons  ) 

>    TT     a  C  =1  hogshead. 

63    U.    S.    gallons  j 

DRY  MEASURE. 

2  pints.  .  .  =1  quart  . .  =     67.2      cubic  inches. 
4  quarts.  =1  gallon  .  .  =   288.8 
2  gallons.  =1  peck.  . ..  =   537.6         "        " 
4  pecks.  .  =1  bushel..   =2150.42       "        " 
36  bushels  =  1  chaldron  =     57.244     "      feet. 

4  bushels  (in  England)  =  1  coon. 

2  coons       "  =1  quarter. 

5  quarters  ' '  =1  wey. 
2weys        "          "         =llast. 

A  gallon,  dry  measure,  measures  268f  cubic  inches. 

SURVEYORS'  SQUARE  MEASURE. 

625  square  links    =  1  square   rod,  sq.  rd. 

16      "        rods     =1      "        chain,  sq.  ch. 

10      {t        chains  =  1  acre,  A. 
640  acres  =  1  square  mile,  sq.  mi. 

36  square  miles  or  6  miles  square  =  1  township,  tp. 


580  MENSURATION  TABLES,  ETC. 

SURVEYORS'  LONG  MEASURE. 
7.92  inches .  .  =  1  link. 
25  links. . . .  =  1  pole. 

100  links =1  chain. 

10  chains.  .  =  1  furlong. 
8  furlongs  =  1  mile. 
Used  by  surveyors,  civil  engineers,  etc.,  in  measuring  distances. 

MEASURE  OF  TIME. 

60  seconds,  sec =1  minute,  min. 

60  minutes =1  hour,  hr. 

24  hours.  . =1  day,  dy 

7  days =1  week,  wk. 

2  weeks =1  fortnight. 

4  weeks =1  month,  mo. 

13  months  1  day  6  hrs.  =  1  Julian  year. 

365  days  6  hours =1  Julian  year. 

366  days =1  leap  year. 

12  calendar  months .  .  =  1  year. 

Used  for  computing  time. 

CIRCULAR  MEASURE. 
60  seconds,  ". .  =1  minute, '. 
60  minutes.  . .  .  =  1  degree,  °. 
30  degrees.  .  . .  =  1  sign,  s. 
90  degrees.  .  .  .  =  1  quadrant. 
12  signs =  a  circle. 

4  quadrants  )  r  -       .    , 

r  =  a  circumference  of  a  circle. 
360  degrees    . .  j 

Used  in  measuring  latitude,  longitude,  etc. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 

Used  in  Weighing  Gold  or  Silver. 

24  grains =1  pennyweight. 

20  penny  weights  =  1  ounce. 
12  ounces =1  pound. 

A  carat  of  the  jewellers,  for  precious  stones,  is,  in  the  United 
States,  3.2  grains;  in  London,  3.17  grains;  in  Paris  3.18  grains 
are  divided  into  4  jewellers'  grains.  In  troy,  apothecaries',  and 
avoirdupois  weights  the  grain  is  the  same. 


MENSURATION  TABLES,  ETC.  581 

MEASURES  OF  VALUE. 

U.  S.  Standard. 
10  mills.  .  =  1  cent. 
10   cents. .  =  1  dime. 
10  dimes   =1  dollar. 
10  dollars  =  1  eagle. 

The  standard  of  gold  and  silver  is  900  parts  of  pure  metal  and 
100  parts  of  alloy  to  1000  parts  of  coin. 

WEIGHT  OF  COIN. 

Double  eagle =516  troy  grains. 

Eagle =258  troy  grains. 

Dollar  (gold) =  25.8  troy  grains. 

Dollar  (silver) =412.5  troy  grains. 

Half  dollar =192  troy  grains. 

5-cent  piece  (nickel)  =  77.16  troy  grains. 
3-cent  piece  (nickel)  =  30  troy  grains. 
Cent  (copper) =  48  troy  grains. 

NUMBER   OF   ENGLISH   OR  UNITED   STATES  YARDS  IN  MILES 
OF  DIFFERENT  NATIONS. 

Name.                                           Yards.  Name.  Yards. 

Arabian 2,148     Luthenian 9,784 

Bohemian 10,187     Oldenburg 10,820 

Brebant 6,082     Persian  (paisang) 6,082 

Burgundy 6,183      Polish  (long) 8,101 

Chinese  (His) 682     Polish  (short) 6,095 

Dutch  (Ure) 6,395  Portuguese  (leguos). . .  .  6,760 

Danish 8,244     Prussian 8,498 

English  (U.  S.) 1,760     Roman  (modern) 2,035 

English  (geographical) .  .   2,025     Roman  (ancient) 1,613 

Flemish 6,869     Russian  (verst) 1,167 

German  (geographical)  .   8,100     Saxon 9,905 

Hamburg 8,244     Scotch 1,984 

Hanover 11,559      Silesian 7,083 

Hesse 10,547     Spanish  (leguas) 4,630 

Hungarian 9,113      Spanish  (com.) 7,416 

French  (art  leagues)  . .  .   4,860      Swiss 9,166 

French  (marine) 6,075     Swedish 11,704 

Legal  Le'g'e  (2000  toises)  4,263     Turkey 1,821 

Irish 3,338     Tuscan 1,808 

Italian 2,025     Vienna  (post  mile) 8,296 


582 


MENSURATION  TABLES,  ETC. 


TABLE  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  WEIGHTS. 

14  pounds =1  stone  (horseman's  weight). 

56  pounds =1  firkin  of  butter. 

64  pounds =1  firkin  of  soft  soap. 

112  pounds =1  barrel  of  raisins. 

256  pounds =1  pack  of  soft  soap. 

196  pounds =1  barrel  of  flour. 

200  pounds =1  barrel  of  beef,  pork,  or  fish, 

280  pounds =1  barrel  of  salt,  New  York. 

22  stones  (301  Ibs.) =1  sack  of  wool. 

17  stones  2  Ibs.  (240  Ibs.)  =1  pack  of  wool. 

60  pounds =1  truss  of  hay  (new). 

50  pounds =1  truss  of  hay  (old). 

40  pounds =1  truss  of  straw. 

400  pounds =1  bale  of  cotton. 

100  pounds =1  quintal  of  fish. 

NUMBER  OF  POUNDS  TO  BUSHEL. 

Recognized  by  the  laws  of  the  United  States. 

Wheat 60  Dried  apples 24 

Shelled  corn 56  Onions 57 

Corn  in  ear.  . 70  Salt 50 

Rye 56  Stone  coal 80 

Oats 32  Coke 46 

Barley 48  Malt 84 

Irish  potatoes 60  Bran 30 

Sweet  potatoes 50  Plastering  hair 88 

White  beans 60  Turnips 57 

Castor-beans 46  Unslacked  lime 80 

Clover-seed 60  Corn-meal 50 

Timothy-seed 45  Fine  salt .62 

Flaxseed 56  Hungarian  grass-seed 48 

Hempseed 44  Ground  peas 24 

Peas 60  Onion-sets 14 

Blue-grass  seed 14  Onion  tops 25 

Buckwheat 52  Onion  bottoms 35 

Dried  peaches , , ,  33 


METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  583 


METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

The  Metric  System  was  legalized  in  the  United  States  on 
July  28,  1866,  when  Congress  enacted  as  follows: 

"The  tables  in  the  schedule  hereto  annexed  shall  be  recog- 
nized in  the  construction  of  contracts,  and  in  all  legal  pro- 
ceedings, as  establishing,  in  terms  of  the  weights  and  measures 
now  in  use  in  the  United  States,  the  equivalents  of  the  weights 
and  measures  expressed  therein  in  terms  of  the  metric  system, 
and  the  tables  may  lawfully  be  used  for  computing,  deter- 
mining, and  expressing  in  customary  weights  and  measures 
the  weights  and  measures  of  the  metric  system." 

MEASURE  OF  LENGTH 


10,000  metres  =  1  myriametre. 
1,000       "      =1  kilometre. 
100       "      =1  hectometre. 
10       "      =1  decametre. 


1    metre  =  1  metre. 
.1      "   =1  decimetre. 
.01    "    =1  centimetre. 
.001"   =1  millimetre. 


MEASURE  OF  SURFACE. 


10,000  sq.  metres  =  1  hectare. 
100    "        "      =1  are. 
1    "        "      =1  centare. 


Hectare  =       2.471  acres. 
Are         =  -119. 6  square  yards. 
Centare  =  1550  sq.  ins. 


MEASURE  OF  LENGTH. 


Myriametre  =  6. 2137  miles. 
Kilometre    =0.62137  mile  = 

3280  feet  10  inches. 
Hectometre  =  328  feet  1  inch. 
Decametre  =393.7  inches. 


Metre  =39.37  inches. 

Decimetre  =  3.937  inches. 
Centimetre  =  .3937  inch. 
Millimetre  «  .0394  inch. 


MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 

1,000  litres  =1  kilolitre  or  1  cubic  metre. 

100     "  =*1  hectolitre  or  0.1  cubic  metre. 

10      "  =1  decalitre  or  10  cubic  decimetres. 
1       litre  =  1  litre  or  1  cubic  decimetre. 

.1     "  =1  decilitre  or  0.1  cubic  decimetre. 

.01   "  =1  centilitre  or  10  cubic  centimetres. 

,001 "  =1  millilitre  or  0.1  cubic  centimetre, 


584  EQUIVALENTS  OF  DENOMINATIONS  IN  USE. 


EQUIVALENTS  OF  DENOMINATIONS  IN  USE. 


DRY  MEASURE. 
1  kilolitre    =  1 . 308  cu.  yds. 
1  hectolitre  =2  bu.,  3.35  pks. 
1  decalitre  =9.08  quarts. 
1  litre  =    .908  quart. 

1  decilitre  =6.1022  cu.  in. 
1  centilitre  =  .6102  cu.  in. 
1  millilitre  =  .061  cu.  in. 


LIQUID  MEASURE. 
1  kilolitre    =264.17      gal. 
1  hectolitre  =   26.417      " 
1  decalitre  =     2.6417    " 
1  litre  =     1 . 0567  qt. 

1  decilitre    =        .845  gill. 
1  centilitre  =       .368  fluid  oz. 
1  millilitre  =       .27  fluid  dm. 


gr. 
ft 


1,000,000  grains 
100,000       "      : 
10,000       "      : 
1,000       "     = 
100       "     -. 
10       "      = 
1 
.1 
.01     ' 
.'001  ' 
1  millier 
1  quintal 
1  myriagram 
1  kilogram 
1  hectogram 
1  decagram 
1  gram 
1  decigram 
1  centigram 
1  milligram 


WEIGHTS. 

=  1  miljier  or  tonneau. 

=  1  quintal. 

=  1  myriagram. 

=  1  kilogram. 

=  1  hectogram. 

=  1  decagram. 

=  1  gram. 

=  1  decigram. 

= centigram. 

= milligram. 

=  2,204.6 

=    220.46 

••      22.046      " 
2 . 2046    " 
3 . 5274  ounces 
.3527  ounce 
15.432    grains 
1.5432 
.1543  grain 
.0154      " 


Ibs.  avoirdupois. 


In  the  metric  system  the  meter  is  the  base  of  all  weights 
and    measures    which     it    employs.     The    meter    is    one-ten- 
millionth  part  of  the  distance  measured  on  a  meridian  of  the 
earth  from  the  equator  to  the  pole,  and  equals  about  39.37  inches 
or  nearly  3  ft.  3|  inches. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


585 


COMMON     WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES    AND    THEIR 
METRIC  EQUIVALENTS. 


An  inch  =2.54  centimetres. 

A  foot  =.3048  metre. 

A  yard=  .9144  metre. 

A  rod  =  5 . 029  metres. 

A  mile  =  1 . 6093  kilometres. 

A  square  inch  =6. 452  square 

centimetres. 

A  square  foot  =  .0929  sq.  m. 
A  square  yard  =  .8361  sq.  m. 
An  acre  =  .  4047  hectare. 
A  square  mile  =259  hectares. 
A  cubic  foot=  .02832  cu.  m. 
A  cubic  yard  =  .  7646  cu.  m. 
A  cord  =3. 624  steres. 


A  liquid  quart  =  .  9465  litre. 

A  gallon  =3 . 786  litres. 

A  dry  quart  =  1 . 101  litres 

A  peck  =8. 811  litres. 

A  bushel  =35 . 24  litres. 

An  ounce  avoirdupois  =  28 . 35 

grams. 
A   pound   avoirdupois  =  .  4336 

kilogram. 

A  ton  =  .9072  tonneau. 
A  grain  troy  =  .0648  gram. 
An  ounce  troy  =31 . 104  grms. 
A  pound  troy  ==  .  3732  kgrm. 


586 


METRIC  CONVERSION  TABLES. 


INTERCHANGEABLE  TABLES  BETWEEN  UNITED  STATES  AND 
METRIC   SYSTEMS. 

1  Metre  ==39.37  Inches.     (Act  of  Congress.) 
LONG  MEASURE. 


64ths  of  an 

Millimetres 

Inches 

Centimetres 

Number. 

Inch  to 

to  64ths 

to 

to 

Millimetres. 

of  an  Inch. 

Centimetres. 

Inches. 

1 

0.3969 

2.5197 

2.54 

0.3937 

2 

0.7938 

5.0394 

5.08 

0.7874 

3 

1  .  1906 

7  .  5590 

7.62 

1.1811 

4 

1  .  5875 

10.0787 

10.16 

1.5748 

5 

1.9844 

12.5984 

12.70 

1.9685 

6 

2.3813 

15.1181 

15.24 

2.3622 

7 

2.7781 

17.6378 

17.78 

2.7559 

8 

3.1750 

20.1574 

20.32 

3.1196 

9 

3.5719 

22.6771 

22.86 

3.5433 

Metres 

Feet 

Kilometres 

Miles 

Number. 

to 

to 

to 

to 

Feet. 

Metres. 

Miles. 

Kilometres. 

1 

3  .  2808 

0.3048 

0.62137 

1  .  60935 

2 

6.5617 

0.6096 

1.24274 

3.21869 

3 

9.8425 

0.9144 

1.86411 

4.82804 

4 

13.1233 

1.2192 

2.48548 

6.43739 

5 

16.4042 

1  .  5240 

3  .  10685 

8.04674 

6 

19  .  6850 

1.8288 

3  .  72822 

9  .  6560S 

7 

22.9658 

2.1336 

4.34959 

11.26543 

8 

26.2467 

2.4384 

4.97096 

12.87478 

9 

29.5275 

2.7432 

5.59233 

14.48412 

SQUARE  MEASURE. 


Num- 

Square 
Inches  to 

Square 
Centimet's 

Square 
Feet  to 

Square 
Metres  to 

Square 
Yards  to 

Square 
Metres  to 

ber. 

Square 
Centi- 
metres. 

to  Square 
Inches. 

Square 
Metres. 

Square 
Feet. 

Square 
Metres. 

Square 
Yards. 

1 

6.4516 

0.155 

0.0929 

10.7639 

0.8361 

1.196 

2 

12.9032 

0.310 

0.1858 

21  .  5278 

1  .  6722 

2.392 

3 

19.3548 

0.465 

0  .  2787 

32.2917 

2.5084 

3.588 

4 

25.8064 

0.620 

0.3716 

43.0556 

3.3445 

4.784 

5 

32.2581 

0.775 

0  .  4645 

53  .  8194 

4.1806 

5.980 

6 

38.7097 

0.930 

0  .  5574 

64.5833 

5.0167 

7.176 

7 

45.1613 

1.085 

0  .  6503 

75.3472 

5.8528 

8.372 

8 

51.6129 

1.240 

0.7432 

86.1111 

6.6890 

9.568 

9 

58.0645 

1.395 

0.8361 

96.8750 

7.5251 

10.764 

METRIC  CONVERSION  TABLES. 


587 


INTERCHANGEABLE  TABLES  BETWEEN  UNITED  STATES  AND 

METRIC   SYSTEMS. 

SQUARE  MEASURE. 


Square 

Square 

Num- 
ber. 

Acres  to 
Hectares. 

Hectares 
to  Acres. 

Miles  to 
Square 
Kilo- 

Kilo- 
metres to 
Square 

Square 
Miles  to 
Hectares. 

Hectares 
to  Square 
Miles. 

metres. 

Miles. 

1 

0.4047 

2.471 

2.59 

0.3861 

259.00 

0.00386 

2 

0.8094 

4.942 

5.18 

0.7722 

518.00 

0.00772 

3 

1.2141 

7.413 

7.77 

1.1583 

777.01 

0.01158 

4 

1.6188 

9.884 

10.36 

1  .  5444 

1036.01 

0.01544 

5 

2.0235 

12.355 

12.95 

1.9305 

1295.02 

0.01930 

6 

2.4282 

14.826 

15.54 

2.3166 

1554.02 

0.02317 

7 

2.8329 

17.297 

18.13 

2.7027 

1813.03 

0.02703 

8 

3.2376 

19  .  768 

20.72 

3.0887 

2072.03 

0.03089 

9 

3  .  6422 

22.239 

23.31 

3.4748 

2331.04 

0.03475 

1  Kilogram  =  2.2046  Pounds.     (Act  of  Congress.) 
WEIGHTS. 


Num- 
ber. 

Kilo- 
grams to 
Ounces 
Troy. 

Troy 
Ounces  to 
Grams. 

Grains 
to  Milli- 
grams. 

Grams 
to 
Grains. 

Gross 
Tons  to 
Metric 
Tons. 

Metric 
Tons  to 
Gross 
Tons. 

1 

32.1507 

31.1035 

64.8004 

15.432 

1.0161 

0.9842 

2 

64.3015 

62.2070 

129.6008 

30  .  864 

2.0321 

1.9684 

3 

96.4522 

93.3104 

194.4012 

46.296 

3.0482 

2.9526 

4 

128.6030 

124.4139 

259  .  2017 

61  .  728 

4.0642 

3.9368 

6 

160.7537 

155.5174 

324.0021 

77.160 

5.0803 

4.9210 

6 

192.9045 

186.6209 

3S8.8025 

92  .  592 

6.0963 

5.9052 

7 

225.0552 

217.7244 

453.6029 

108.024 

7.1124 

6.8894 

8 

257.2059 

24S.8278 

518.4033 

123.456 

8.  1285 

7.8736 

9 

289.3567 

279.9313 

583.2037 

138.888 

9  .  1445 

8.8578 

Kilo- 

Avoir- 

Kilo- 

Num- 
ber. 

Avoir- 
dupois 
Ounces  to 

grams  to 
Ounces 
Avoir- 

dupois 
Pounds  to 
Kilo- 

grams to 
Pounds 
Avoir-    x 

Net  Tons 
to  Metric 
Tons. 

Metric 
Tons  to 
Net  Tons. 

dupois. 

grams. 

dupois. 

1 

28.3495 

35.274 

0.4536 

2.2046 

0.9072 

1  .  1023 

2 

56.6990      70.548 

0.9072 

4.4092 

1.8144 

2.2046 

3 

85.0485    105.822 

1.3603 

6.6138 

2.7216 

3  .  3069 

4 

113.3980    141.096 

1.8144 

8.8184 

3  .  6288 

4.4092 

5 

141.7475    176.370 

2.2680 

11.0230 

4.5360 

5.5115 

6 

170.0970 

211.644 

2.7216 

13.2276 

5.4432 

6.6138 

7 

198.4464 

246.918 

3.1752 

15.4322 

6.3504 

7.7161 

8 

226.7959 

282.192 

3  .  6288 

17.6368 

7.2576 

8.8184 

9 

255.1454 

317.466 

4.0824 

19.8414 

8.1647 

9.9207 

588 


METRIC  CONVERSION  TABLES. 


INTERCHANGEABLE  TABLES  BETWEEN  UNITED  STATES  AND 
METRIC   SYSTEMS. 


,  .       _  j  1.0567  Quarts— Liquid  Measure.  { 
"  1  0.908    Quart  —Dry  Measure.       ) 
LIQUID  AND  DRY  MEASURE. 


(Act  of  Congress.) 


Litres  to  Quarts. 

Quarts  to  Litres. 

Litres  to 

Gallons 

Num- 

Gallons, 

to  Litres, 

ber. 

Liquid. 

Liquid. 

Liquid 

Dry. 

Liquid. 

Dry. 

1 

1.0567 

0.908 

0  .  9463 

1.1013 

0.2642 

3.7854 

2 

2.1134 

1.816 

1.8927 

2.2026 

0  .  5284 

7.5707 

3 

3.1701 

2.724 

2.8390 

3.3040 

0.7925 

11.3561 

4 

4.2268 

3.632 

3  .  7854 

4.4053 

1.0567 

15.1415 

5 

5.2835 

4.540 

4.7317 

5  .  5066 

1.3209 

18.9268 

6 

6.3402 

5.448 

5.6781 

6.6079 

1.5851 

22.7122 

7 

7.3969 

6.356 

6.6244 

7.7093 

1.8492 

26.4976 

8 

8.4536 

7.264 

7  .  5707 

8.8106 

2.1134 

30.2830 

9 

9.5103 

8.172 

8.5171 

9.9119 

2.3776 

34.0683 

Number. 

Cubic  Metres 
to  Gallons, 
Liquid. 

Gallons  to 
Cubic  Metres, 
Liquid. 

Hectolitres 
to  Bushels, 
Dry. 

Bushels  to 
Hectolitres, 
Dry. 

1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 

264.17 
528.34 
792.51 
1056.68 
1320.85 
1585.02 
1849.19 
2113.36 
2377.53 

0.0038 
0.0076 
0.0114 
0.0151 
0.0189 
0.0227 
0.0265 
0.0303 
0.0341 

2.8375 

5.6750 
8.5125 
11.3500 
14.1875 
17.0250 
19.8625 
22  .  7000 
25  .  5375 

0.3524 
0  .  7048 
1.0573 
1.4097 
1.7621 
2.1145 
2.4670 
2.8194 
3.1718 

CUBIC,  HORSE-POWER,  AND  TON  MEASURES. 


Num- 
ber. 

Cubic  Cen- 
timetres 
to  Cubic 
Inches. 

Cubic 
Inches  to 
Cubic  Cen- 
timetres. 

Cubic 
Metres  to 
Cubic. 
Feet. 

Cubic 
Feet  to 
Cubic 
Metres. 

Cubic 
Metres  to 
Cubic 
Yards. 

Cubic 
Yards  to 
Cubic 
Metres. 

1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

0.061 
0.122 
0.183 
0.244 
0.305 
0.366 
0.427 
0.488 
0.549 

16.3934 
32  .  7869 
49.1803 
65.5738 
81.9672 
98.3607 
114.7541 
131.1475 
147.5410 

35.316 
70  .  632 
105.948 
141.264 
176.580 
211.896 
247.212 
282  .  528 
317.844 

0.0283 
0.0566 
0.0849 
0.1133 
0.1416 
0  .  1699 
0  .  1982 
0.2265 
0.2548 

1.308 
2.616 
3.924 
5.232 
6.540 
7.848 
9.156 
10.464 
11.772 

0.7645 
1  .  5291 
2.2936 
3.0581 
3.8226 
4  .  5872 
5.3517 
6.1162 
6.8807 

METRIC  CONVERSION  TABLES. 


589 


INTERCHANGEABLE  TABLES  BETWEEN  UNITED  STATES  AND 
METRIC   SYSTEMS. 


Num- 
ber. 

Horse- 
power 
Metric  to 

U.S. 

Horse- 
power 
U.  S.  to 
Metric. 

Foot- 
pounds to 
Kilogram- 
metres. 

Kilogram- 
metres  to 
Foot-   . 
pounds. 

Gross  Tons 
per  Sq.  Ft. 
to  Metric 
Tons  per 
Sq.  Metre. 

Metric 
Tons  per 
Sq.  Metre 
to  Gross 
Tons  per 
Sq.  Foot. 

1 

0.986 

1.014 

0.1383 

7.2329 

10.937 

0.091 

2 

1.973 

2.028 

0.2765 

14.4659 

21.873 

0.183 

3 

2.959 

3.042 

0.4148 

21.6988 

32.810 

0.274 

4 

3.945 

4.056 

0.5530 

28.9317 

43.747 

0.366 

5 

4.932 

5.069 

0.6913 

36.1646 

54.684 

0.457 

6 

5.918 

6.083 

0.8295 

43.3976 

65.620 

0.549 

7 

6.904 

7.097 

0.9678 

50.6305 

76.557 

0.640 

8 

7.890 

8.111 

1.1061 

57.8634 

87.494 

0.731 

9 

8.877 

9.125 

1.2443 

65.0963 

98.431 

0.823 

MISCELLANEOUS. 


Number. 

Kilo,  per 
Metre  to 
Pounds  per 

Pounds  per 
Foot  to 
Kilo,  per 

Kilo,  per 
Square  Metre 
to  Pounds  per 

Pounds  per 
Square  Foot 
to  Kilo,  per 

Foot. 

Metre. 

Square  Foot. 

Square  Metre. 

1 

0.6720 

1.4882 

0.2048 

4.8825 

2 

1.3439 

2.9764 

0.4096 

9.7649 

3 

2.0159 

4.4645 

0.6144 

14.6474 

4 

2.6879 

5.9527 

0.8193 

19.5299 

5 

3  .  3598 

7.4409 

1.0241 

24.4123 

6 

4.0318 

8.9291 

1.2289 

29.2948 

7 

4.7037 

10.4172 

1.4337 

34.1773 

8 

5.3757 

11.9054 

1.6385 

39.0597 

9 

6.0477 

13.3936 

1.8433 

43.9422 

Number. 

Kilo,  per 
Cubic  Metre 
to  Pounds  per 
Cubic  Foot. 

Pounds  per 
Cubic  Foot 
to  Kilo,  per 
Cubic  Metre. 

Kilo,  per 
Square  Cen- 
timetre to 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 

Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 
to  Kilo,  per 
Square  Cen- 
timetre. 

1 

0.0624 

16.0192 

14.2232 

0.0703 

2 

0  .  1248 

32.0385 

28.4465 

0.1406 

3 

0.1873 

48.0577 

42.6697 

0.2109 

4 

0.2497 

64.0769 

56.8929 

0.2812 

5 

0:3121 

80.0962 

71.1161 

0.3515 

6 

0  .  3745 

96.1154 

85.3394 

0.4218 

7 

0.4370 

112.1346 

99.5626 

0.4922 

8 

0.4994 

128.1539 

113.7858 

0.5625 

9 

0.5618 

144.1731 

128.0090 

0.6328 

590        SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000. 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

1 

1 

1 

1  .  0000 

1.00000.00000 

1000.000 

3.142 

0.7854 

2 

4 

8 

1.4142 

.259910.30103 

500.000 

6.283 

3.1416 

3 

9 

27 

1  .  7321 

.4422'0.  47712 

333.333 

9.425 

7.0686 

4 

16 

64 

2.0000 

.  5874  0  .  60206 

250.000 

12.566 

12.5664 

5 

25 

125 

2.2361 

.7100 

0.69897 

200.000 

15.708 

19.6350 

6 

36 

216 

2.4495 

.8171 

0.77815 

166.667 

18.850 

28.2743 

7 

49 

343 

2  .  6458 

.9129 

0.84510 

142.857 

21.991 

38  .  4845 

8 

64 

512 

2  .  8284 

2.0000 

0  .  90309 

125  .  000 

25.133 

50.2655 

9 

81 

729 

3  .  0000 

2.0801 

0.95424 

111.111 

28.274 

63.6173 

10 

100 

1000 

3.1623 

2.1544 

1.00000 

100.000 

31.416 

78.5398 

11 

121 

1331 

3.3166 

2.2240 

1.04139 

90  .  9091 

34.558 

95.0332 

12 

144 

1728 

3.4641 

2.2894 

1.07918 

83.3333 

37.699 

113.097 

13 

169 

2197 

3  .  6056 

2.3513 

1.11394 

76.9231 

40  .  841 

132.732 

14 

196 

2744 

3.7417 

2.4101 

1.14613 

71.4286 

43.982 

153.938 

15 

225 

3375 

3.8730 

2.4662 

1  .  17609 

66.6667 

47.124 

176.715 

16 

256 

4096 

4  .  0000 

2.5198 

1.20412 

62  .  5000 

50.265 

201.062 

17 

289 

4913 

4.1231 

2.5713 

1  .  23045 

58  .  8235 

53.407  226.980 

18 

324 

5832 

4  .  2426 

2  .  6207 

1  .  25527 

55.5556 

56.549  254.469 

19 

361 

6859 

4.3589 

2  .  6684 

1  .  27875 

52.6316 

59.690  283.529 

20 

400 

8000 

4.4721 

2.7144 

1.30103 

50.0000 

62.832 

314.159 

21 

441 

9261 

4.582C 

2.7589 

1  .  32222 

47.6190 

65.973 

346.361 

22 

484 

10648 

4.6904 

2  .  8020 

1.34242 

45  .  4545 

69.115 

380.133 

23 

529 

12167 

4.7958 

2  .  8439 

1.36173 

43  .  4783 

72.257 

415.476 

24 

576 

13824 

4  .  8990 

2  .  8845 

1.38021 

41  .  6667 

75  .  398 

452.389 

25 

625 

15625 

5.0000 

2  .  9240 

1.39794 

40.0000 

78  .  540 

490  .  874 

26 

676 

17576 

5.0990 

2  .  9625 

1.41497 

38.4615 

81.681 

530  .  929 

27 

729 

19683 

5.1962 

3.0000 

1.43136 

37.0370 

84.823 

572  .  555 

28 

784 

21952 

5.2915 

3  .  0366 

1.44716 

35.7143 

87  .  965 

615.752 

29 

841 

24389 

5.3852 

3.0723 

1.46240 

34  .  4828 

91.106 

660  .  520 

30 

900 

27000 

5  .  4772 

3  .  1072 

1.47712 

33.3333 

94.248 

706.858 

31 

961 

29791 

5  .  5678 

3.1414 

1.49136 

32.2581 

97.389 

754.768 

32 

1024 

32768 

5  .  6569 

3.1748 

1.50515 

31.2500 

100.531 

804  .  248 

33 

1089 

35937 

5  .  7446 

3  .  2075 

1.51851 

30.3030 

103  .  673 

855.299 

34 

1150 

39304 

5.8310 

3  .  2396 

1.53148 

29.4118 

106.814 

907  .  920 

35 

1225 

42875 

5.9161 

3.2711 

1.54407 

28.5714 

109.956 

962.113 

36 

1296 

46656 

6.0000 

3.3019 

1  .  55630 

27.7778 

113.097 

1017.88 

37 

1369 

50653 

6.0828 

3  .  3322 

1  .  56820 

27.0270 

116.239 

1075.21 

38 

1444 

54872 

6.1644 

3  .  3620 

1  .  57978 

26.3158 

119.381 

1134.11 

39 

1521 

59319 

6  .  2450 

3.3912 

1.59106 

25.6410 

122.522 

1194.59 

40 

1600 

64000 

6.3246 

3  .  4200 

1  .  60206 

25  .  0000 

125  .  66 

1256.64 

41 

1681 

68921 

6.4031 

3  .  4482 

1.61278 

24.3902 

128.81 

1320.25 

42 

1764 

74088 

6.4807 

3  .  4760 

1  .  62325 

23  .  8095 

131.95 

1385.44 

43 

1849 

79507 

6  .  5574 

3  .  5034 

1  .  63347 

23  .  2558 

135.09 

1452.20 

44 

1936 

85184 

6.6332 

3  .  5303 

1.64345 

22.7273 

138.23 

1520.53 

45 

2025 

91125 

6.7082 

3  .  5569 

1  .  65321 

22.2222 

141.37 

1590.43 

46 

2116 

97336 

6.7823 

3  .  5830 

1  .  66276 

21.7391 

144.51 

1661.90 

47 

2209 

103823 

6  .  8557 

3  .  6088 

1.67210!  21.2766 

147.65 

1734.94 

48 

2304 

110592 

6  .  9282  3  .  6342  1  .  68124  j  20  .  8333 

150.80 

1809.56 

49 

2401 

117649 

7.0000'  3.  6593J  1.69020   20.4082 

153.94 

1885.74 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC.        591 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

50 

2500 

125000 

7.0711 

3.6840  1.69897 

20.0000 

157.08 

1963.50 

51 

2601 

132651 

7.1414 

3.7084  1.70757 

19.6078 

160.22 

2042.82 

52 

2704 

140608 

7.2111 

3.7325  1.71600 

19.2308 

163.36 

2123.72 

53 
54 

2809 
2916 

148877 
157464 

7.2801 
7.3485 

3.7563 
3  .  7798 

1  .  72428 
1  .  73239 

18.8679 
18.5185 

166.50 
169.65 

2206.18 
2290.22 

55 

3025 

166375 

7.4162 

3.8030 

1.74036 

18.1818 

172  .  79 

2375.83 

56 

3136 

175616 

7.4833 

3.8259  1.74819 

17.8571 

175.93 

2463  .  01 

57 

3249 

185193 

7  .  5498 

3  .  8485 

1  .  75587 

17.5439 

179.07 

2551.76 

58 
59 

3364 
3481 

195112 
205379 

7.6158 
7.6811 

3.8709 
3  .  8930 

1  .  76343 
1  .  77085 

17.2414 
16.9422 

182.21 
185.35 

2G42  .  08 
2733.97 

60 

3600 

216000 

7.7460 

3.9149 

1.77815 

16.6667 

188.50 

2827.43 

61 

3721 

226981 

7.8102 

3.9365,  1.78533 

16.3934 

191.64 

2922  .  47 

62 
63 

3844 
3969 

238328 
250047 

7.8740 
7.9373 

3.9579  1.79239 
3  .  9791  1  .  79934 

16.1290 
15.8730 

194.78 
197.92 

3019.07 
3117.25 

64 

4096 

262144 

8.0000 

4.0000 

1.80618 

15.6250 

201.06 

3216.99 

65 

4225 

274625 

8.0623 

4.0207 

1.81291 

15.3846 

204.20 

3318.31 

66 

4356 

287496 

8.1240 

4.0412 

1.81954 

15.1515 

207  .  35 

3421.19 

67 

4489 

300763 

8.1854 

4.06151  1.82607 

14.9254 

210.49 

3525  .  65 

68 

4624 

314432 

8.2462 

4.0817  1.83251 

14.7059 

^13.63 

3631.68 

69 

4761 

328509 

8.3066 

4.1016 

1.83885 

14.4928 

216.77 

3739.28 

70 

4900 

343000 

8  .  3666 

4.1213 

1.84510 

14.2857 

219.91 

3848.45 

71 

5041 

357911 

8.4261 

4.1408'  1.85126 

14.0845 

223  .  05 

3959.19 

72 

5184 

373248 

8.4853 

4.1602  1.85733 

13.8889  226.19 

4071.50 

73 

5329 

389017 

8.5440 

4.1793!  1.86332 

13  .  6986 

229  .  34 

4185.39 

74 

5476 

405224 

8.6023 

4.1983 

1.86923 

13.5135 

232.48 

4300.84 

75 

5625 

421875 

8.6603 

4.2172 

1  .  87506 

13  .  3333 

235.62 

4417.86 

76 

5776 

438976 

8.7178 

4.2358  1.88081 

13.1579 

238.76 

4536.46 

77 

5929 

456533 

8.7750 

4.2543!  1.88649 

12  .  9870 

241.90 

4656  .  63 

78 

6084 

474552 

8.8318 

4.2727  1.89209 

12.8205 

245  .  04 

4778.36 

79 

6241 

493039 

8  .  8882 

4.2908 

1.89763 

12.6582 

248.19 

4901.67 

80 

6400 

512000 

8  9443 

4  .  3089 

1  .  90309 

12.5000 

251.33 

5026.55 

81 

6561 

531441 

9.0000 

4.  3267  i  1.90849 

12.3457 

254.47 

5153.00 

82 

6724 

551368 

9.0554 

4.3445  1.913S1 

12.1951 

257.61 

5281.02 

83 

6889 

571787 

9.1104 

4.3621'  1.91908 

12.0482 

260  .  75 

5410.61 

84 

7056 

592704 

9.1652 

4.  3795  (  1.92428 

11.9048 

263  .  89 

5541.77 

85 

7225 

614125 

9.2195 

4  .  3968 

1  .  92942 

11.7647 

267.04 

5674.50 

86 

7396 

636056 

9.2736 

4.4140 

1.93450 

11.6279 

270.18 

5808  .  80 

87 

7569 

658503 

9  .  3274 

4.4310 

1  .  93952 

11.4943 

273  .  32 

5944.68 

88 

7744 

681472 

9.3808 

4.4480 

1  .  94448 

11.3636 

276  .  4f 

6082.12 

89 

7921 

704969 

9.4340 

4.4647 

1.94939 

11.2360 

279.60 

6221.14 

90 

8100 

729000 

9  .  4868 

4.4814 

1.95424 

11.1111 

282.74 

6361.73 

91 

8281 

753571 

9  .  5394 

4.4979 

1  .  95904 

10.9890 

285  .  88 

6503.88 

92 

8464 

778688 

9.5917 

4.5144 

1  .  96379 

10.8696  289.03 

6647  .  61 

93 

8649 

804357 

9.6437 

4.5307 

1.96848 

10.7527  292.17 

6792.91 

94 

8836 

830584 

9.6954 

4.5468 

1.97313 

10.6383 

295.31 

6939.78 

95 

9025 

857375 

9  .  746$ 

4.5629 

1.97772 

10.5263 

298.45 

7088  .  22 

96 

9216 

884736 

9  .  7980 

4  .  5789 

1  .  98227 

10.4167  301.59 

7238.23 

97 

9409 

912673 

9.848S 

4.5947 

1.98677 

10.3093  304.73 

7389.81 

98 

9604 

941192 

9  .  8995 

4.6104 

1.99123 

10.20411  307.88 

7542  .  96 

99 

9801 

97029E 

9  .  949S 

4.6261 

1.99564 

10.1010  311.02 

7697.69 

592       SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000—  (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

10Q 

10000 

1000000 

10.0000 

4.6416 

2  .  00000 

10  .  0000 

314.16 

7853  .  98 

101 

10201 

1030301 

10.0499 

4.6570 

2.00432 

9.90099 

317.30 

8011.85 

102 

10404 

1061208 

10.0995 

4.6723 

2.00860 

9.80392 

320  .  44 

8171.28 

103 

10609 

1092727 

10  .  1489 

4  .  6875 

2.01284 

9  .  70874 

323.58 

8332  .  29 

104 

10816 

1124864 

10.1980 

4.7027 

2.01703 

9.61538 

326.73 

8494.87 

105 

11025 

1157625 

10.2470 

4.7177 

2.02119 

9.52381 

329.87 

8659.01 

106 

11236 

1191016 

10.2956 

4.7326 

2.02531 

9  .  43396 

333.01 

8824.73 

107 

11449 

1225043 

10.3441 

4  .  7475 

2  .  02938 

9.34579 

336.15 

8992  .  02 

108 

11664 

1259712 

10.3923 

4.7622 

2.03342 

9.25926 

339.29 

9160.88 

109 

11881 

1295029 

10  .  4403 

4.77G9 

2.03743 

9.17431 

342.43 

9331.32 

110 

12100 

1331000 

10.4881 

4.7914 

2.04139 

9.09091 

345  .  58 

9503.32 

111 

12321 

1367631 

10.5357 

4.8059 

2.04532 

9.00901 

348  .  72 

9676.89 

112 

12544 

1404928 

10.5830 

4.8203 

2.04922 

8  .  92857 

351.86 

9852.03 

113 

12769 

1442897 

10.6301 

4.8346 

2  .  05308 

8  .  84956 

355  .  00 

10028.7 

114 

12996 

1481544 

10.6771 

4.8488 

2.05690 

8.77193 

358.14 

10207.0 

115 

13225 

1520875 

10.7238 

4.8629 

2.06070 

8.69565 

361.28 

10386.9 

116 

13456 

1560896 

10.7703 

4.8770 

2.06446 

8  .  62069 

364.42 

10568.3 

117 

13689 

1601613 

10.8167 

4.8910  2.06819 

8.54701 

367  .  57 

10751.3 

118 

13924 

1643032 

10.8628 

4.9049 

2.07188 

8.47458 

370.71 

10935  .  9 

119 

14161 

1685159 

10.9087 

4.9187 

2.07555 

8  .  40336 

373.85 

11122.0 

120 

14400 

1728000 

10.9545 

4  .  9324 

2.07918 

8  .  33333 

376  .  99 

11309.7 

121 

14641 

1771561 

11.0000 

4.9461 

2.08279 

8.26446 

380.13 

11499.0 

122 

14884 

1815848 

11.0454 

4  .  9597 

2  .  Q8636 

8.19672 

383.27 

11689.9 

123 

15129 

1860867 

1  1  .  0905 

4.9732 

2.08991 

8.13008 

386  .  42 

11882.3 

124 

15376 

1906624 

11.1355 

4.9866 

2.09342 

8  .  06452 

389.56 

12076.3 

125 

15625 

1953125 

11.1803 

5  .  0000 

2.09691 

8.00000 

392  .  70 

12271.8 

126 

15876 

2000376 

11.2250 

5.0133 

2.10037 

7.93651 

395  .  84 

12469.0 

127 

1^129 

2048383 

11.2694 

0.0265 

2  .  10380 

7.87402 

398.98 

12667.7 

128 

16384 

2097152 

11.3137 

5.0397 

2.10721 

7.81250 

402.12 

12868.0 

129 

16641 

2146689 

11.3578 

5.0528 

2.11059 

7.75194 

405.27 

13069.8 

130 

16900 

2197000 

11.4018 

5  .  0658 

2.11394 

7.69231 

408.41 

13273.2 

131 

17161 

2248091 

11.4455 

5.0788 

2.11727 

7  .  63359 

411.55 

13478.2 

132 

17424 

2299968 

11.4891 

5.0916 

2.12057 

7.57576 

414.69 

13684.8 

133 

17689 

2352637 

11.5326 

5.1045 

2  .  1  2385 

7.51880 

417.83 

13892.9 

134 

17956 

2406104 

11.5758 

5.1172 

2.12710 

7  .  46269 

420  .  97 

14102.6 

135 

18225 

2460375 

11.6190 

5.1299 

2.13033 

7.40741 

424.12 

14313.9 

136 

18496 

2515456 

11.6619 

5.1426 

2.13354 

7  .  35294 

427.26 

14526.7 

137 

18769 

2571353 

11.7047 

5.1551 

2.13672 

7  .  29927 

430  .  40 

14741.1 

138 

19044 

2628072 

11.7473 

5.1676 

2.13988 

7.24638 

433.54 

14957.1 

139 

19321 

2685619 

11.7898 

5.1801 

2.14301 

7.19424 

436.68 

15174.7 

140 

19600 

2744000 

11.8322 

5.1925 

2.14613 

7.14286 

439.82 

15393.8 

141 

19881 

2803221 

11.8743 

5.2048 

2.14922 

7  .  09220 

442  .  96 

15614.5 

142 

20164 

2863288 

11.9164 

5.2171 

2.15229 

7  .  04255 

446.11 

15836.8 

143 

20449 

2924207 

11.9583 

5  .  2293 

2.15534 

6.99301 

449  .  25 

16060.6 

144 

20736 

2985984 

12.0000 

5.2415 

2.15836 

6.94444 

452.39 

16286.0 

145 

21025 

3048625 

12.0416 

5.2536 

2.16137 

6.89655 

455  .  53 

16513.0 

146 

21316 

3112136 

12.0830 

5  .  2656 

2.16435 

6  .  84932 

458  .  67 

16741.5 

147 

21609 

3176523 

12.1244 

5.2776 

2.16732 

6.80272 

461  .  81 

16971.7 

148 

21904 

3241792 

12.1655 

5.2896 

2.17026 

6.75676 

464.96 

17203.4 

149 

22201 

3307949 

12  .  2066 

5.3015 

2.17319 

6.71141 

468.10 

17436.6 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

150 

22500 

3375000 

12.2474 

5.3133 

2.17609 

6.66667 

471.24 

17671.5 

151 

22301 

3442951 

12.2882 

5.3251 

2.17898 

6.62252 

474.38 

17907.9 

152 

23104 

3511808 

12.3288 

5.3368 

2.18184 

6.57895 

477.52 

18145.8 

153 

23409 

3581577 

12.3693 

5.3485 

2  .  18469 

6.53595 

480.66 

18385.4 

154 

23716 

3652264 

12.4097 

5.3601 

2.18752 

6.49351 

483.81 

18626.5 

155 

24025 

3723875 

12.4499 

5.3717 

2.19033 

6.45161 

486.95 

18869.2 

156 

24336 

3796416 

12.4900 

5.3832 

2.19312 

6.41026 

490.09 

19113.4 

157 

24649 

3869893 

12.5300 

5.3947 

2.19590 

6.36943 

493.23 

19359.3 

158 

24964 

3944312 

12.5698 

5.4061 

2.19866 

6.32911 

496.37 

19606.7 

159 

25281 

4019679 

12.6095 

5.4175 

2.20140 

6.28931 

499.51 

19855.7 

160 

25600 

4096000 

12.6491 

5.4288 

2.20412 

6.25000 

502.65 

20106.2 

161 

25921 

4173281 

12.6886 

5.4401 

2  .  20683 

6.21118 

505.80 

20358.3 

162 

26244 

4251528 

12.7279 

5.4514 

2.20952 

6.17284 

508.94 

20612.0 

163 

26569 

4330747 

12.7671 

5  .  4626 

2.21219 

6.13497 

512.08 

20867.2 

164 

26896 

4410944 

12.8062 

5.4737 

2.21484 

6.09756 

515.22 

21124.1 

165 

27225 

4492125 

12.8452 

5.4848 

2.21748 

6.06061 

518.36 

21382.5 

166 

27556 

4574296 

12.8841 

5  .  4959 

2.22011 

6.02410 

521.50 

21642.4 

167 

27889 

4657463 

12.9223 

5  .  5069 

2  .  22272 

5  .  98802 

524.65 

21904.0 

168 

28224 

4741632 

12.9615 

5.5178 

2.22531 

5.95238 

527.79 

22167.1 

169 

28561 

4826809 

13.0000 

5.5288 

2  .  22789 

5.91716 

530.93 

22431.8 

170 

28900 

4913000 

13  .  0384 

5  .  5397 

2  .  23045 

5.88235 

534.07 

22698.0 

171 

29241 

5000211 

13.0767 

5.5505 

2.23300 

5.84795 

537.21 

22965  .  8 

172 

29584 

5088448 

13.1149 

5.5613 

2.23553 

5.81395 

540.35 

23235  .  2 

173 

29929 

5177717 

13  1529 

5.5721 

2.23805 

5.78035 

543  .  50 

23506.2 

174 

30276 

5268024 

13.1909 

5.5828 

2.24055 

5.74713 

546.64 

23778.7 

175 

30625 

5359375 

13.2288 

5.5934 

2.24304 

5.71429 

549.78 

24052.8 

176 

30976 

5451776 

13  .  2665 

5.6041 

2.24551 

5.68182 

552.92 

24328.5 

177 

31329 

5545233 

13.3041 

5.6147 

2.24797 

5.64972 

556.06 

24605.7 

178 

31684 

5639752 

13.3417 

5.6252 

2.25042 

5.61798 

559.20 

24884.6 

179 

32041 

5735339 

13.3791 

5.6357 

2.25285 

5.58659 

562.35 

25164.9 

180 

32400 

5832000 

13.4164 

5.6462 

2  .  25527 

5.55556 

565.49 

25446.9 

181 

32761 

5929741 

13.4536 

5  .  6567 

2.25768 

5.52486 

568.63 

25730.4 

182 

33124 

6028568 

13  .  4907 

5.6671 

2.26007 

5.49451 

571.77 

26015.5 

183 

33489 

6128487 

13  .  5277 

5  .  6774 

2  .  26245 

5.46448 

574.91 

26302.2 

184 

33856 

6229504 

13.5647 

5.6877 

2.26482 

5.43478 

578.05 

26590.4 

185 

34225 

6331625 

13.6015 

5  .  6980 

2.26717 

5.40541 

581  .  19 

26880.3 

186 

34596 

6434856 

13  .  6382 

5.7083 

2.26951 

5.37634 

584.34 

27171.6 

187 

34969 

6539203 

13  .  6748 

5.7185 

2.27184 

5.34759 

587.48 

27464.6 

188 

35344 

6644672 

13.7113 

5.7287 

2.27416 

5.31915 

590.62 

27759.1 

189 

35721 

6751269 

13.7477 

5.7388 

2.27646 

5.29101 

593.76 

28055.2 

190 

36100 

6859000 

13.7840 

5.7489 

2.27875 

5.26316 

596.90 

28352.9 

191 

36481 

6967871 

13.8203 

5.7590 

2.28103 

5.23560 

600.04 

28652.1 

192 

36864 

7077888 

13  .  8564 

5.7690 

2.28330 

5.20833 

603.19 

28952.9 

193 

37249 

7189057 

13.8924 

5.7790 

2.23556 

5.18135 

606.33 

29255  .  3 

194 

37636 

7301384 

13  .  9284 

5.7890 

2.28780 

5.15464 

609.47 

29559.2 

195 

38025 

7414875 

13,9642 

5  .  7989 

2  .  29003 

5.12821 

612.61 

29864  .  8 

196 

38416 

7529536 

14.0000 

5.8088 

2.29226 

5.10204 

615.75 

30171.9 

197 

38809 

7645373 

14.0357 

5.8186 

2.29447 

5.07614 

618.89 

30480.5 

198 

39204 

7763392 

14.0712 

5.8285  2.29667 

5.05051 

622  .  04 

30790  .  7 

199 

39601 

7880599 

14.1067 

5.8383!  2.29885 

5.02513 

625.18 

31102.6 

594       SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

200 

40000 

8000000 

14.1421 

5.8480 

2.30103 

5.00000 

628.32 

31415.9 

201 

40401 

8120601  14.1774 

5.8578 

2.30320 

4.97512 

631.46 

31730.9 

202 

40804 

8242408  1  4  .  2  1  27  i  5  .  8675 

2.30535 

4.95050 

634  .  60 

32047  .  4 

203 

41209 

8365427  14.2478 

5.8771 

2.30750 

4.92611 

637.74 

S2365.5 

204 

41616 

8489664  14.2329 

5.8868 

2.30963 

4.90196 

640.89 

32685.1 

205 

42025 

8615125  14.3178 

5.8964 

2.31175 

4.87805 

644.03 

33006  .  4 

206 

42436 

8741816  14.3527 

5.9059 

2.31387 

4.85437 

647.17 

33329.2 

207 

42349 

8869743  14.3875 

5.9155 

2.31597 

4.830C2 

650.31 

33653  .  5 

208 

43264 

8998912  14.4222 

5  .  9250 

2.31806 

4.80769 

653  .  45 

33979.5 

209 

43681 

9129329 

14.4568 

5.9345 

2.32015 

4.78469 

656.59 

34307.0 

210 

44100 

9261000 

14.4914 

5.9439 

2.32222 

4.76190 

659.73 

34636.1 

211 

44521 

9393931:  14.  5258 

5.9533 

2  .  32428 

4.73934 

662  .  88 

34966.7 

212 

44944 

952312814.5602 

5  .  9627 

2.32634 

4.71698 

666.02 

35298.9 

213 

45369 

9663597 

14.5945 

5.9721 

2.32838 

4.69484 

669.16 

35632  .  7 

214 

45796 

9800344 

14.6287 

5.9814 

2.33041 

4.67290 

672.30 

35968.1 

215 

46225 

9938375 

14.6629 

5.9907 

2.33244 

4.65116 

675.44 

36305.0 

216 

46656 

10077696  14.6969 

6.0000 

2  .  33445 

4.62963 

678.58 

36643.5 

217 

47089 

1  218313  14.7309 

6.0092 

2.33646 

4.60829 

681.73 

36983.6 

218 

47524 

10360232  14.7648 

6.0185 

2.33846 

4.58716 

684.87 

37325.3 

219 

47961 

10503459 

14.7986 

6.0277 

2.34044 

4.56621 

688.01 

37668.5 

220 

48400 

10648000 

14.8324 

6.036S 

2  .  34242 

4.54545 

691  .  15 

38013.3 

221 

48841 

10793861114.8661 

6.0459 

2.34439 

4.52489 

694.29 

38359.6 

222 

49284 

10941048'14.8997 

6.0550 

2.34635 

4.50450 

697  .  43 

38707.6 

223 

49729 

11089567:14.9332 

6.0641 

2.34830 

4.48431 

700.58139057.1 

224 

50176 

11239424 

14.9666 

6.0732 

2.35025 

4.46429 

703  .  72 

39408  .  1 

225 

50625 

11390625 

15.0000 

6.0822 

2.35218 

4.44444 

706  .  86 

39760.8 

228 

51076 

11543176  15.0333 

6.0912 

2.35411 

4.42478 

710.00 

40115.0 

227 

51529 

11697083:15.0665 

6.1002 

2.35603 

4  .  40529 

713.14 

40470  .  8 

228 

51984 

11852352  15.0997 

6.1091 

2.35793 

4.38596 

716.28 

40828.1 

229 

52441 

12008989 

15.1327 

6.1180 

2.35984 

4.36681 

719.42 

41187.1 

230 

52900 

12167000 

15.1658 

6.1269 

2.36173 

4.34783 

722.57 

41547.6 

231 

53361 

12326391  15.1987 

6.1358 

2.36361 

4  .  32900 

725.71 

41909.6 

232 

53824 

12487168 

15.2315 

6.1446 

2.36549 

4.31034 

728.85 

42273.3 

233 

54289 

12649337 

15.2643 

6.1534 

2.36736 

4.29185 

731.99 

42638.5 

234 

54756 

12812904 

15.2971 

6.1622 

2.36922 

4.27350 

735.13 

43005.3 

235 

55225 

12977875 

15.3297 

6.1710 

2.37107 

4.25532 

738  .  27 

43373.6 

236 

55696 

13144256 

15.3623 

6.1797 

2.37291 

4.23729 

741.42 

43743.5 

237 

56169 

13312053 

15.3948 

6.1885 

2.37475 

4.21941 

744.56 

44115.0 

238 

56644 

13481272 

15.4272 

6.1972 

2.37658 

4.23168 

747  .  70 

44488.1 

239 

57121 

13651919 

15.4596 

6.2058 

2.37840 

4.18410 

750.84 

44862.7 

240 

57600 

13824000 

15.4919 

6.2145 

2.38021 

4.16667 

753.98 

45238.9 

241 

58081 

13997521 

15.5242 

6.2231 

2.38202 

4.14938 

757.12 

45616.7 

242 

58564 

14172488 

15.5563 

6.2317 

2.38382 

4.13223 

760  .  27 

45996.1 

243 

59049 

14348907 

15.5885 

6.2403 

2.38561 

4.11523 

763.41 

46377.0 

244 

59536 

14526784 

15.6205 

6.2488 

2.38739 

4.09836 

766.55 

46759.5 

245 

60025 

14706125 

15.6525 

6.2573 

2.38917 

4.08163 

769.69 

47143.5 

246 

60516 

14886936 

15.6844 

6.2658 

2.39094 

4.06504 

772.83 

47529  .  2 

247 

61009 

15069223 

15.7162 

6  .  2743 

2.39270 

4.04858 

775.97 

47916.4 

248 

61504 

15252992 

15.7480 

6.2S2S 

2.39445  4.03226 

779.12 

48305  .  1 

249 

62001 

15438249 

1  5  .  7797 

6.2912 

2.39620  4.01606 

782.26 

48695.5 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC.        595 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  ==  Diameter. 

Circuna. 

Area. 

250 

62500 

15625000 

15.8114 

6.2996 

2.39794 

4.00000 

785.40 

49087  .  4 

251 

63001 

15813251 

15.8430 

6.3080 

2.39967 

3  .  98406 

788  .  54 

49480.9 

252 

63504 

16003008 

15.8745 

6.3164 

2.40140 

3.96825 

791.68 

49875.9 

253 

64009 

16194277 

15  .  9060 

6.3247 

2.40312 

3.95257 

794.82 

50272.6 

254 

64516 

16387064 

15.9374 

6.3330 

2.40483 

3.93701 

797.96 

50670  .  7 

255 

65025 

16581375 

15.9687 

6.3413 

2.40654 

3.92157 

801.11 

51070.5 

256 

65536 

16777216 

16.0000 

6.3496 

2.40824 

3.90625 

804.25 

51471.9 

257 

66049 

16974593 

16.0312 

6.3579 

2  .  40993 

3.89105 

807  .  39 

51874.8 

258 

66564 

17173512 

16  .  0624 

6.3661 

2.41162 

3  .  87597 

810.53 

52279.2 

259 

67081 

17373979 

16.0935 

6.3743 

2.41330 

3.86100 

813.67 

52685.3 

260 

67600 

17576000 

16.1245 

6.3825 

2.41497 

3.84615 

816.81 

53092  .  9 

261 

68121 

17779581 

16.1555 

6.3907 

2.41664 

3.83142 

819.96 

53502.1 

282 

68644 

17984723 

16.1864!  6.3988!  2.41830 

3.81679 

823.10 

53912.9 

263'  69169 

18191447 

16.2173  6.4070 

2.41996 

3.80228 

826.24 

54325  .  2 

264 

69696 

18399744 

16.2481 

6.4151 

2.42160 

3.78788 

829.38 

54739  .  1 

265 

70225 

18609625 

16.2788 

6.4232 

2.42325 

3  .  77358 

832.52 

55154.6 

286 

70756  18821096 

16.3095 

6.4312 

2.42488 

3.75940 

835.66 

55571.6 

267 

71239  19034163 

16.3401 

6.4393 

2.42651 

3  .  74532 

838.81 

55990.3 

268 

71824 

19248832 

16.3707 

6.4473 

2.42313 

3.73134 

841.95 

56410.4 

269 

72361 

19465109 

16.4012 

6.4553 

2.42975 

3.71747 

845.09 

56832.2 

270 

72900 

19683000 

16.4317 

6.4633 

2.43136 

3.70370 

848.23 

57255.5 

271 

73441  19902511 

16.4621  6.4713i  2.43297 

3  .  69004 

851.37 

57680.4 

272 

7398420123648 

16.4924  6.4792  2.43457 

3.67647 

854.51 

58106.9 

273 

74529  20346417 

16.5227  6.4872  2.43616 

3  .  66300 

857.66 

58534.9 

274 

75076 

20570824 

16.5529 

6.4951 

2.43775 

3  .  64964 

860.80 

58964.6 

275 

75625 

20796875 

16.5831 

6  .  5030 

2  .  43933 

3.63636 

863.94 

59395.7 

276 

76176  21024576 

16.6132  6.5108 

2.44091 

3.62319 

867.08 

59828.5 

277 

76729  21253933 

16.6433  6.5187 

2.44248 

3.61011 

870.22 

60262.8 

278 

77234  21484952 

16.6733  6.5235 

2.44404 

3.59712 

873  .  36 

60698.7 

279 

77841 

21717639 

16.7033(  6.5343 

2.44560 

3  .  58423 

876.50 

61136.2 

280 

78400 

21952000 

16.73321  6.5421 

2.44716 

3.57143 

879.65 

61575.2 

281 

78961  22183041 

16.7631  6.5499 

2.44871 

3.55872 

882.79 

62015.8 

282 

7952422425768 

16.7929  6.5577 

2.45025 

3.54610 

8S5.93 

62458.0 

283 

80089  22665187 

16.8228  6.5654 

2.45179 

3.53357 

889.07 

62901.8 

284 

80656 

22906304 

16.8523!  6.5731 

2.45332 

3.52113 

892.21 

63347.1 

285 

81225 

23149125 

16.8819 

6.5808 

2.45484 

3.50877 

895  .  35 

63794.0 

286 
287 
288 

81796  23393656 
8236923639903 
82944  23887872 

16.9115 
16.9411 
16.9706 

6.5885 
6  .  5962 
6.6039 

2.45637 
2  .  45788 
2.45939 

3  .  49650 
3  .  48432 
3  .  47222 

898.50 
901.64 
904.78 

64242  .4 
64692.5 
65144.1 

289 

83521 

24137569 

17.0000 

6.6115 

2.46090 

3.46021 

907.92 

65597  .  2 

290 

84100 

24389000 

17.0294 

6.6191 

2  .  462  40 

3.44828 

911.06 

66052.0 

291 

84681  24642171 

17.0587 

6.6267 

2  .  46389 

3.43643 

914.20 

66508.3 

292 

8526424897088 

17.0880 

6  .  6343 

2.46538 

3  .  42466 

917.35 

66966  .  2 

293 

8584925153757 

17.1172 

6.6419 

2  .  46687 

3.41297 

920.49 

67425  .  6 

294 

86436 

25412184 

17.1464 

6  .  6494 

2  .  46835 

3.40136 

923  .  63 

67886.7 

295 

87025 

25672375 

17.1756 

6.6569 

2  .  46982 

3.38983 

926.77 

68349.3 

296 

8761625934336 

17.2047 

6  .  6644 

2.47129!  3.37838 

929.91 

68813.5 

297 

88209  26198073 

17.2337 

6.6719 

2.47276  3.36700 

933.05 

69279  .  2 

298 

88804  28463592 

17.2627 

6  .  6794 

2.47422  3.35570 

936.19 

69746.5 

2391  89401  25730899 

17.2916 

6.68691  2.47567  3.34448 

939.34 

70215.4 

596        SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

300 

90000 

27000000 

17.3205 

6.6943 

2.47712 

3.33333 

942.48 

70685.8 

301 

90601 

27270901 

17.3494 

6.7018 

2.47857 

3.32226 

945  .  62 

71157  9 

302 

91204 

27543608 

17.3781 

6.7092 

2.48001 

3.31126 

948.76 

71631.5 

303 

91809 

27818127 

17.4069 

6.7166 

2.48144 

3.30033 

951.90 

72106.6 

304 

92416 

28094464 

17.4356 

6.7240 

2.48287 

3.28947 

955.04 

72583.4 

305 

93025 

28372625 

17.4642 

6.7313 

2.48430 

3.27869 

958.19 

73061.7 

306 

93636 

28652616 

17.4929 

6.7387 

2.48572 

3.26797 

961.33 

73541.5 

307 

94249 

28934443 

17.5214 

6.7460 

2.48714 

3.25733 

964.47 

74023.0 

308 

94864 

29218112 

17.5499 

6.7533 

2.48855 

3.24675 

967.61 

74506.0 

309 

95481 

29503629 

17.5784 

6.7606 

2.48996 

3.23625 

970.75 

74990.6 

310 

96100 

29791000 

17.6068 

6.7679 

2.49136 

3.22581 

973.89 

75476.8 

311 

96721 

30080231 

17.6352 

6.7752 

2.49276 

3.21543 

977.04 

75964.5 

312 

97344 

30371328 

17.6635 

6.7824 

2.49415 

3.20513 

980.18 

76453.8 

313 

97969 

30664297 

17.6918 

6.7897 

2.49554 

3.19489 

983.32 

76944.7 

314 

98596 

30959144 

17.7200 

6.7969 

2.49693 

3.18471 

986.46 

77437.1 

315 

99225 

31255875 

17.7482 

6.8041 

2.49831 

3.17460 

989.60 

77931.1 

316 

99856 

31554496 

17.7764 

6.8113 

2.49969 

3.16456 

992.74 

78426.7 

317 

100489 

31855013 

17.8045 

6.8185 

2.50106 

3.15457 

995.88 

78923.9 

318 

101124 

32157432 

17.8326 

6.8256 

2.50243 

3.14465 

999.03 

79422.6 

319 

101761 

32461759 

17.8606 

6.8328 

2.50379 

3.13480 

1002.2 

79922.9 

320 

102400 

32768000 

17.8885 

6.8399 

2.50515 

3  .  12500 

1005.3 

80424.8 

321 

103041 

33076161 

17.9165 

6.8470 

2.50651 

3.11527 

1008.5 

80928.2 

322 

103684 

33386248 

17.9444 

6.8541 

2.50786 

3.10559 

1011.6 

81433.2 

323 

104329 

33698267 

17.9722 

6.8612 

2.50920 

3  .  09598 

1014.7 

81939.8 

324 

104976 

34012224 

18.0000 

6.8683 

2.51055 

3.08642 

1017.9 

82448.0 

325 

105625 

34328125 

18.0278 

6.8753 

2.51188 

3.07692 

1021.0 

82957.7 

326 

10G276 

34645976 

18.0555 

6.8824 

2.51322 

3.06749 

1024.2 

83469.0 

327 

106929 

34965783 

18.0831 

6.8894 

2.51455 

3.05810 

1027.3 

83981.8 

328 

107584 

35287552 

18.1108 

6.8964 

2.51587 

3.04878 

1030.4 

84496.3 

329 

108241 

35611289 

18.1384 

6.9034 

2.51720 

3.03951 

1033.6 

85012.3 

330 

108900 

35937000 

18.1659 

6.9104 

2.51851 

3.03030 

1036.7 

85529.9 

331 

109561 

36264691 

18.1934 

6.9174 

2.51983 

3.02115 

1039.9 

86049.0 

332 

110224 

36594368 

18.2209 

6.9244 

2.52114 

3.01205 

1043.0 

86569.7 

333 

110889 

36926037 

18.2483 

6.9313 

2.52244 

3.00300 

1046.2 

87092.0 

334 

111556 

37259704 

18.2757 

6.9382 

2.52375 

2.99401 

1049.3 

87615.9 

335 

112225 

37595375 

18  .  3030 

6.9451 

2.52504 

2  .  98507 

1052.4 

88141.3 

336 

112896 

37933056 

18.3303 

6.9521 

2.52634 

2.97619 

1055.6 

88668.3 

337 

113569 

38272753 

18.3576 

6.9589 

2  .  52763 

2  .  96736 

1058.7 

89196.9 

338 

114244 

38614472 

18.3848 

6.9658 

2.52892 

2.95858 

1061.9 

89727.0 

339 

114921 

38958219 

18.4120 

6.9727 

2  .  53020 

2.94985 

1065.0 

90258.7 

340 

115600 

39304000 

18  .  4391 

6.9795 

2.53148 

2.94118 

1068.1 

90792.0 

341 

116281 

39651821 

18  .  4662 

6.9864 

2.53275 

2.93255 

1071.3 

91326.9 

342 

116964 

40001688 

18  .  4932 

6.9932 

2  .  53403 

2.92398 

1074.4 

91863.3 

343 

117649 

40353607 

18.5203 

7.0000 

2.53529 

2.91545 

1077.6 

92401.3 

344 

118336 

40707584 

18.5472 

7.0068 

2.53656 

2.90698 

1080.7 

92940  .  9 

345 

119025 

41063625 

18.5742 

7.0136 

2.53782 

2.89855 

1083.8 

93482.0 

346 

119716 

41421736 

18.6011 

7.0203 

2  .  53908 

2.89017 

1087.0 

94024  .  7 

347 

120409 

41781923 

18.6279 

7.0271 

2.54033 

2.88184 

1090  .  1 

94569.0 

348 

121104 

42144192 

18.6548 

7.0338 

2.54158 

2.87356 

1093  .  3 

95114.9 

349 

121801 

42508549H8.6815 

7.0406 

2.54283 

2.86533 

1096.4 

95662.3 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC.       597 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Ilecip 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

350 

122500 

42875000 

18.7083 

7.0473 

2.54407 

2.85714 

1099.6 

96211.3 

351 

123201 

43243551 

18  .  7350 

7.0540 

2.54531 

2.84900 

1102.796761.8 

352 

123904 

43614208 

18.7617 

7.0607 

2  .  54654 

2.84091 

1105.897314.0 

353 

124609 

43986977 

18.7883 

7.0674 

2.54777 

2.83286 

1109.0!97867.7 

354 

125316 

44361864 

18.8149 

7.0740 

2.54900 

2.82486 

1112.1 

98423.0 

355 

126025 

44738875 

18.8414 

7.0807 

2  .  55023 

2.81690 

1115.3 

98979.8 

356 

126736 

45118016 

18.8680 

7.0873 

2.55145 

2.80899 

1118.4 

99538.2 

357 

127449 

45499293 

18.8944 

7.0940 

2.55267 

2.80112 

1121.5 

100098 

358 

128164 

45882712 

18.9209 

7.1006 

2  .  55388 

2  .  79330 

1124.7 

100660 

359 

128881 

46268279 

18.9473 

7.1072 

2.55509 

2.78552 

1127.8 

101223 

360 

129600 

46656000 

18  .  9737 

7.1138 

2.55630 

2.77778 

1131.0 

101788 

361 

130321 

47045881 

19.0000 

7.1204 

2.55751 

2.77008 

1134.1 

102354 

362 

131044 

47437928 

19.0263 

7.1269 

2  .  55871 

2  .  76243 

1137.3 

102922 

363 

131769 

47832147 

19.0526 

7.1335 

2.55991 

2.75482 

1140.4 

103491 

364 

132496 

48228544 

19.0788 

7.1400 

2.56110 

2.74725 

1143.5 

104062 

365 

133225 

48627125 

19.1050 

7.1466 

2  .  56229 

2.73973 

1146.7 

104635 

366 

13395649027896 

19.1311 

7.1531 

2.56348 

2.73224 

1149.8 

105209 

367 

134689  [49430863 

19.1572 

7  .  1596 

2.56467 

2.72480 

1153.0 

105785 

368 

135424 

49836032 

19.1833 

7.1661 

2.56585 

2.71739 

1156.1 

106362 

369 

136161 

50243409 

19  .  2094 

7.1726 

2.56703 

2.71003 

1159.2 

106941 

370 

136900 

50653000 

19  .  2354 

7.1791 

2.56820 

2.70270 

1162.4 

107521 

371 

13764151064811 

19.2614 

7  .  1855 

2  .  56937 

2  .  69542 

1165.5 

108103 

372 

13838451478848 

19.2873 

7.1920 

2.57054 

2.68817 

1168.7 

108687 

373 

139129151895117 

19.3132 

7.1984 

2.57171 

2.68097 

1171.8 

109272 

374 

139876152313624 

19.3391 

7.2048 

2.57287 

2  .  67380 

1175.0 

109858 

375 

140625 

52734375 

19.3649 

7.2112 

2.57403 

2  .  ^6667 

1178.1 

110447 

376 

141376 

53157376 

19.3907 

7.2177 

2.57519 

2.65957 

1181.2 

111036 

377 

142129 

53582633 

19.4165 

7  .  2240 

2.57634 

2  .  65252 

1184.4 

111628 

378 

142884 

54010152 

19.4422 

7.2304 

2.57749 

2.64550 

1187.5 

112221 

379 

143641 

54439939 

19.4679 

7.2368 

2.57864 

2  .  63852 

1190.7 

112815 

380 

144400 

54872000 

19.4936 

7  .  2432 

2.57978 

2.63158 

1193.8 

113411 

381 

145161 

55306341 

19.5192 

7  .  2495 

2.58093 

2  .  62467 

1196.9 

114009 

382 

145924 

55742968 

19.5448 

7.2558 

2.58206 

2.61780 

1200.1 

114608 

383 

146689 

56181887119.5704 

7  .  2622 

2  .  58320 

2.61097 

1203.2 

115209 

384 

147456 

56623104 

19.5959 

7.2685 

2.58433 

2.60417 

1206.4 

115812 

385 

148225 

57066625 

19.6214 

7  .  2748 

2.58546 

2.59740 

1209.5 

116416 

386 

148996 

57512456  19.6469 

7.2811 

2  .  58659 

2  .  59067 

1212.7 

117021 

387 

149769 

57960603  19.6723 

7  .  2874 

2.58771 

2  .  58398 

1215.8 

117628 

388 

150544 

58411072 

19.6977 

7  .  2936 

2.58883 

2.57732 

1218.9 

118237 

389 

151321 

58863869 

19.7231 

7  .  2999 

2  .  58995 

2  .  57069 

1221.1 

118847 

390 

152100 

59319000 

19.7484 

7.3061 

2.59106 

2.56410 

1225.2 

119459 

391 

152881 

59776471 

19.7737 

7.3124 

2.59218 

2.55755 

1228.4 

120072 

392 

153664 

60236288 

19.7990 

7.3186 

2.59329 

2.55102 

1231.5 

120687 

393 

154449 

60698457 

19.8242 

7.3248 

2  .  59439 

2.54453 

1234.6 

121304 

394 

155236 

61162984 

19.8494 

7.3310 

2.59550 

2.53807 

1237.8 

121922 

395 

156025 

61629875 

19.8746 

7.3372 

2.59660 

2.53165 

1240.9 

122542 

396 

156816 

62099136  19.8997 

7.3434  2.59770 

2  .  52525 

1244.1 

123163 

397 

157609 

62570773  19.9249 

7  .  3496 

2  .  59879 

2.51889 

1247.2 

123786 

398 

158404 

63044792  19.9499 

7.3558 

2.59988 

2.51256 

1250.4 

124410 

399 

159201 

63521199  19.9750 

7.3619  2.60097  2.50627 

1253.5 

125036 

598       SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No.  =  Diameter. 

No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

Circum. 

Area. 

400 

160000 

64000000 

20  .  0000 

7.3681 

2  .  60206 

2  .  50000 

1256  6 

125664 

401 

160801 

64481201 

20.0250 

7  .  3742 

2.60314 

2  .  49377 

1259.8 

126293 

402 

161604 

64964808 

20  .  0499 

7.3803 

2.60423 

2.48756 

1262.9 

126923 

403 

162409 

65450827 

20  .  0749 

7.3864 

2.60531 

2.48139 

1266.1 

127556 

404 

163216 

65939264 

20.0998 

7  .  3925 

2  .  60638 

2.47525 

1269.2 

128190 

405 

164025 

66430125 

20.1246 

7.3986 

2  .  60746 

2.46914 

1272  3 

128825 

406 

164836 

66923416 

20.1494 

7  .  4047 

2.60853 

2  .  46305 

1275.5 

129462 

407 

165649 

67419143 

20.1742 

7.4108 

2  .  60959 

2  .  45700 

1278.6 

130100 

408 

166464 

67917312 

20  .  1990 

7.4169 

2.61066 

2  .  45098 

1281  8 

130741 

409 

167281 

68417929 

20  .  2237 

7.4229 

2.61172 

2.44499 

1284.9 

131382 

410 

168100 

68921009 

20  .  2485 

7  .  4290 

2.61278 

2.43902 

1288.1 

132025 

411 

168921 

69426531 

20.2731 

7  .  4350 

2.61384 

2.43309 

1291  2 

132670 

412 

169744 

69934523 

20  .  2978 

7.4410 

2.61490 

2.42718 

1294.3 

133317 

413 

170569 

70444997 

23  .  3224 

7  .  4470 

2.61595 

2.42131 

1297.5 

133965 

414 

171396 

70957944 

20  3470 

7  .  4530 

2.61700 

2.41546 

1300.6 

134614 

415 

172225 

71473375 

20.3715 

7.45CO 

2.61805 

2  .  40964 

1303.8 

135265 

416 

173056 

71991296 

20.3961 

7.4650 

2.61909 

2  .  40385 

1306.9 

135918 

417 

173889 

72-11713 

20  .  4206 

7.4710 

2.62014 

2  .  39808 

1310.0 

136572 

418 

174724 

73034632 

20  .  4450 

7.4770 

2.62118 

2.39234 

1313.2 

137228 

419 

175561 

73560059 

20  .  4695 

7.4829 

2.62221 

2  .  38664 

1316.3 

137885 

420 

176400 

74088090 

20  .  4939 

7.4889 

2  .  62325 

2  .  38095 

1319.5 

138544 

421 

177241 

74618461 

20.5183 

7  .  4948 

2.62428 

2.37530 

1322.6 

139205 

422 

178084 

75151448 

20  .  5426 

7.5007 

2.62531 

2  .  36967 

1325.8 

139867 

423 

178929 

75686967 

20  .  5670 

7  .  5067 

2  .  62634 

2.36407 

1328.9 

140531 

424 

179776 

76225024 

20.5913 

7  5126 

2.62737 

2  .  35849 

1332.0 

141196 

425 

180625 

76765625 

20.6155 

7.5185 

2.62839 

2.35294 

1335.2 

141863 

426 

181476 

77308776 

20  .  6398 

7  .  5244 

2.62941 

2  .  34742 

1338.3 

142531 

427 

182329 

77854483 

20  6640 

7.5302 

2.63043 

2.34192 

1341.5 

143201 

428 

183184 

78402752 

20  .  6882 

7.5361 

2.63144 

2  .  33645 

1344.6 

143872 

429 

184041 

78953589 

20.7123 

7.5420 

2.63246 

2.33100 

1347.7 

144545 

430 

184900 

79507000 

20  .  7364 

7  .  5478 

2  .  63347 

2.32558 

1350.9 

145220 

431 

185761 

80062991 

20  .  7605 

7.5537 

2.63448 

2.32019 

1354.0 

145896 

432 

186624 

80621568 

20  .  7846 

7  .  5595 

2  .  63548 

2.31482 

1357.2 

146574 

433 

187489 

81182737 

20  .  8087 

7  .  5654 

2.63649 

2.30947 

1360.3 

147254 

434 

188356 

81746504 

20  .  8327 

7.5712 

2  .  63749 

2.30415 

1363.5 

147934 

435 

189225 

82312875 

20  .  8567 

7  .  5770 

2  .  63849 

2  .  29885 

1366.6 

148617 

436 

190096 

82881856 

20  .  8806 

7  .  5828 

2.63949 

2  .  29358 

1369.7 

149301 

437  190969 

83453453 

20  .  9045 

7  .  5886 

2.64048 

2  .  28833 

1372.9 

149987 

438 

191844 

84027672 

20  .  9284 

7  .  5944 

2.64147 

2.28311 

1376.0 

150674 

439 

192721 

84604519 

20.9523 

7.6001 

2.64246 

2  .  27790 

1379.2 

151363 

440 

193600 

85184000 

20  .  9762 

7.6059 

2  .  64345 

2.27273 

1382.3 

152053 

441 

194481 

85766121 

21.0000 

7.6117 

2  .  64444 

2  .  26757 

1385.4 

152745 

442 

195364 

86350888 

21.0238 

7.6174 

2.64542 

2  .  26244 

1388.6 

153439 

443 

196249 

86938307 

21.0476 

7  .  6232 

2  .  64640 

2  .  25734 

1391.7 

154134 

434 

197136 

87528384 

21.0713 

7  .  6289 

2.64738 

2.25225 

1394.9 

154830 

445 

198025 

88121125 

21.0950 

7.6346 

2  .  64836 

2.24719 

1398.0 

155528 

446 

198916 

88716536 

21.1187 

7.6403 

2  .  64933 

2.24215 

1401.2 

156228 

447 

199809 

89314623 

21  .  1424 

7  .  6460 

2.65031 

2.23714 

1404.3 

156930 

448 

200704 

89915392 

21.1660 

7.6517 

2.65128 

2.23214 

1407.4 

157633 

449  201601 

90518849 

21  .  1896 

7  .  6574 

2  .  65225 

2.22717 

1410.6 

158337 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC.        599 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Ciroum. 

Area. 

450 

202500 

91125000 

21.2132 

7.6631 

2.65321 

2  .  22222 

1413.7 

159043 

451 

203401 

91733851  21.2368 

7.6688 

2.65418 

2.21730 

1416.9 

159751 

452 

204304 

9234540821.2603 

7.6744 

2.65514 

2.21239 

1420.0 

160460 

453 

205209 

9295967721.2838 

7.6801 

2.65610 

2.20751 

1423.1 

161171 

454 

206116 

93576664 

21.3073 

7.6857 

2.65706 

2.20264 

1426.3 

161883 

455 

207025 

94196375 

21.3307 

7.69142.65801 

2.19780 

1429  .  4 

162597 

456 

207936 

9481881621.3542 

7.69702.65896 

2.19298 

1432.6 

163313 

457 

208849 

9544399321.3776 

7.70262.65992 

2.18818 

1435.7 

164030 

458 

209764 

9607191221.4009 

7.70822.66087 

2.18341 

1438.9 

164748 

459 

210681 

96702579 

21.4243 

7.71382.66181 

2.17865 

1442.0 

165468 

460 

211600 

97336000 

21.4476 

7.71942.66276 

2.17391 

1445.1 

166190 

461  (212521 

97972181  21.4709 

7.72502.66370 

2.16923 

1448.3 

166914 

462 

213444 

9861112821.4942 

7.73062.66464 

2.16450 

1451.4 

167639 

463 

214369 

9925284721.5174 

7.73622.66558 

2.15983 

1454.6 

168365 

464 

215296 

99897344 

21.5407 

7.74182.66652 

2.15517 

1457.7 

169093 

465 

216225 

100544625 

21.5639 

7.74732.66745 

2.15054 

1460.8 

169823 

466 

217156 

10119469621.5870 

7  .  7529  2  .  66839 

2.14592 

1464.0 

170554 

467 

218089 

10184756321.6102 

7  .  7584  2  .  66932 

2.14133'  1467.1 

171287 

468 

219024 

102503232 

21.6333 

7  .  7639 

2.67025 

2.13675 

1470.3 

172021 

469 

219961 

103161709 

21  .  6564 

7  .  7695 

2.67117 

2.  1322  J 

1473.4 

172757 

470 

220900 

103823000 

21.6795 

7  .  7750 

2.67210 

2.12766 

1476.5 

173494 

471 

221841 

104487111 

21.7025 

7.7805 

2.67302 

2.12314 

1479.7 

174234 

472 

222784 

105154048 

21.7256 

7  .  7860 

2  .  67394 

2.11864 

1482.8 

174974 

473 

223729 

105823817 

21.7486 

7.7915 

2  .  67486 

2.11417 

1486.0 

175716 

474 

224676 

106496424 

21.7715 

7.7970 

2.67578 

2.10971 

1489.1 

176460 

475 

225625 

107171875 

21  .  7945 

7.8025 

2.67669 

2.10526 

1492.3 

177205 

476 

226576 

107850176 

21.8174 

7  .  W9 

2  .  67761 

2.10084 

1495.4 

177952 

477 

227529  108531333 

21.8403 

7.8134 

2  .  67852 

2.09644 

1498.5 

178701 

478 

228484 

109215352 

21.8632 

7.8188 

2  .  67943 

2  .  09205 

1501.7 

179451 

479 

229441 

109902239 

21.8861 

7.8243 

2.68034 

2  .  08768 

1504.8 

180203 

480 

230400 

110592000 

21  .  9089 

7  .  8297 

2.68124 

2.08333 

1508.0 

180956 

481 

231361 

111284641 

21.9317 

7.8352 

2.68215 

2.37900 

1511.1 

181711 

482 

232324 

111980168 

21  .  9545 

7.8406 

2  .  68305 

2.07469 

1514.3 

182467 

483 

233289 

112678587 

21.9773 

7  .  8460 

2  .  68395 

2.07039 

1517.4 

183225 

484 

234256 

113379904 

22.0000 

7.8514 

2  .  68485 

2.06612 

1520.- 

183984 

485 

235225 

114084125 

22  .  0227 

7.8568 

2  .  68574 

2.06186 

1523.7 

184745 

486 

236196:114791256 

22.0454 

7  .  8622 

2.68664 

2.05761 

1526.8 

185508 

487 

237169  115501303  22.0681 

7.86762.68753 

2.05339 

1530.0 

186272 

488 

238144  116214272 

22.0907 

7  .  8730 

2  .  68842 

2.04918 

1533.1 

187038 

490 

239121 

116930169 

22.1133 

7.8784 

2.68931 

2.04499 

1536.2 

187805 

490 

240100 

117649000 

22.1359 

7  .  8837 

2.6902o!  2.04082 

1539.4 

188574 

491 

241081 

118370771 

22  .  1585 

7.889l!2.69108|  2.03666 

1542.5 

189345 

492 

242064 

119095488 

22.1811 

7.89442.69197J  2.03252 

1545.7 

190117 

493 

243049 

119823157 

22  .  2036 

7  .  8998  2  .  69285  2  .  02840 

1548.8 

190890 

494 

244036 

120553784 

22.2261 

7.9051 

2  .  69373 

2.02429 

1551.9 

191665 

495 

245025 

121287375 

22  .  2486 

7.910.1 

2  .  69461 

2  02020 

1555.1 

192442 

496 

2460  ie 

12202393? 

22.27111  7.91582.69548!  2.01613 

1558.2 

193221 

497 

24700£ 

122763473 

22.2035'  7.9211  2.69636  2.01207  1561.4 

194000 

498 

248004 

1  23505992  22  .  3  1  59  7  .  9264  2  .  69723  2  .  00803  1564.5 

194782 

499 

249001 

124251499122.3383  7.  9317  12  69810  2.  00401  1  1567.71  195565 

600       SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued}. 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

500~ 

250000 

125000000 

22.3607 

7.9370 

2.69897 

2.00000 

1570.8 

196350 

501 

251001 

125751501 

22.3830 

7.94232.69984 

.99601 

1573.9 

197136 

502 

252004 

126506008 

22.4054 

7.9476 

2.70070 

.99203 

1577  .  1 

197923 

503 

253009 

127263527 

22.4277 

7.9528 

2.70157 

.  98807 

1580.2 

198713 

504 

254016 

128024064 

22.4499 

7.9581 

2.70243 

.98413 

1583.4 

199504 

505 

255025 

128787625 

22.4722  7.9634 

2.  70329  '   .98020 

1586.5 

200296 

506 

256036 

129554216 

22.4944  7.9686 

2.70415   .97629 

1589  .  7 

201090 

507 

257049 

130323843 

22.5167J  7.9739 

2.70501   .97239 

1592.8 

201886 

508 

258064 

131096512 

22.5389 

7.9791 

2.70586   .96850 

1595  .  9 

202683 

509 

259081 

131872229 

22.5610 

7.9843 

2  .  70672   .  96464 

1599.1 

202482 

510 

260100 

132651000 

22  .  5832 

7.9896 

2  .  70757   .  96078 

1602.2 

204282 

511 

261121 

133432831 

22.6053  7.9948 

2.70842   .95695 

1605.4 

205084 

512 

262144 

134217728 

22.6274  8.0000 

2.70927,   .95312 

1608.5 

205887 

513 

263169 

135005697 

22.6495 

8.0052 

2.71012   .94932 

1611.6 

206692 

514 

264196 

135796744 

22.6716 

8.0104 

2.71096 

.  94553 

1614.8 

207499 

515 

265225 

136590875 

22  .  6936 

8.0156 

2.71181 

.94175 

1617.9 

208307 

516 

266256 

137388096 

22.7156 

8  .  0208 

2.71265   .93798 

1621.1 

209117 

517 

267289 

138188413 

22  .  7376 

8.0260 

2.71349   .93424 

1624.2 

209928 

518 

268324 

138991832 

22.7596 

8.0311 

2.71433    93050 

1627.3 

210741 

519 

269361 

139798359 

22.7816 

8.0363 

2.71517 

.  92678 

1630.5 

211556 

520 

270400 

140608000 

22.8035 

8.0415 

2.71600 

.  92308 

1633  .  6 

212372 

521 

271441 

141420701 

22.8254 

8.0466 

2.71684 

.91939 

1636.8 

213189 

522 

272484 

142236548 

22.8473 

8.0517 

2.71767 

.91571 

1639.9 

214008 

523 

273529 

143055667 

22.8692  8.0569 

2.71850 

.91205 

1643.1 

214829 

524 

274576 

143877824 

22.8910 

8  .  0620 

2.71933 

.  90840 

1646.2 

215651 

'25 

275625 

144703125 

22.9129 

8.0671 

2  720161   .90476 

1649.3 

216475 

526 

276676 

145531576 

22.  9347 

8.0723 

2.72099   .90114 

1652.5 

217301 

527 

277729 

146363183 

22  9565 

8.0774 

2.72181   .89753 

1655.6 

218128 

523 

278784 

147197952 

22.9783 

8.0825 

2.72263   .89394 

1658.8 

218956 

529 

279841 

148035889 

23.0000 

8.0876 

2  .  72346 

.89036 

1661.9 

219787 

530 

280900 

148877000 

23.0217 

8.0927 

2.72428 

88679 

1665.0 

220618 

531 

281961 

149721291 

23  .  0434 

8.0978 

2  .  72509 

.  88324 

1668.2 

221452 

532 

283024 

150568768 

23  .  0651 

8.1028 

2.72591 

.  87970 

1671.3 

222287 

533 

214089 

151419437 

23  .  0868 

8.1079 

2  .  72673 

.87617 

1674.5 

223123 

534 

285156 

152273304 

23.1084 

8.1130 

2.72754 

.87266 

1677.6 

223961 

535 

28622T 

153130375 

23  .  1301 

8.1180 

2.72835 

.86916 

1680.8 

224801 

536 

287296 

153990656 

23.1517 

8.1231 

2.72916 

.86567 

1683.9 

225642 

537 

2S8369 

154854153 

23.1733 

8.1281 

2  .  72997 

.  86220 

1687.0 

226484 

538 

289444 

155720872 

23  .  1948 

8.1332 

2  .  73038  1  .  85874 

1690.2 

227329 

539 

290521 

156590819 

23.2164 

8.1382 

2.73159 

1  .  85529 

1693.3 

228175 

540 

291600 

157464000 

23  .  2379 

8.1433 

2.73239 

1.85185 

1696.5 

229022 

541 

292681 

158340421 

23.25941  8.1483 

2.73320  1.84843 

1699.6 

229871 

542 

293764 

159220088 

23.2809  8.1533 

2  .  73400  1  .  84502 

1702.7 

230722 

543 

294849 

160103007 

23.3024  8.1583|2.73480  1.84162 

1705.9 

231574 

544 

295936 

160989184 

23  .  3238 

8.1633 

2.73560 

1.83824 

1709.0 

232428 

545 

297025 

161878625 

23  .  3452 

8.1683 

2  .  73640 

1.83486 

1712.2 

233283 

546 

298116 

162771336 

23.3666!  8.1733 

2  73719  1.83150 

1715.3 

234140 

547 

548 

2992091163667323  23  .  3880  8  .  1783 
300304!  1  64566592  23  .  4094  8  .  1833 

2.73799  1.82815 
2.73878  1.82482 

1718.5 
1721.6 

234998 

235858 

549 

301401  i  165469149  23  .  4307i  8  .  1882 

2.73957  1.82149 

1724.7 

236720 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC.   601 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

166375000 
167284151 
168196608 
169112377 
170031464 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

550 
551 
552 
553 
554 

302500 
303601 
304704 
305809 
306916 

23  .  4521 
23  .  4734 
23  .  4947 
23  .  5160 
23  .  5372 

8.1932 
8.1982 
8.2031 
8.2081 
8.2130 

2.74036 
2.74115 
2.74194 
2  .  74273 
2.74351 

.81818 
.81488 
.81159 
.80832 
.80505 

1727.9 
1731.0 
1734.2 
1737.3 
1740.4 

237583 
238448 
239314 
240182 
241051 

555 
556 
557 

558 
559 

308025 
309136 
310249 
311364 
312481 

170953875 
171879616 
172808693 
173741112 
174676879 

23  .  5584 
23  .  5797 
23  .  6008 
23  .  6220 
23  .  6432 

8.2180 
8.2229 
8.2278 
8.2327 
8.2377 

2  .  74429 
2.74507 
2  .  74586 
2.74663 
2.74741 

.80180 
.  79856 
.79533 
.79211 
.78891 

1743  .  6 
1746.7 
1749.9 
1753.0 
1756.2 

241922 
242795 
243669 
244545 
245422 

560 
561 
562 
563 
564 

313600 
314721 
315844 
316969 
318096 

175616000 
176558481 
177504328 
178453547 
179406144 

23  .  6643 
23  .  6854 
23  .  7065 
23  .  7276 
23.7487 

8  .  2426 
8.2475 
8.2524 
8  .  2573 
8.2621 

2.74819 
2.74896 
2  .  74974 
2.75051 
2.75128 

.78571 
.78253 
.77936 
.77620 
.  77305 

1759.3 

1762.4 
1765.6 
1768.7 
1771.9 

246301 
247181 
248063 
248947 
249832 

565 
566 
567 
568 
569 

319225 
320356 
321489 
322624 
323761 

180362125 
181321496 
182284263 
183250432 
184220009 

23  .  7697 
23  .  7908 
23.8118 
23  .  8328 
23  .  8537 

8.2670 
8.2719 
8.2768 
8  2816 
8.2865 

2.75205 
2.75282 
2.75358 
2.75435 
2.75511 

.  76991 
.  76678 
.  76367 
.  76056 
.  75747 

1775.0 

1778.1 
1781.3 
1784.4 
1787.6 

250719 
251607 
252497 
253388 
254281 

570 
571 
572 
573 
574 

324900 
326041 
327184 
328329 
329476 

185193000 
186169411 
187149248 
188132517 
189119224 

23  .  8747 
23  .  8956 
23.9165 
23  .  9374 
23  .  9583 

8.2913 
8  .  2962 
8.3010 
8.3059 
8.3107 

2.75587 
2.75664 
2  .  75740 
2.75815 
2.75891 

1  .  75439 
1.75131 
1  .  74825 
1  .  74520 
1.74216 

1790.7 
1793.9 
1797.0 
1800.1 
1803.3 

255176 
256072 
256970 
257869 
258770 

575 

576 
577 
578 
579 

330625 
331776 
332929 
334084 
335241 

190109375 
191102976 
192100033 
193100552 
194104539 

23  .  9792 
24.0000 
24.0208 
24.0416 
24.0624 

8.3155 
8  .  3203 
8.3251 
8  .  3300 
8  .  3348 

2.75967 
2  .  76042 
2.76118 
2.76193 
2  .  76268 

1.73913 
1.73611 
1.73310 
1.73010 
1.72712 

1806.4 
1809  .  6 
1812.7 
1815.8 
1819.0 

259672 
260576 
261482 
262389 
263298 

580  336400  195112000 
581)337561  196122941 
5823387241197137368 
SSS^SgSSg;  198155287 
584  341056  199176704 

24.0832 
24.1039 
24.1247 
24.1454 
24.1661 

8.3396 
8  .  3443 
8.3491 
8  .  3539 
8  .  3587 

2  .  76343 
2.76418 
2  .  76492 
2  .  76567 
2  .  76641 

.72414 
.72117 
.71821 
.71527 
.71233 

1822.1 
1825.3 
1828.4 
1831.6 
1834.7 

264208 
265120 
266033 
266948 
267865 

585 
586 
587 
588 
589 

342225 
343396 
344569 
345744 
346921 

200201625 
201230056 
202262003 
203297472 
204336469 

24.1868 
24  .  2074 
24.2281 
24  .  2487 
24  .  2693 

8  .  3634 
8  .  3682 
8.3730 
8  .  3777 
8  .  3825 

2.76716 
2  .  76790 
2  .  76864 
2  .  76938 
2.77012 

1  .  70940 
1  .  70649 
1  .  70358 
1  .  70068 
1  .  69779 

1837.8 
1841.0 
1844.1 
1847.3 
1850.4 

268783 
269701 
270624 
271547 
272471 

590348100 
591  349281 
592  350464 
593351649 
594352836 

205379000 
206425071 
207474688 
208527857 
209584584 

24  .  2899 
24.3105 
24.3311 
24.3516 
24.3721 

8  .  3872 
8.3919 
8  .  3967 
8.4014 
8.4061 

2  .  77085 
2.77159 
2  .  77232 
2.77305 
2.77379 

1  .  69492 
1  .  69205 
1.68919 
1  .  68634 
1  .  68350 

1853.5 
1856.7 
1859.8 
1863.0 
1866.1 

273397 
274325 
275254 
276184 
277117 

595  354025 
596355216 
597  356409 
598357604 
599  358801 

210644875 
211708736 
212776173 
213847192 
214921799 

24  .  3926 
24.4131 
24.4336 
24  .  4540 
24.4745 

8.4108 
8.4155 
8  .  4202 
8  .  4249 
8.4296 

2.77452 
2.77525 
2  .  77597 
2  .  77670 
2  .  77743 

1  .  68067 
1  .  67785 
1  .  67504 
1  .  67224 
1  .  66945 

1869.3 
1872.4 
1875.5 

1878.7 
1881.8 

278051 
278986 
279923 

280862 
281802 

602        SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

600  360000 

216000000 

24.4949 

8.43432.77815 

1  .  66667 

1885.0 

282743 

601  361201 

217081801 

24.5153 

8.43902.77887 

1  .  66389 

1888  .  1 

283687 

602  362404 

218167208 

24.5357 

8.4437 

2.77960 

1.66113 

1891.2 

284631 

603  363609 

219256227 

24.5561 

8.4484 

2.78032 

1  .  65837 

1894.4 

285578 

604  364816 

220348864 

24.5764 

8.45302.78104 

1  .  65563 

1897.5 

286526 

605 

366025 

221445125 

24.5967 

8.4577 

2.78176 

1  .  65289 

1900.7 

287475 

606  367230 

222545016 

24.6171 

8.4623 

2.78247 

1.65017 

1903.8 

288426 

6071368449 

223648543 

24.6374 

8.4670 

2.78319 

1  .  64745 

1907.0 

289379 

608  369664 

224755712 

24.6577 

8.47162.78390 

1  .  64474 

1910.1 

290333 

609  370881 

225866529 

24.6779 

8.47632.78462 

1.64204 

1913.2 

291289 

610 

372100 

226981000 

24.6982 

8.48092.78533 

1.63934'  1916.  4 

292247 

611|373321 

228099131 

24.7184;  8.48562.78604 

1.63666  1919.5 

293206 

612374544 

229220928 

24.7386  8.4902 

2.78675 

1.63399  1922.7 

294166 

613375769 

230346397 

24.7588!  8.4948 

2  .  78746 

1.63132,1925.8 

295128 

614  376996 

231475544 

24.7790 

8.4994 

2.78817 

1.62866  1928.9 

296092 

615 

378225 

232608375 

24.7992 

8.5040 

2  .  78888 

1  .  62602 

1932.1 

297057 

616  379456 

233744896 

24.8193  8.5086 

2.78958 

1.62338;  1935.  2 

298024 

617)380689 

234885113 

24.8395  8  5132 

2  .  79029 

1.62075:1938.4 

298992 

618,381924 

236029032 

24.8596  8.5178 

2.79099 

1.61812  1941.5 

299962 

619  383161 

237176659 

24.8797 

8.52242.79169 

1.61551 

1944.7 

300934 

620 

384400 

238328000 

24.8998 

8.52702.79239 

1.61290 

1947.8 

301907 

621  385641 

239483061 

24.9199  8.53162.79309 

1.61031  1950.9 

302882 

622386884 

240641848 

24.9399;  8.5362 

2.79379 

1.60772  1954.1 

303858 

623388129 

241804367 

24.9600 

8.54082.79449 

1.60514,1957.2 

304836 

624 

389376 

242970624 

24.9800 

8.54532.79518 

1.60256 

1960.4 

305815 

625 

390625 

244140625 

25  .  0000 

8.54992.79588 

1.60000 

1963.5 

306796 

626391876 

245314376 

25.0200 

8.5544 

2.79657 

1.59744  1966.6 

307779 

627  393129 

246491883 

25  .  0400 

8  .  5590 

2.79727 

1.59490  1969.8 

308763 

628 

394384 

247673152 

25.0599 

8.5635 

2.79796 

1.59236  1972.9 

309748 

629 

395641 

248858189 

25.0799 

8.5681 

2.79865 

1.58983  1976.1 

310736 

630 

396900 

250047000 

25.0998 

8.5726 

2  .  79934 

1.5873011979.2 

311725 

631 

398161 

251239591 

25.1197  8.57722.80003 

1.58479  1982.4 

312715 

632 

399424 

252435968 

25.1396  8.5817 

2.80072 

1.58228jl985.5 

313707 

633 

400689 

253636137 

25.1595  8.5862 

2.80140 

1.57978  1988.6 

314700 

634 

401956 

254840104 

25  .  1794 

8.59072.80209 

1.57729 

1991.8 

315696 

635 

403225 

256047875 

25.1992 

8.59522.80277 

1.57480 

1994.9 

316692 

636 

404496 

257259456 

25.2190!  8.5997 

2.80346 

1.57233 

1998.1 

317690 

637 

405769 

258474853 

25.2389  8.60432.80414 

1  .  56986 

2001.2 

318690 

638 
639 

407044 
408321 

259694072 
260917119 

25  .  2587 
25.2784 

8.6088 
8.6132 

2.80482 
2.80550 

1.56740 
1.56495 

2004.3 
2007.5 

319692 
320695 

640 

409600 

262144000 

25.2982 

8.6177 

2.80618 

1  .  56250 

2010.6 

321699 

641 

410881 

263374721 

25.3180 

8.6222 

2.80686 

1.56006 

2013.8 

322705 

642 

412164 

264609288 

25.3377 

8.6267 

2.80754 

1.55763 

2016.9 

323713 

643 

413449 

265847707 

25.3574 

8.6312 

2.80821 

1.55521  2020.0 

324722 

644 

414736 

267089984 

25.3772 

8.6357 

2.80889 

1.552802023.2 

325733 

645 

416025 

268336125 

25  .  3969 

8.6401 

2.80956 

1.55039 

2026.3 

326745 

646 

417316 

269586136 

25.4165 

8.6446 

2.81023 

1.547992029.5 

327759 

647 

418609 

270840023 

25.4362 

8.6490 

2.81090 

1.5456012032.6 

328775 

648 

419904 

272097792 

25  .  4558 

8.6535 

2.81158 

1.54321 

2035  .  8 

329792 

649 

421201 

273359449 

25.4755 

8  .  6579 

2.81224 

1.540832038.9 

330810 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC.        603 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No.  =  Diameter. 

No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000X 
Recip. 

Circum. 

Area. 

650 

422500 

274625000 

25.4951 

8.6624 

2.81291 

.  53846 

2042.0 

331831 

651 

423801  275894451 

25.5147 

8.6668 

2.81358 

.53610 

2045.2 

332853 

652 

425104  277167808  25.5343 

8.6713 

2.81425 

.53374 

2048.3 

333876 

653 

426409  278445077 

25  .  5539 

8.6757 

2.81491 

.53139 

2051.5 

334901 

654 

427716 

279726264 

25  .  5734 

8.6801 

2.81558 

.52905 

2054.6 

335927 

655 

429025 

281011375 

25.5930 

8.6845 

2.81624 

1.52672 

2057.7 

336955 

656 

430336 

282300416 

25.6125 

8.68902.81690 

1.52439!  2060.9 

337985 

657 

431649 

283593393 

25  .  6320 

8.69342.81757 

1.52207|  2064.0 

339016 

658 

432964 

234890312 

25.6515 

8.69782.81823 

.51976!  2067.2 

340049 

659 

434281 

286191179 

25.6710 

8.70222.81889 

.51745 

2070.3 

341084 

660 

435600 

287496000 

25  .  6905 

8.70662.81954 

.51515 

2073.5 

342119 

661 

436921 

288804781 

25.7099 

8.71102.82020 

.51286 

2076.6 

343157 

662 

438244 

290117523 

25  .  7294 

8.71542.82086 

.51057 

2079.7 

344196 

663 

439569 

291434247 

25.7488 

8.71982.82151 

.50830 

2082.9 

345237 

664 

440896 

292754944 

25  .  7682 

8.7241 

2.82217 

.50602 

2086.0 

346279 

665 

442225 

294079625 

25.7876 

8.7285 

2  .  82282 

.50376 

2089.2 

347323 

666 

443556 

295408298 

25  .  8070 

8.73292.82347 

.50150 

2092.3 

348368 

667 

444889 

296740963 

25  .  8263 

8.73732.82413 

.  49925 

2095.4 

349415 

668 

446224 

29807763225.8457 

8.741612.82478 

.  49701 

2098.6 

350464 

669 

447561 

299418309 

25.8650 

8.7460 

2.82543 

.49477 

2101.7 

351514 

670 

448900 

300763000 

25.8844 

8.7503 

2.82607 

.49254 

2104.9 

352565 

671 

450241 

302111711 

25  .  9037 

8.7547 

2.82672 

.49031 

2108.0 

353618 

672 

451584 

303464448 

25.9230 

8.7590 

2.82737 

.48810 

2111.2 

354673 

673 

452929 

304821217 

25  .  9422 

8.7634 

2.82802 

.  48588 

2114.3 

355730 

674 

454276 

306182024 

25.9615 

8.7677 

2.82866 

.  48368 

2117.4 

356788 

675 

455625 

307546875 

25.9808 

8.7721 

2.82930 

.48148 

2120.6 

357847 

676 

456976 

308915776 

26  .  0000 

8-7764 

2.82995 

.  47929 

2123.7 

358908 

677 

458329 

310238733 

26.0192 

8.7807 

2.83059 

.47711 

2126.9 

359971 

678 

459684 

31166575226.0384 

8.7850 

2.83123 

.  47493 

2130.0 

361035 

679 

461041 

313046839 

26.0576 

8.7893 

2.83187 

.47275 

2133.1 

362101 

680 

462400 

314432030 

26.0768 

8.7937 

2.83251 

.  47059 

2136.3 

363168 

681 

463761 

315821241 

26.0960 

8.7980 

2.83315 

.  46843 

2139.4 

364237 

682 

465124 

317214568 

26.1151 

8.8023 

2.83378 

.  46628 

2142.6 

365308 

683  :  466489 

318611987 

26.1343 

8.8066 

2.83442   .46413 

2145.7 

366380 

684 

467856 

320013504 

26.1534 

8.8109 

2.83506   .46199 

2148.9 

367453 

685 

469225 

321419125 

26.1725 

8.8152 

2  83569   .45985 

2152.0 

368528 

686  470596 

32282885625.1916 

8.8194 

2.83632   .45773 

2155.1 

369605 

687  471969 

324242703  26.2107 

8.8237 

2  .  83696   .  45560 

2158.3 

370684 

688  473344 

325660672  26  .  2298 

8.8280 

2.83759   .45349 

2161.4 

371764 

689 

474721 

327082769 

26  .  2488 

8.8323 

2  .  83822 

.45138 

2164.6 

372845 

690 

476100 

328509000 

26  .  2679 

8.8366 

2.83885 

.  44928 

2167.7 

373928 

691  477481 

329939371 

26.2869 

8.8408 

2.83948 

.44718 

2170.8 

375013 

692  '478864 

331373888 

26  .  3059 

8.8451 

2.84011 

.  44509 

2174.0 

376099 

693  480249 

332812557 

26  .  3249 

8.8493 

2.84073 

.  44300 

2177.1 

377187 

694 

481636 

334255384 

26  .  3439 

8.8536 

2.84136 

.44092 

2180.3 

378276 

695 

483025 

335702375 

26  .  3629 

8.8578 

2.84198 

.43885 

2183.4 

379367 

696  '484416 

33715353626.3818 

8.8621 

2  .  84261 

.  43678 

2186.6 

380459 

697  485809 

33860887326.4008 

8  .  8663 

2.84323 

.43472 

2189.7 

381554 

698  1  487204 

34006839226.4197 

8  .  8706 

2  .  84386 

.43267 

2192.8 

382649 

699  !  488601 

341532099  26.4386 

8.87482.84448 

.430621  2196.6 

383746 

604       SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area, 

700 

490000 

343000000 

26.4575 

8.8790 

2.84510 

1.42S57 

2199.1 

384845 

701 

491401 

344472101 

26.4764 

8.8833 

2.84572 

1  .  42653 

2202.3 

385945 

702 

492804 

345948408 

26.4953 

8.8875 

2.84634 

1.42450 

2205.4'  387047 

703 

494209 

347428927 

26.5141!  8.8917i2.84696 

1.42248 

2208.5 

388151 

704 

495616 

348913664 

26.5330 

8.8959 

2.84757 

1.42046 

2211.7 

38S256 

705 

497025 

350402625 

26.5518 

8.9001 

2.84819 

1.41844 

2214.8 

390363 

706 

498436 

351895816 

26.5707 

8.9043  2.84880 

1.41643 

2218.0 

391471 

707 

499849 

353393243 

26  .  5895  8  .  9085  2  .  84942 

1.41443 

2221.1 

392580 

708 

501264 

354894912 

26.6083  8.912712.85003 

1.41243 

2224.3 

393692 

709 

502681 

356400829 

26.6271 

8.9169 

2.85065 

1.41044 

2227.4 

394805 

710 

504100 

357911000 

26.6458 

8.9211 

2.85126 

1.40845 

2230.5 

395919 

711 

505521 

359425431 

26.6646  8.9253 

2.85187 

1  .  40647 

2233  .  7 

397035 

712 

506944 

360944128 

26.6833  8.9295 

2.85248 

1  .  40449 

2236.8 

398153 

713 

508369 

36246709726.7021  8.9337 

2  .  85309 

1  .  40253 

2240.0 

39C272 

714 

509796 

363994344 

26.7208 

8.9378 

2.85370 

1.40056 

2243  .  1 

400393 

715 

511225 

365525875 

26  .  7395 

8  .  9420 

2.85431 

1  .  39860 

2246.2 

401515 

716 

512656 

367061696 

26.7582  8.9462 

2.85491 

1.39665 

2249.4 

402639 

717 

514089 

368601813 

28.7769,  8.9503 

2.85552 

1  .  39470 

2252.5 

403765 

718 

515524 

370146232 

26.7955;  8.9545 

2.85612 

1.39276 

2255.7 

404892 

719 

516961 

371694959 

26.8142 

8.9587 

2.85673 

1  .  39082 

2258.8 

406020 

720 

518400 

373248000 

26.8328 

8  .  9628 

2.85733 

1.38889 

2261  .  9 

407150 

721 

519841 

374805361 

26  8514  8.9670 

2.85794 

1  .  38696 

2265  .  1 

408282 

722 

521284 

376367048 

26.87011  8.9711 

2.85854 

1.38504 

2268  .  2 

409416 

723 

522729 

377933067 

26.8887  8.9752 

2.85914 

1.38313 

2271.4 

410550 

724 

524176 

379503424 

26  .  9072 

8.9794 

2  85974 

1.38122 

2274.5 

411687 

725 

525625 

381078125 

26.9258 

8.9835 

2  .  86034 

1.37931 

2277.7 

412825 

726 

527076 

382657176 

26.9444 

8  .  9876 

2.86094 

1.37741 

2280.8 

413965 

727 

528529 

384240583 

26.9629 

8.9918 

2.86153 

1.37552 

2283  .  9 

415106 

728 

529984 

385828352 

26.9815 

8.9959 

2.86213 

1  .  37363 

2287.1 

416248 

729 

531441 

387420489 

27.0000 

9.0000 

2.86273 

1.37174 

2290.2 

417393 

730 

532900 

389017000 

27.0185 

9.0041 

2.86332 

1.36986 

2293  .  4 

418539 

731 

534361 

390617891 

27.0370 

9.0082 

2.86392 

1.36799 

22G6.5 

419686 

732 

535824 

392223168 

27  .  0555 

9.0123  2.86451 

1.36612 

2299.7 

420835 

733 

537289 

393832837 

27.0740 

9.016412.86510 

1.36426 

2302  .  8 

421986 

734 

538756 

395446904 

27  .  0924 

9.0205 

2.86570 

1.36240 

2305.9 

423138 

735 

540225 

397065375 

27.1109 

9  .  0246 

2.86629 

1  .  36054 

2309.1 

424293 

736 
737 

541696 
543169 

398688256 
400315553 

27.1293 
27  1477 

9.0287 
9-0328 

2.86688 
2.86747 

1  .  35870 
1.35685 

2312.2 
2315.4 

425448 
426604 

738 

544644 

401947272 

27.1662 

9.0369 

2.86806 

1.35501 

2318.5 

427762 

739 

546121 

403583419 

27.1846 

9.0410 

2.86864 

1.35318 

2321.6 

428922 

740 

547600 

405224000 

27  .  2029 

9  .  0450 

2.86923 

1.35135 

2324.8 

430084 

741 

549081 

406869021 

27.2213 

9.0491 

2  .  86982 

1.34953 

2327  .  8 

431247 

742 

550564 

408518488 

27  .  2397 

9.0532 

2.87040 

1.34771 

2331.1 

432412 

743 

552049 

410172407 

27.2580 

9.0572 

2.87099 

1.34590 

2334  .  2 

433578 

744 

553536 

411830784 

27.2764 

9.0613 

2.87157 

1.34409 

2337.3 

434746 

745 

555025 

413493625 

27.2947 

9  .  0654 

2.87216 

1.34228 

2340.5 

435916 

746 

556516 

415160936 

27.3130 

9  .  0694 

2  .  87274 

1  .  34048 

2343  .  6 

437087 

747 

558009 

416832723 

27.3313 

9.0735 

2.87332 

1.33869 

2346.8 

438259 

748 

559504 

418508992 

27  .  3496 

9.077512.87390 

1  .  33690 

2349.9 

439433 

749 

561001 

420189749 

27  3679 

9.081612.87448 

1.33511 

2353  .  1 

440609 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC.        605 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No.  =  Diameter. 

No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

Circum. 

Area. 

750 

562500 

421875000 

27.3861 

9  .  0856 

2.87506 

1  .  33333 

2356.2 

441786 

751 

564001 

423564751 

27  .  4044 

9  .  0896 

2  87564 

1.33156 

2359.3 

442965 

752 

565504 

425259008 

27.4226 

9.0937 

2.87622 

1  .  32979 

2362.5 

444146 

753 

567009 

426957777 

27  4408 

9.0977 

2.87680 

1  .  32802 

2365  .  6 

445328 

754 

568516 

428661064 

27.4591 

9.1017 

2.87737 

1.32626 

2368.8 

446511 

755 

570025 

430368875 

27.4773 

9  .  1057 

2  .  87795 

1  .  32450 

2371.9 

447697 

756 

571536 

432081216 

27  .  4955 

9.10982.87852 

1.32275 

2375.0 

448883 

757 

573049 

433798093 

27.5136 

9.113812.87910 

1.32100 

2378  .  2 

450072 

758 

574564 

435519512 

27.5318 

9.117812.87967 

1.31926 

2381.3 

451262 

759 

576081 

437245479 

27  .  5500 

9.1218 

2  .  88024 

1.31752 

2384.5 

452453 

760 

577600 

438976000 

27  .  5681 

9.1258 

2.88081 

1.31579 

2387  .  6 

453646 

761 

579121 

440711081 

27  .  5862 

9.12982.88138 

1.31406 

2390  .  8 

454841 

762 

580644 

442450728 

27  .  6043 

9.13382.88196 

1.31234 

2393  .  9 

456037 

763 

582169 

444194947 

27  .  6225 

9.13782.88252 

1.31062 

2397.0 

457234 

764 

583696 

445943744 

27.6405 

9.1418 

2.88309 

1  .  30890 

2400.2 

458434 

765 

585225 

447697125 

27  .  6586 

9.1458 

2.88366 

1.30719 

2403.3 

459635 

766 

586756 

449455096127.6767 

9.14982.88423 

1.30548 

2406.5 

460837 

767 

588289 

4512  17663  '27.  6948 

9.15372.88480 

1  .  30378 

2409  .  6 

462042 

768 

589824 

452984832  27.7128 

9.1577  2.88536 

1  .  30208 

2412.7 

463247 

769 

591361 

454756609 

27.7308 

9.1617 

2  .  88593 

1.30039 

2415.9 

464454 

770 

592900 

456533000 

27  .  7489 

9.1657 

2  .  88649 

1  .  29870 

2419.0 

465663 

771 

594441 

458314011 

27.7669  9.1696 

2  .  88705 

1  .  29702 

2422  .  2 

466873 

772 

595984 

460099648 

27.7849  9.1736 

2.88762 

1.29534 

2425.3 

468085 

773 

597529 

461889917 

27  8029  9.  1775  '2.  88818 

1  .  29366 

2428.5 

469298 

774 

599076 

463684824 

27.8209  9.1815 

2.88874 

1.29199 

2431.6 

470513 

775 

600625 

465484375 

27.8388  9.1855 

2.88930 

1  .  29032 

2434.7 

471730 

776 

602176 

467288576 

27  .  8568 

9.18942.88986 

1  .  28866 

2437.9 

472948 

777 

603729 

469097433 

27.8747 

9.19332.89042 

1  .  28700 

2441.0 

474168 

778  605284 

470910952 

27.8927 

9.19732.89098 

1.28535 

2444  .  2 

475389 

779 

606841 

472729139 

27.9106 

9.2012 

2.89154 

1.28370 

2447.3 

476612 

780 

608400 

474552000 

27.9285 

9  .  2052 

2.89209 

1  .  28205 

2450.4 

477836 

781 

609961 

476379541 

27.9464 

9.2091 

2.89265 

1.28041 

2453  .  6 

479062 

782  i  61  1524 

478211768 

27.9643 

9.21302.89321 

1  .  27877 

2456  .  7 

480290 

783  613089 

480048687 

27.9821 

9.21702.89376 

1.27714 

2459.  S 

481519 

784 

614656 

481890304,28.0000 

9.2209 

2.89432 

1.27551 

2463.  C 

482750 

785 

616225 

48373662528.0179 

9  .  224S 

2  .  89487 

1  .  27389 

2466.2 

483982 

786 

617796 

48558765628.0357 

9  .  2287 

2.89542 

1.27226 

2469  .  3 

485216 

787 

619369 

487443403  28  .  0535 

9.232C 

2.89597 

1.27065 

2472.4  486451 

788 

620944 

489303872^28.0713 

9.236£ 

2  .  89653 

1  .  26904 

2475.6'  487688 

789 

622521 

491169069 

28.0891 

9  .  2404 

2  .  89708 

1  .  26743 

2478.7  488927 

790 

62410C 

493039000!28.1069 

9.244J 

>  2  .  89763 

1  .  26582 

2481.9  490167 

791 

625681 

494913671  28.1247 

9  .  2482 

!  2.89818 

1.26422  2485.0  491409 

792 
793 

627264 
62884£ 

496793088  j  28.  1425 
498677257|28.1603 

9.2521  2.89873 
9.  2560  i  2.  89927 

1.26263  2488.1  492652 
1.  26103  i  2491.3  493897 

794  630436  500566184^8.  178C 

9.25992.89982 

1  .  2594£ 

2494.4  495143 

795  63202550245987^ 

.28.1957 

9  .  2638  2  .  90037 

1  .  2578( 

»  2497  6^  496391 

796  633616  504358336  28  .  213£ 

9.2677  2.90091 

1  .  2562S 

»  2500.7  497641 

797  635209i506261573!28.231S 

9.27162.90146 

1.25471  2503  8  498892 

798  636804508169592  28.  248< 

9  .  2754  2  .  9020C 

1  25313'  2507  0  50  "145 

799  638401  510082399128.  266( 

9  .  2793  2  .  9025£ 

1.25156  2510.1  501399 

606       SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

800 
801 

640000 
641601 

512000000 
5139224011 

28.2843 
28.3019 

9  .  2832 
9  .  2870 

2.90309 
2.90363 

1  .  25000 
1  .  24844 

2513.3 
2516.4 

502655 
503912 

802 

643204 

51584960828.3196 

9  .  2909 

2.90417 

1  .  24688 

2519.6 

505171 

803 

644809 

517781627128.3373 

9  .  2948 

2.90472 

1  .  24533 

2522.7 

506432 

804 

646416 

519718464 

28.3549 

9  .  2986 

2.90526 

1  .  24378 

2525.8 

507694 

805 

648025 

521660125 

28  .  3725 

9.3025 

2  .  90580 

1.24224 

2529.0 

508958 

806 

649636 

523606616 

28.3901 

9.3063 

2.90634 

1  .  24069 

2532.1 

510223 

807 

651249 

525557943 

28  .  4077 

9.3102 

2  .  90687 

1.23916 

2535.3 

511490 

808 

652864 

527514112 

28  .  4253 

9.3140 

2  .  90741 

1  .  23762 

2538.4 

512758 

809 

654481 

529475129 

28  .  4429 

9.3179 

2.90795 

1  .  23609 

2541.5 

514028 

810 

656100 

531441000 

28  .  4605 

9.3217 

2.90849 

1  .  23457 

2544.7 

515300 

811 

657721 

533411731 

28  .  4781 

9.3255 

2  .  90902 

1  .  23305 

2547.8 

516573 

812 

659344 

535387328 

28  .  4956 

9.3294 

2.90956 

1.23153 

2551.0 

517848 

813 

660969 

537367797 

28.5132 

9.3332 

2.91009 

1.23001 

2554.1 

519124 

814 

662596 

539353144 

28.5307 

9.3370 

2.91062 

1  .  22850 

2557.3 

520402 

815 

664225 

541343375 

28.5482 

9  .  3408 

2.91116 

1  .  22699 

2560.4 

521681 

816 

665856 

543338496 

28  .  5657 

9.3447 

2.91169 

1  .  22549 

2563.5 

522962 

817 

667489 

54533851328.5832 

9  .  3485 

2.91222 

1.22399 

2566.7 

524245 

818 

669124 

547343432  28  .  6007 

9.3523 

2.91275 

1  .  22249 

2569.8 

525529 

819 

670761 

549353259 

28.6182 

9.3561 

2.91328 

1.22100 

2573  .  0 

526814 

820 

672400 

551368000 

28  .  6356 

9.3599 

2.91381 

1.21951 

2576.1 

528102 

821 

674041 

553387661 

28.6531 

9.3637  2.91434 

1.21803 

2579.2  529391 

822 

675684 

555412248 

28  .  6705 

9.36752.91487 

1.21655 

2582.4!  530681 

823 

677329 

557441767 

28  .  6880 

9.3713;2.91540 

1  .  21507 

2585.5 

531973 

824 

678976 

559476224 

28  .  7054 

9.3751 

2.91593 

1.21359 

2588  .  7 

533267 

825 

680625 

561515625 

28  .  7228 

9  .  3789 

2.91645 

1.21212 

2591.8 

534562 

826 

682276 

56355997628.7402 

9.3827|2.91698 

1.21065 

2595.0 

535858 

827 

683929 

56560928328.7576 

9.38652.91751 

1.20919  2598.1 

537157 

828 

685584 

567663552  28  .  7750 

9.3902  2.91803 

1.207731  2601.2 

538456 

829 

687241 

56972278928.7924 

9  .  3940 

2.91855 

1.20627 

2604.4 

539758 

830 

688900 

571787000 

28  .  8097 

9.3978 

2.91908 

1.20482 

2607.5 

541061 

831 

690561 

573856191  '28.  8271 

9.40162.91960 

1  .  20337 

2610.7 

542365 

832 

692224 

57593036828.8444 

9.4053  2.92012 

1.20192 

2613.8 

543671 

833 

693889 

578009537128.8617 

9.  4091  12.92065 

1.200481  2616.9 

544979 

834 

695556 

580093704 

28.8791 

9.4129 

2.92117 

1  .  19904 

2620.1 

546288 

835 

697225 

582182875 

28  .  8964 

9.4166 

2.92169 

1  .  19760 

2623.2 

547599 

836 

698896 

584277056 

28.9137 

9  .  4204 

2.9222 

1.19617 

2626.4 

548912 

837 

700569 

586376253  28.9310 

9.4241 

2.92273 

1  .  19474 

2629  .  5 

550226 

838 
839 

702244 
703921 

588480472 
590589719 

28  .  9482 
28  .  9655 

9.4279 
9.4316 

2.92324 
2.9237 

1.19332 
1.19189 

2632.7 
2635.8 

551541 

552858 

840 

705600 

592704000 

28  .  9828 

9.4354 

2  .  9242S 

1  .  19048 

2638  .  9 

554177 

841 

707281 

594823321 

29  .  0000 

9.4391  2.9248 

1  .  18906 

2642  .  1 

555497 

842 

708964 

596947688 

29.0172 

9.  4429  j  2.  9253 

1  .  18765 

2645  .  2 

556819 

843 

710649 

599077107 

29  .  0345 

9  .  4466 

2  .  9258 

1  .  18624 

2648  .  4 

558142 

844 

712336 

601211584 

29.0517 

9  .  4503 

2  .  9263 

1  .  18483 

2651.5 

559467 

845 

714025 

603351125 

29  .  0689 

9.4541 

2  .  9268 

1  .  18343 

2654.6 

560794 

846 

715716 

60549573(3 

29.0861 

9.4578 

2  .  9273 

1  .  18203 

2657  .  8 

562122 

847 

717409 

607645423 

29  .  1033 

9.4615 

2  .  9278 

1.18064  2660.9 

563452 

848 

719104 

609800192 

29.1204 

9.46522.9284 

1.17925  2664.1 

564783 

849 

720801 

611960049 

29  .  1376 

9.469012.9289 

1.17786  2667.2 

566116 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC.        607 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No.  i 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log 

1000  X 
Recip 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

850  ' 

F22500 

614125000 

29.1548 

9.4727 

2.92942 

1  .  17647 

2670.4 

567450 

851  ' 

r24201 

616295051 

29.1719 

9.4764 

2  .  92993 

1  .  17509 

2673  .  5 

568786 

852  ' 

f25904 

618470208 

29  .  1890 

9.4801 

2  .  93044 

1.17371 

2676.6 

570124 

853  1727609 

620650477 

29  .  2062 

9.48382.93095 

1  .  17233 

2679.8 

571463 

854 

29316 

622835864 

29  .  2233 

9.4875 

2.93146 

1  .  17096 

2682.9 

572803 

855 

31025 

625026375 

29.2404 

9.4912 

2.93197 

1  .  16959 

2686  .  1 

574146 

856 

32736 

627222016 

29  .  2575 

9.4949 

2  .  93247 

1  .  16822 

2689.2 

575490 

857 

34449 

629422793 

29  .  2746 

9.  4986!  2.  93298 

1  .  16686 

2692  .  3 

576835 

858 

36164 

631623712 

29.2916 

9  .  5023 

2  .  93349 

1  .  16550 

2695.5 

578182 

859 

37881 

633839779 

29  .  3087 

9.5060 

2.93399 

1.16414 

2698.6 

579530 

860 

39600 

636056000 

29.3258 

9.5097 

2.93450 

1.16279 

2701.8 

580880 

861 

41321 

638277381 

29  .  3428 

9.51342.93500 

1.16144 

2704.9 

582232 

862 

743044 

640503928 

29  .  3598 

9.5171 

2.93551 

1  .  16009 

2708  .  1 

583585 

863 

744769 

642735647 

29.3769 

9.52072.93601 

1  .  15875 

2711.2 

584940 

864 

746496 

644972544 

29  .  3939 

9  .  5244 

2.93651 

1.15741 

2714.3 

586297 

865 

748225 

647214625 

29.4109 

9.5281 

2  .  93702 

1  .  15607 

2717.5 

587655 

866 

749956 

64946189629.4279 

9.5317 

2.93752  1.15473 

2720.6 

589014 

867 

751689 

651714363  29.4449 

9.53542.93802!  1.15340 

2723.8 

590375 

868 

753424 

653972032  29.4618 

9.5391 

2.93852  1.15207 

2726.9 

591738 

869 

755161 

65623490929.4788 

9.5427 

2  .  93902 

1.15075 

2730.0 

593102 

870 

756900 

65850300029.4958 

9.5464!2.93952 

1  .  14943 

2733.2 

594468 

871 

758641 

660776311  29.5127 

9.5501 

2  .  94002 

1.14811 

2736.3 

595835 

872 

760384 

66305484829.5296 

9.5537 

2  .  94052 

1  .  14679 

2739  .  5 

597204 

873 

762129 

665338617  29.5466 

9.55742.94101 

1  .  14548 

2742  .  6 

598575 

874 

763876 

66762762429.5635 

9.56102.94151 

1.14416 

2745.8 

599947 

875 

765625  669921875  29.5804 

9  .  5647 

2.94201 

1  .  14286 

2748.9 

601320 

876 

767376  672221376  29.5973 

9.5683 

2  .  94250 

1.14155 

2752.0 

602696 

877 

769129  674526133  29.6142 

9.57192.94300 

1  .  14025 

2755  .  2 

604073 

878 

770884 

67683615229.6311 

9  .  5756 

2.94349 

1  .  13895 

2758.3 

605451 

879 

772641 

67915143929.6479 

9.5792 

2.94399 

1.13766 

2761.5 

606831 

880 

774400 

681472000  29  .  6648 

9.  5828  '2.  94448 

1.13636 

2764.6 

608212 

881 

776161 

683797841  29.6816 

9  .  5865 

2  .  94498 

1.13507 

2767.7 

609595 

882 

777924 

686128968  29  .  6985 

9.5901 

2.94547 

1.13379 

2770  .  9 

610980 

883 

77968£ 

688465387  29.7153 

9  .  5937 

2.94596 

1  .  13250 

2774.0 

612366 

884 

78145e 

69080710429.732 

9.59732.94645 

1.13122 

2777.2 

613754 

885 

78322S 

69315412529.748 

9.6010'2.94694 

1.12994 

2780  .  3 

615143 

886 

784996  695506456  29.765 

9  .  604f 

2  .  94743 

1  .  12867 

2783  .  5 

616534 

887 

786769  697864103  29.782 

9.60822.94792 

1  .  1274C 

2786.6 

617927 

888 

788544  700227072  29.799 

9.611£ 

I  2.  94841 

1.12613 

2789  .  7 

619321 

889 

790321  702595369  29.816 

9.61542.9489C 

1  .  1248C 

2792.9 

620717 

890 

79210( 

)  704969000  29.  832 

9.61902.9493£ 

1.1236C 

2796  .  0 

622114 

891 

7938811707347971  29.849 

9  .  6226  2  .  9498£ 

1.12232 

2799.2 

623513 

892 

79566470973228829.866 

D!  6285 

52.95036 

1.1210* 

2802  .  3 

624913 

893 

797449  712121957  29.883 

9  .  629* 

1  2  .  9508£ 

1.11982 

2805  .  4 

626315 

894 

799236  71451698 

429.899 

9.633^ 

12.9513^ 

1.11857 

2808.6 

627718 

895 

801025  716917375  29.916 

9  .  637( 

)2.951Si 

1.117321  2811.7 

629124 

896 

802816  719323136  29.933 

9  .  640( 

52.95231 

1.11607  2814.91  630530 

897 

804609  721734273  29.950 

9  .  644! 

22.9527< 

1.11483  2818.  Oi  631938 

898 

806404  724150792  29.966 

9.647 

7  2  .  9532* 

1.11359  2821.2  633348 

899 

808201  726572699  29.983 

9.651. 

32.95376  1.11235  2824.5 

634760 

608       SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC. 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

Square 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root. 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

900 

810000 

729000000 

30.0000 

9.6549 

2.95424 

1.11111 

2827  .  4 

636173 

901 

811801 

731432701 

30.0167 

9.6585  2.95472 

1  .  10988 

2830.6 

637587 

902 

813604 

733870808J30.0333 

9.66202.95521 

1  .  10865 

2833  7 

639003 

903 

815409 

736314327 

30.0500 

9.66562.95569 

1  .  10742 

2836.9 

640421 

904 

817216 

738763264 

30.0666 

9.6692 

2.95617 

1  .  10619 

2840.0 

641840 

905 

819025 

741217625 

30  .  0832 

9.6727 

2  .  95665 

1  .  10497 

2843  .  1 

643261 

906  820836 

743677416 

30.0998 

9.  6763  12.95713 

1  .  10375 

2846.3 

644683 

907  822649 

746142643 

30.1164 

9.67992.95761 

1  .  10254 

2849  .  4 

646107 

908  824464 

748613312 

30.1330 

9  .  6834  2  .  95809 

1.10132 

2852  .  6 

647533 

909 

826281 

751089429 

30.1496 

9.6870 

2.95856 

1.10011 

2855  .  7 

648960 

910 

828100 

753571000 

30.1662 

9  .  6905 

2  .  95904 

1.09890 

2858.8 

650388 

911 

829921 

756058031  '30.  1828 

9.69412.95952 

1  .  09769 

2862.0 

651818 

912  831744 

75855052830.1993 

9.69762.95999 

1  .  09649 

2865.1 

653250 

913 

833569 

761048497  30  .  2159 

9.7012;2.96047 

1.09529 

2668.3 

654684 

914  835396 

76355194430.2324 

9.70472.96095 

1  .  09409 

2871  .  4 

656118 

915  837225 

766060875 

30.2490 

9.70822.96142 

1  .  09290 

2874.6 

657555 

916  1839056 

768575296:30.2655 

9.7118<2.96190 

1.09170 

2877.7 

658993 

917 

840889 

771095213!30.2820 

9.715312.96237 

1.09051 

2880  .  8 

660433 

918 

842724 

773620632  30  .  2985 

9.7188 

2.96284 

1  .  08932 

2884.0 

661874 

919 

844561 

776151559 

30.3150 

9.7224 

2.96332 

1.08814 

2887.1 

663317 

920 

846400 

778688000 

30.3315 

9.7259 

2  .  96379 

1.08696 

2890.3 

664761 

921 

848241 

781229961 

30  .  3480 

9  .  7294 

2  .  96426 

1  .  08578 

2893  .  4 

666207 

922 

850084 

78377744830.3645 

9  .  7329 

2  .  96473 

1.08460 

2896.5 

667654 

923 

851929 

78f>330467  30  .  3809 

9.7364 

2.96520 

1.08342 

2899  .  7 

669103 

924 

853776 

788889024:30.3974 

9.7400 

2  .  96567 

1  .  08225 

2902.8 

670554 

I 

925 

855625 

791453125 

30.4138 

9.7435 

2.96614 

1.08108 

2906.0 

672006 

926 

857476 

794022776 

30.4302 

9.7470 

2.96661 

1.07991 

2909.1 

673460 

927 

859329 

796597983 

30  .  4467 

9.7505 

2  .  96708 

1.07875 

2912.3 

674915 

928 

861184 

799178752 

30.4631 

9  7540 

2.96755 

1.07759 

2915.4 

676372 

929 

863041 

801765089 

30.4795 

9.7575 

2.96802 

1.07643 

2918.5 

677831 

930 

864900 

804357/00 

30  .  4959 

9.7610 

2.96848 

1  .  07527 

2921.7 

679291 

931 

866761 

806954491 

30.5123 

9.7645 

2  .  96895 

1.07411 

2924.8 

680752 

932 

868624 

809557568 

30  .  5287 

9.7680 

2.96942 

1.07296 

2928  .  0 

682216 

933 

870489 

812166237 

30  .  5450 

9.7715 

2  .  96988 

1.07181 

2931.1 

683680 

934 

872356 

814780504 

30.5614 

9.7750 

2.97035 

1.07066 

2934.2 

685147 

935 

874225 

817400375 

30.5778 

9.7785 

2  .  97081 

1.06952 

2937.4 

686615 

936 

876096 

820025856 

30.5941 

9.7819 

2.97128 

1  .  06838 

2940.5 

688084 

937 

877969 

822656953 

30.6105 

9  .  7854 

2.97174 

1  .  06724 

2943  .  7 

689555 

938 

879844 

825293672 

30.6268 

9.7889 

2.97220 

1.06610 

2946.8 

691028 

939 

881721 

827936019 

30.6431 

9.7924 

2  .  97267 

1  .  06496 

2950.0 

692502 

940 

883600 

830584000 

30.6594 

9  .  7959 

2.97313 

1  .  06383 

2953  .  1 

693978 

941 

885481 

833237621 

30  .  6757 

9  .  7993 

2  .  97359 

1.06270 

2956.2 

695455 

942 

887364 

835896888 

30.6920 

9.8028 

2  .  97405 

1.06157 

2959.4 

696934 

943 

889249 

838561807 

30  .  7083 

9  .  8063 

2.97451 

1.06045 

2962  .  5 

698415 

944 

891136 

841232384 

30.7246 

9.8097 

2.97497 

1.05932 

2965.7 

699897 

945 

893025 

843908625 

30.7409 

9.8132 

2  .  97543 

1.05820 

2968.8 

701380 

946 

894916 

846590536 

30.7571 

9.8167 

2.97589 

1.05708 

2971.9 

702865 

947 

896809 

849278123 

30  .  7734 

9.8201 

2  .  97635 

1  .  05597 

2975  .  1 

704352 

948 

898704 

851971392 

30  .  7896 

9  .  8236 

2.97681 

1  .  05485 

2978.2 

705840 

949 

900601 

854670349 

30  .  8058  9  .  8270  2  .  97727 

1  .  05374 

2941  .  4 

707330 

SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  ETC.        609 


SQUARES,  CUBES,  SQUARE  ROOTS,  CUBE  ROOTS,  LOGARITHMS, 
RECIPROCALS,  CIRCUMFERENCES,  AND  CIRCULAR  AREAS 
OF  NOS.  FROM  1  TO  1000— (Continued). 


No. 

950 
951 
952 
953 
954 

Square 

902500 
904401 
906304 
908209 
910116 

Cube. 

Square 
Root. 

Cube 
Root 

Log. 

1000  X 
Recip. 

No.  =  Diameter. 

Circum. 

Area. 

708822 
710315 
711809 
713306 
714803 

85737500030.8221 
86008535130.8383 
86280140830.8545 
86552317730.8707 
86825066430.8869 

9.8305 
9  .  8339 
9.8374 
9.8408 
9  .  8443 

2.97772 
2.97818 
2  .  97864 
2  .  97909 
2.97955 

1  .  05263 
1.05152 
1  .  05042 
1  .  04932 
1  .  04822 

2984.5 
2987.7 
2990.8 
2993  .  9 
2997.1 

955  912025 
956  913936 
957  915849 
958  917764 
959  919681 

87098387530.9031 
87372281630.9192 
87646749330.9354 
87921791230.9516 
88197407930.9677 

9  .  8477 
9.8511 
9.8546 
9.8580 
9.8614 

2  .  98000 
2.98046 
2.98091 
2.98137 
2.98182 

1  04712 
1.04603 
1  .  04493 
1.04384 
1.04275 

3000  .  2 
3003.4 
3006.5 
3009.6 
3012.8 

716303 
717804 
719306 
720810 
722316 

960 
961 
962 
963 
964 

921600 
923521 
925444 
927369 
929296 

88473600030.9839 
887503681  31.0000 
89027712831.0161 
89305634731.0322 
89584134431.0483 

9.8648 
9.8683 
9.8717 
9.8751 

9.8785 

2.98227 
2.98272 
2.98318 
2.98363 
2.98403 

1.04167 
1  .  04058 
1.03950 
1  .  03842 
1.03734 

3015.9 
3019.1 
3022.2 
3025.4 
3023.5 

723823 
725332 
726842 
728354 
729867 

965 
966 
967 
968 
969 

931225 
933156 
935089 
937024 
938961 

89863212531.0644 
90142869631.0805 
90423106331.0966 
90703923231.1127 
909853209  31  .  1238 

9.8819 
9.8854 
9.8888 
9  .  8922 
9.8956 

2  98453 
2.98498 
2  .  98543 
2.98588 
2.98632 

1  03627 
1.03523 
1.03413 
1.03306 
1.03199 

3031.6 
3034.8 
3037.9 
3041  .  1 
3044.2 

731382 
732899 
734417 
735937 
737458 

970 
971 
972 
973 
974 

940900 
942841 
944784 
946729 
948676 

912673000 
915498611 
918330048 
921167317 
924010424 

31  .  1448 
31.1609 
31.1769 
31.1929 
31.2090 

9  .  8990 
9.9021 
9.9058 
9.9092 
9.9126 

2.98677 
2.98722 
2.98767 
2.98811 
2.98856 

1.03093 
1.02987 
1.02881 
1.02775 
1.02669 

3047  .  3 
3050.5 
3053.6 
3056.8 
3059.9 

738981 
740506 
742032 
743559 
745088 

975 
976 
977 
978 
979 

950625 
952576 
954529 
956484 
958441 

928859375 
929714176 
932574833 
935441352 
938313739 

31.2250 
31.2410 
31.2570 
31.2730 
31.2890 

9.9160 
9.9194 
9.9227 
9.9261 
9  .  9295 

2.98900 
2.98945 
2.98989 
2.99034 
2.99078 

1  .  02564 
1  .  02459 
1.02354 
1.02219 
1.02145 

3063  .  1 
3066  .  2 
3069.3 
3072.5 
3075.6 

746619 
748151 
749685 
751221 
752758 

980 
981 
982 
983 
984 

960400 
962361 
964324 
966289 
968256 

941192000 
944076141 
946966168 
949862087 
952763904 

31.3050 
31.3209 
31.3369 
31.3528 
31.3688 

9  .  9329 
9.9363 
9.9396 
9.9430 
9.9464 

2.99123 
2.99167 
2.99211 
2.99255 
2.99300 

1  .  02041 
1.01937 
1.01833 
1.01729 
1.01626 

3078.8 
3081.9 
3085  .  0 
3088.2 
3091.3 

754296 
755837 
757378 
758922 
760466 

985 
986 
987 
988 
989 

970225 
972196 
974169 
976144 
978121 

955671625 
958585256 
961504803 
964430272 
967361669 

31.3847 
31.4006 
31.4166 
31.4325 
31.4484 

9  .  9497 
9.9531 
9.9565 
9.T598 
9.9632 

2.99144 
2.99388 
2  99432 
2.99476 
2.99520 

1.01523 
1.01420 
1  01317 
1.01215 
1.01112 

3094.5 
3097  .  6 
3100.8 
3103.9 
3107.0 

762013 
763561 
765111 
766662 
768214 

990 
991 
992 
993 
994 

980100 
982081 
984064 
986049 
988036 

970299000 
973242271 
976191488 
979146657 
982107784 

31.4643 
31  .  4802 
31.4960 
31.5119 
31.5278 

9.96662.99564 
9.96992.99607 
9.97332.99651 
9.97662.99695 
9.98002.99739 

1.01010 
1.00908 
1.00306 
1  .  00705 
1.00604 

3110.2 
3113.3 
3116.5 
3119.6 
3122.7 

739769 
771325 

772882 
774441 
776002 

995 
996 
997 
998 
999 

990025 
992016 
994009 
996004 
998001 

985074875 
988047936 
991026973 
994011992 
997002999 

31.5436 
31.5595 
31.5753 
31.5911 
31.6070 

9.9833 
9.9866 
9.9900 
9.9933 
9.9967 

2  .  99782 
2.99326 
2  .  99870 
2  99913 
2  .  99957 

1.00503 
1  .  00402 
1  .  00301 
1  .  00200 
1.00100 

3125.9 
3129.0 
3132.2 
3135.3 
3138.5 

777564 
779128 
780693 

782260 
783828 

610  DECIMALS  OF  A  FOOT 

DECIMALS   OF  A  FOOT  FOR   EACH   A  OF  AN  INCH. 


Inch. 

0" 

1" 

2" 

3" 

4" 

5" 

6" 

7" 

8" 

9" 

10" 

11" 

0 

0 

.0833  !.  1667 

2500 

.3333 

4167 

.5000 

.5833 

.6667 

.7500 

.8333 

.9167 

i 

.0013 

.0846  .1680 

2513 

.3346 

4180 

.5013 

.5846 

.6680 

.7513 

.8346 

.9180 

i 

0026  .0859.1693 

2526 

.3359 

4193J.5026  .5859 

.6693 

.7526 

.8359 

.9193 

A 

0039  .0872  .1706 

2539 

.3372 

4206  ;.  5039  .5872 

.6706 

.7539 

.8372 

.9206 

ft 

.0052  .0885  .1719 

2552 

.3385 

4219 

.5052 

.5885 

.6719 

.7552 

.8385 

.9219 

.0065  .0898  .1732 

2565 

.3398 

4232 

.5065 

.5898 

.6732 

.7565 

.8398 

.9232 

.0078  .0911  .1745 

2578 

.3411 

4245  .5078  .5911 

.6745 

.7578 

.8411 

.9245 

.0091  .0924  .1758 

2591 

.3424 

4258  .5091  .5924 

.6758 

.7591 

.8424 

.9258 

i 

.0104 

.0937 

.1771 

2604 

.3437 

4271 

.5104 

.5937 

.6771 

.7604 

.8437 

.9271 

A 

.0117 

.0951 

.1784 

.2617 

.3451 

.4284 

.5117 

.5951 

.6784 

.7617 

.8451 

.9284 

.0130  .0964  .1797 

.2630  .3464 

.4297  .5130  .5964 

.6797 

.7630 

.8464 

.9297 

.0143  .0977  .1810 

.2643  .3477 

.4310  .5143  .5977 

.6810 

.7643 

.8477 

.9310 

.0156 

.0990 

.1823 

.2656  .3490 

.4323  .5156 

.59SO 

.6823 

.7656 

.8490 

.9323 

if 

.0169 

.1003 

.1836 

.2669 

.3503 

.4336  .5169 

.6003 

.6836 

.7669 

.8503 

.9336 

A 

.0182  .1016  .1849 

.2682  .3516 

.4349  .5182  .6016 

.6849 

.7682 

.8516 

.9349 

if 

.0195'.  1029L  1862 

.2695  .3529 

.4362 

.5195  .602S 

.6862 

.7695 

.8529 

.9362 

i 

.0208 

.1042 

.1875 

.2708 

.3542 

.4375 

.5208 

.6042 

.6875 

.7708 

.8542 

.9375 

H 

.0221 

.1055 

.1888 

.2721 

.3555 

.4388 

.5221 

.6055 

.6888 

.7721 

.8555 

.9388 

55 

.0234 

.1068 

.1901 

.2  34 

.3568 

.4401 

.5234  .6068 

.6901 

.7734 

.8568 

.9401 

if 

.0247 

.1081 

.1914 

.2747 

.3581 

.4414 

.5247  .6081 

.6914 

.7747 

.8581 

.9414 

X 

.0260 

.1094 

.1927 

.2760 

.3594 

.4427 

.5260 

.6094 

.6927 

.7760 

.8594 

.9427 

41 

.0273 

.1107 

.1940 

.2773 

.3607 

.4440 

.5273 

.6107 

.6940 

.7773 

.8607 

.9440 

ii 

.0286 

.1120 

.1953 

.2786 

.3620 

.4453  .5286  .6120 

.6953 

.7786 

.8620 

.9453 

64 

.0299 

.1133 

.1966 

.,2799 

.3633 

.4466  .5299  .6133 

.6966 

.7799 

.8633 

.9466 

1 

.0312 

.1146 

.1979 

.2812 

.3646 

.4479 

.5312 

.6146 

.6979 

.7812 

.8646 

.9479 

Aft 

.0326 

.1159 

.1992 

.2826 

.3659 

.4492 

.5326 

.6159 

.6992 

.7826 

.8659 

.9492 

ff 

.0339 

.1172 

.2005 

.2839 

.3672 

.4505 

.5339  .6172 

.7105 

.7839 

.8672 

.S505 

M 

.0352 

.1185 

.2018 

.2852 

.3685 

.4518 

.5352.6185 

.7018 

.7852 

.8685 

.9518 

Tff 

.0365 

.1198 

.2031 

.2865 

.3698 

.4531 

.5365 

.6198  .7031 

.7865 

.8698 

.9531 

.0378 

.1211 

.2044 

.2878 

.3711 

.4544 

.5378 

.6211  .7044 

.7878 

.8711 

.9544 

.0391 

.1224 

.2057 

.2891 

.3724 

.4557 

.5391 

.6224  .7057 

.7891 

.8724 

9557 

.0404 

.1237 

.2070 

.2904 

.3737 

.4570 

.5404 

.6237  .7070 

.7904 

.8737 

9570 

i 

.0417 

.1250 

.2083 

.2917 

.3750 

.4583 

.5417 

.6250 

.7083 

.7917 

.8750 

9583 

.0430 

.1263 

.2096 

.2930 

.3763 

.4596 

.5430 

.6263 

.7096 

.7930 

.8763 

9596 

.0443 

.1276 

.2109 

.2943 

.3776 

.4609 

.5443 

.6276  .7109 

.7943 

.8776 

9609 

.0456 

.1289 

.2122 

.2956 

.3789 

.4622 

.5456 

.6289  .7122 

7956 

.8789 

9622 

A 

.0469 

.1302 

.2135 

.2969 

.3802 

.4635 

.5469 

.6302 

.7135 

7969 

.8802 

9635 

fj 

.0482 

.1315 

2148 

,2982 

.3815 

.4648 

.5482 

.6315 

.7148 

7982 

8815 

9648 

II 

.0495 

.1328 

2161 

.2995 

.3828 

4661 

.5495 

.6328  .7161 

7995  8828 

.9661 

If 

.0508 

.1341 

2174 

.3008 

.3841  .4674 

.5508 

.6341 

.7174 

8008  .8841 

.9674 

f 

.0521 

.1354 

2188 

.3021 

.3854 

.4688 

.5521 

6354 

.7188 

8021 

.8854 

.9688 

.0534 

.1367 

2201 

.3034 

.3867 

.4701 

.5534 

6367 

.7201 

8034 

.8867 

.9701 

.0547 

.1380 

2214 

3047 

.3880 

.4714 

.5547 

6380 

.7214 

8047 

8880-9714 

.0560 

.1393 

2227 

3060 

.3893 

.4727 

.5560 

6393 

.7227 

8060 

.8893 

9727 

ii 

.0573 

1406 

2240 

3073 

.3906 

.4740 

.5573 

6406 

.7240 

8073 

.8906 

9740 

If 

0586 

1419 

2253 

3086 

.3919 

.4753 

.5586 

6419 

.7253 

8086 

.8919 

9753 

!3T 

0599 

1432 

2266 

3099 

.3932 

.4766 

5599 

6432 

.7266 

8099 

.8932 

9766 

B 

0612 

1445 

2279 

3112 

.3945 

.4779 

5612 

6445 

7279 

8112 

.8945 

9779 

i 

0625 

1458 

2292 

3125  .3958 

.4792 

5625 

6458 

7292 

8125 

8958 

9792 

FOR  EACH   1/64  OF  AN  INCH. 


611 


DECIMALS  OF  A  FOOT  FOR   EACH  &  OF  AN   INCH— (Continued). 


Inch. 

0" 

1" 

2" 

3" 

4" 

5" 

6" 

7" 

8" 

9" 

10" 

11" 

1 

.0638 
.0651 
.0664 
.0677 

.1471 
.1484 
.1497 
.1510 

.2305 
.2318 
.2331 
.2344 

.3138 
.3151 
.3164 
.3177 

.3971 
.3984 
.3997 
.4010 

.4805 
.4818 
.4831 
.4844 

.5638 
.5651 
.5664 
.5677 

.6471 
.6484 
.6497 
.6510 

.7305 
.7318 
.7331 
.7344 

.8138 
.8151 
.8164 
.8177 

.8971 
.8984 
.8997 
.^010 

.9805 
.9818 
.9831 
.9844 

tt 

.0690 
.0703 
.0716 
.0729 

.1523 
.1536 
.1549 
.1562 

.2357 
.2370 
.2383 
.2396 

.3190 
.3203 
.3216 
.3229 

.4023 
.4036 
.4049 
.4062 

.4857 
.4870 
.4883 
.4896 

.5690 
.5703 
.5716 
.5729 

.6523 
.6536 
.6549 
.6562 

.7357 
.7370 
.7383 
.7396 

.8190 
.8203 
.8216 
.8229 

.9023 
.9036 
.9049 
.9062 

.9857 
.9870 
.9883 
.9896 

1 

.0742 
.0755 
.0768 
.0781 

.1576 
.1589 
.1602 
.1615 

.2409 
.2422 
.2435 
.2448 

.3242 
.3255 
.3268 
.3281 

.4076 
.4039 
.4102 
.4115 

.4909 
.4922 
.4935 
.4948 

.5742 
.5755 

.5768 
.5781 

.6576 
.6589 
.6602 
.6615 

.7409 
.7422 
.7435 
.7448 

.8242 

8255 
.8268 
.8281 

.9076 
.9089 
.9102 
.9115 

.9909 
.9922 
.9935 
.9948 

1 

.0794 
.0807 
.0820 

.1628 
.1641 
.1654 

.2461 
.2474 

.2487 

.3294 
.3307 
.3320 

.4128 
.4141 
.4154 

.4961 
.4974 
.4987 

.5794 
.5807 
.5820 

.6628 
.6641 
.6654 

.7461 

.7474 
.7487 

.8294 
.8307 
.8320 

.9128 
.9141 
.9154 

.9961 
.9974 
.9987 
1.0000 

DECIMALS    OF   AN   INCH    FOR    EACH 


•fads. 

Aths. 

Decimal. 

Frac- 
tion. 

&ds. 

Aths. 

Decimal. 

Frac- 
tion. 

1 

.015625 

33 

.515625 

1 

2 

.03125 

17 

34 

.53125 

3 

.046875 

35 

.  546875 

2 

4 

.0625 

A 

18 

36 

.5625 

A 

5 

.078125 

37 

.578125 

3 

6 

.09375 

19 

38 

.  59375 

7 

.  109375 

39 

.609375 

4 

8 

.125 

f 

3D 

40 

.625 

I 

9 

.  140625 

41 

.  640625 

5 

10 

.  15625 

21 

42 

.  65625 

11 

.171875 

43 

.671875 

6 

12 

.1875 

A 

22 

44 

.6875 

tt 

13 

.203125 

45 

.703125 

7 

14 

.21875 

23 

46 

.71875 

15 

.234375 

47 

.734375 

8 

16 

.25 

i 

24 

48 

.75 

f 

17 

.265625 

49 

.765625 

9 

18 

.28125 

25 

50 

.78125 

19 

.  296875 

51 

.796875 

10 

20 

.3125 

A 

26 

52 

.8125 

H 

21 

.328125 

53 

.828125 

11 

22 

.34375 

27 

54 

.84375 

23 

.359375 

55 

.859375 

12 

24 

.375 

I 

28 

56 

.875 

£ 

25 

.390625 

57 

.  890625 

13 

26 

.40625 

29 

58 

.  90625 

27 

.421875 

59 

.921875 

14 

28 

.4375 

A 

30 

60 

.9375 

if 

29 

.453125 

61 

.953125 

15 

30 

.46875 

31     62 

.  96875 

31 

.484375 

63 

.984375 

16 

32 

.5 

| 

32     64 

1. 

l 

612     GEOMETRICAL  MENSURATION:  DEFINITIONS. 


GEOMETEICAL  MENSURATION. 

Definitions. — A  point  is  a  position  without  dimensions. 

A  line  has  one  dimension — length. 

A  surface  has  two  dimensions — length  and  breadth. 

A  solid  has  three  dimensions — length,  breadth,  and  thickness. 

A  right  angle  is  one  whose  two  sides  make  an  angle  of  90° 
with  each  other;  an  acute  angle  is  less  than  a  right  angle; 
an  obtuse  angle  is  more  than  a  right  angle. 

A  plane  figure  is  a  plane  bounded  on  all  sides  by  lines.  If  the 
lines  are  straight  the  space  which  they  contain  is  called  a  polygon. 

Polygons  are  named  according  to  the  number  of  their  sides, 
as:  A  triangle  is  a  plane  figure  of  three  sides;  a  quadrilateral 
is  a  plane  figure  of  four  sides;  a  pentagon  is  a  plane  figure  of 
five  sides;  a  hexagon  is  a  plane  figure  of  six  sides;  a  heptagon 
is  a  plane  figure  of  seven  sides;  an  octagon  is  a  plane  figure  of 
eight  sides;  a  nonagon  is  a  plane  figure  of  nine  sides;  a  decagon 
is  a  plane  figure  of  ten  sides;  an  undecagon  is  a  plane  figure  of 
eleven  sides;  a  dodecagon  is  a  plane  figure  of  twelve  sides. 

A  circle  is  a  plane  bounded  by  a  curved  line  all  points  of 
which  are  equally  distant  from  the  centre. 

A  trapezium  is  a  polygon  of  four  sides  of  which  no  two  sides 
are  parallel. 

A  trapezoid  is  a  polygon  of  four  sides  of  which  two  are 
parallel. 

A  parallelogram  is  a  polygon  bounded  by  two  pairs  of  parallel 
sides. 

A  rhomboid  is  a  parallelogram  whose  sides  are  not  equal 
and  its  angles  not  right  angles. 

A  rhombus  is  a  parallelogram  whose  sides  are  all  equal,  but 
whose  angles  are  not  right  angles. 

A  rectangle  is  a  parallelogram  whose  angles  are  right  angles. 

A  square  is  a  rectangle  whose  sides  are  all  equal. 

Polygons  whose  sides  are  all  equal  are  called  regular. 

An  equilateral  triangle  has  all  its  sides  and  angles  equal; 
an  isosceles  triangle  has  two  of  its  sides  and  two  of  its  angles 
equal;  a  scalene  triangle  has  all  its  sides  and  angles  unequal. 

A  quadrilateral  is  a  plane  figure  bounded  by  four  straight  lines. 

A  diameter  is  any  line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  a  figure 
and  terminated  by  the  opposite  boundaries. 


TO  FIND   AREAS,  ETC.  613 

Wedge. — Solidity  of  a  wedge  =area  of  baseX£  height 
Solidity  of  a  frustum  of  a  wedge  =  £  height  X  sum  of  the  areas 
of  the  two  ends. 

Prismoidal  Formula. — A  prismoid  is  a  solid  bounded 
by  six  plane  surfaces  only  two  of  which  are  parallel. 

To  find  the  contents  of  a  prismoid,  add  together  the  areas 
of  the  two  parallel  surfaces  and  four  times  the  area  of  a  section 
taken  midway  between  and  parallel  to  them,  and  multiply  the 
sum  by  one-sixth  of  the  perpendicular  distance  between  the 
parallel  surfaces. 

Cycloid  and  Epicycloid. — The  cycloid  is  the  curve 
described  by  any  point  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  when  the 
circle  rolls  along  a  straight  line. 

An  epicycloid  is  the  curve  described  by  point  in  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  when  the  circle  rolls  along  the  outside  of 
another  circle. 

A  hypocycloid  is  the  path  described  by  any  point  in  the 
circumference  of  a  circle  when  the  circle  rolls  along  the  inside 
of  another  circle. 

An  involute  is  the  curve  described  by  the  end  of  a  string  when 
unwinding  the  string  from  around  a  cylinder. 
Area  of  cycloid  =  area  of  generating  circle  X  3. 
To  Find  Areas,   etc. — Area  of  a  square,  a  rectangle, 
a  rhombus,  or  a  rhomboid  equals  the  height  multiplied  by  the 
breadth. 

Area  of  a  triangle  equals  the  base  multiplied  by  one-half 
the  height. 

Area  of  a  trapezium  equals  the  diagonal  multiplied  by  half 
the  sum  of  the  two  perpendiculars. 

Area  of  trapezoid  equals  one-half  the  sum  of  the  two  parallel 
sides  multiplied  by  the  distance  between  them. 

Area  of  an  irregular  polygon  is  found  by  dividing  it  into 
triangles  and  adding  together  the  areas  of  the  triangles. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  regular  polygon  when  the  length  of 
one  side  is  given:  Multiply  the  square  of  the  side  by  the  mul- 
tiplier opposite  to  the  name  of  the  polygon  in  column  A  of  the 
following  table. 

To  compute  the  radius  of  a  circumscribing  circle  when  the 
length  of  one  side  is  given:  Multiply  the  length  of  a  side  of  the 
polygon  by  the  number  in  column  B. 

To  compute  the  length  of  a  side  of  a  polygon  that  is  contained 
in  a  given  circle  when  the  radius  of  the  circle  is  given:  Multiply 


614 


REGULAR  POLYHEDRONS. 


Name  of  Polygon 

No.  of 
Sides. 

A 

Area. 

B 

Radius  of 
Circum- 
scribed 
Circle. 

C 

Length 
of  the 

Side. 

D 

Radius 
of  In- 
scribed 
Circle. 

Angle 
Con- 
tained 
between 
Two 
Sides. 

Triangle. 

3 

0  433013 

0  5773 

1.732 

0  .  2887 

60° 

4 

1 

0  7071 

1  4142 

0  5 

90° 

Pentagon. 

5 

1  720477 

0  8506 

1  .  1756 

0  6882 

108° 

Hexagon  

6 

7 

2.598076 
3  633912 

1524 

1 

0  8677 

0.866 
1  0383 

120° 
128  57° 

Octagon  
Nonagon  
Decagon  

8 
9 
10 

4  .  828427 
6.181824 
7  694209 

.3066 
.4619 
.618 

0  .  7653 
0.684 
0.618 

1.2071 
1  .  3737 
1  .  5383 

135° 
140° 
144° 

Undecagon  
Dodecagon  

11 
12 

9.36564 
11.196152 

.7747 
1.9319 

0  .  5634 
0.5176 

1  .  7028 
1.866 

147.27° 
150° 

the  radius  of  the  circle  by  the  number  opposite  the  name  of  the 
desired  polygon  in  column  C. 

To  compute  the  radius  of  a  circle  that  can  be  inscribed  in  a 
given  polygon  when  the  length  of  a  side  is  given:  Multiply  the 
length  of  a  side  of  the  polygon  by  the  number  opposite  the 
name  of  the  polygon  in  column  D. 

Regular  Polyhedrons. — DEFINITION. — A  regular  body 
is  a  solid  contained  within  a  certain  number  of  similar  and 
equal  plane  faces,  all  of  which  are  equal  regular  polygons. 

The  whole  number  of  regular  bodies  which  can  possibly  be 
found  is  five. 

1.  The  tetrahedron,  or  pyramid. 

2.  The  hexahedron,  or  cube,  which  has  six  square  faces. 

3.  The  octahedron,  which  has  eight  triangular  faces. 

4.  The  dodecahedron,  which  has  twelve  pentagonal  faces. 

5.  The  icosahedron,  which  has  twenty  triangular  faces. 

To  find  the  volume  of  a  regular  polyhedron  when  the  radius 
of  the  circumscribing  sphere  is  given:  Multiply  the  cube  of  the 
radius  of  the  sphere  by  the  multiplier  opposite  to  the  body  in 
column  1  of  the  following  table. 

Or  when  the  radius  of  the  inscribed  sphere  is  given :  Multiply 
the  cube  of  the  radius  of  the  inscribed  sphere  by  the  multi- 
plier opposite  the  body  in  column  2  of  the  following  table. 

Or  when  the  surface  is  given :  Cube  the  surface  given,  extract 
the  square  root,  and  multiply  the  root  by  the  multiplier  opposite 
the  body  in  column  3  of  the  following  table. 

Side  is  length  of  linear  edge  of  any  side  of  the  figure. 

To  find  radius  of  circumscribed  circle  when  side  is  given: 
Multiply  the  side  by  the  multiplier  opposite  the  body  in  column 
4  of  the  following  table. 


THE  CIRCLE. 


615 


To  find  the  radius  of  inscribed  circle  when  side  is  given:  Mul- 
tiply the  side  by  the  multiplier  opposite  the  body  in  column  5 
of  the  following  table. 

To  find  the  area  of  surface  when  side  is  given:  Multiply  the 
side  by  the  multiplier  opposite  the  body  in  column  6  of  the 
following  table. 

To  find  the  volume  when  the  side  is  given:  Multiply  the 
side  by  the  multiplier  opposite  the  body  in  column  7  of  the 
following  table. 


8 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

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Tetrahedron. 

0.5132 

12.85641 

0.0517 

0.6124 

0.2041 

1  .  7320 

0.1178 

6 

Hexahedron. 

1  .  5396 

8  .  0000 

0.06804 

0.866 

0.5 

6. 

1. 

-  8 

Octahedron 

1  .  33333 

6.9282 

0.07311 

0.7071 

0.4082 

3.4641 

0.4714 

12 

Dode'cahe- 

dron  

2.78517 

5  .  5503 

0.08169 

1.4012 

1.1135 

20.6458 

7.6631 

20 

Icosahedron. 

2.53615 

5.05406 

0.0856 

0.951 

0.7558 

86.602 

2.1817 

Parabola, — A  parabola  is  one  of  the  conic  sections  made 
by  cutting  the  cone  parallel  to  its  slant. 

A  hyperbola  is  a  section  of  a  cone  cut  by  a  plane  at  a  greater 
angle  through  the  base  than  is  made  by  the  side  of  the  cone. 

To  fina  the  area  of  a  parabola  multiply  the  base  by  two- 
thirds  the  height. 


Names  of  the  parts  of  a  circle  (Fig.  341). 

A Segment. 

B Sector. 

C Quadrant. 

14 Radius. 

23 Diameter. 

43 Chord. 

56 Tangent. 


FIG.  341. 


The  Circle. — A  circle  is  a  plane  figure  bounded  by  a  curve 
all  points  of  which  are  equally  distant  from  a  point  within, 
called  the  centre. 

The  circumference  is  the  curve  which  bounds  the  circle. 

The  radius  is  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  centre  to  the 
circumference. 


616  THE  CIRCLE. 

The  diameter  is  a  straight  line  drawn  through  the  centre  to 
the  circumference  on  either  side. 

An  arc  is  any  part  of  the  circumference. 

A  chord  is  a  straight  line  connecting  two  points  on  the  circum- 
ference. 

A  segment  is  that  part  of  the  circle  contained  between  the  arc 
and  its  chord. 

A  sector  is  the  space  included  between  an  arc  and  two  radii 
drawn  to  the  centre. 

A  tangent  is  a  straight  line  which  in  passing  a  curve  just 
touches  it. 

Diameter  of  a  circle  X 3. 141 6=  the  circumference. 

Radius  of  a  circle  X  6.283185  =  the  circumference. 

Square  of  the  radius  of  a  circle  X 3. 141 6=  area. 

Square  of  the  diameter  of  a  circle  X  0.7854=  area. 

Square  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  X  0.07958=  area. 

Half  the  circumference  of  a  circle  X  by  half  the  diameter  = 
area. 

Circumference  of  a  circle  XO. 159155  =radius. 

Square  root  of  the  area  of  a  circle  X  0.5641 9=  radius. 

Circumference  of  a  circle  X  0.31831  =  diameter. 

Square  root  of  the  area  of  a  circle  X  1.1 2838=  diameter. 

Area  of  a  circle -f- 0.7854  and  square  root  of  the  product  =the 
diameter. 

Diameter  of  a  circle  X  0.86=  side  of  inscribed  equilateral 
triangle. 

Diameter  of  a  circle  XO. 7071  =  side  of  inscribed  square. 

Circumference  of  a  circle  X  0.225=  side  of  an  inscribed  square. 

Circumference  of  a  circle  X  0.285=  side  of  an  equal  square. 

Diameter  of  a  circle  X  0.8862=  side  of  an  equal  square. 

Side  of  a  square X  1.1 28397  =  diameter  of  circle  of  equal 
area. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  circular  ring  formed  by  two  concentric 
circles:  Multiply  the  sum  of  the  two  diameters  by  their  difference 
and  the  product  by  0.7854.  Any  circle  whose  diameter  is 
double  that  of  another  contains  four  times  the  area  of  the 
other. 

The  areas  of  all  circles  are  to  one  another  as  the  squares  of 
their  like  dimensions.  The  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  the 
area  of  a  triangle  whose  base  equals  the  circumference  and 
perpendicular  equals  the  radius. 


ARC,  SEGMENT,  ETC.,  OF  CIRCLES.  617 

TABLE  GIVING  AREA  OF  CIRCLES  (IN  SQUARE  FEET). 


D  

0  in. 

1  in. 

2  in. 

3  in. 

4  in. 

5  in. 

Ft. 
1.  .  .. 

7854 

922 

1  07 

1  23 

1  40 

1.58 

2 

3  14 

3  41 

3  69 

3  98 

4  28 

4  59 

3  

7  07 

7.47 

7.88 

8.30 

8.73 

9.17 

4  

12  58 

13  10 

13  64 

14  19 

14  75 

15  32 

5 

19  64 

20  39 

20  97 

21  65 

22  34 

23  04 

6  

28  27 

29  06 

29  87 

30.68 

31.50 

32.34 

7.  .  . 

38  48 

39  41 

40  34 

41  28 

42  24 

43  20 

g 

50  27 

51  32 

52  37 

53  46 

54  54 

55  64 

9.  .  . 

63  62 

64  80 

66  00 

67  20 

68  42 

69.64 

10  .  . 

78  54 

79  85 

81  18 

82  52 

83  86 

85  22 

11  

95  03 

96  48 

97  93 

99.40 

100.88 

102.37 

12.  .  . 

113  10 

114  67 

116  26 

117  86 

119  47 

121  09 

13  . 

132  73 

134  44 

136  16 

137  89 

139  63 

141  38 

14.  .  . 

153  94 

155  78 

157  63 

159  49 

161  36 

163  24 

15  
16  

176.72 
201  06 

178.68 
203  16 

180.66 
205  27 

182.65 
207  39 

184.66 
209  .  53 

186.67 
211.67 

17  .  . 

226  98 

229  21 

231  45 

233  71 

235  97 

238  24 

18 

254  47 

256  83 

259  20 

261  59 

263  98 

266  39 

19.  .  . 

2  S3  53 

236  06 

238  52 

291  04 

293  56 

296  11 

20.  .  -  

314.16 

316.78 

319.42 

322.06 

324.72 

327.39 

D  

6  in. 

7  in. 

8  in. 

9  in. 

10  in. 

11  in. 

Ft. 
1  .  . 

1  77 

1  97 

2  18 

2  41 

2  64 

2  89 

2  
3.  .  . 

4.91 
9  62 

5.24 
10  08 

5.59 
10  56 

5.94 
11  04 

6.30 
11  54 

6.68 
12  05 

4. 

15  90 

16  50 

17  10 

17  72 

18  35 

18  99 

5.  ... 

23  76 

24  48 

25  22 

25  97 

26  73 

27  49 

6  .  . 

33  18 

34  04 

34  91 

35  78 

36  67 

37  57 

7  

8.  .  . 

44.18 
56  75 

45.17 
57  86 

46.16 
58  99 

47.17 
60  13 

48.19 
61  28 

49.22 
62  44 

9  

70  88 

72  13 

73  39 

74  66 

75  94 

77  24 

10  

86  59 

87  97 

89  36 

90  76 

92  17 

93  60 

11   . 

103  87 

105  38 

106  90 

108  43 

109  98 

111  53 

12  

122  72 

124  36 

126  01 

127  68 

129  35 

131  04 

13  
14  

143.14 
165  13 

144.91 
167  03 

146.69 
168  95 

148.49 
170  87 

150.29 
172  81 

152.11 
174  76 

15  
16 

188.69 
213  83 

190.73 
215  99 

192.77 
218  17 

194.83 
220  35 

196.89 
222  55 

198.97 
224  76 

17  

18  .  . 

240.53 
268  80 

242.82 
271  23 

245  .  13 
273  67 

247.45 
276  12 

249.78 
278  58 

252.12 
281  05 

19  
20  

298.64 
330  .  06 

301.21 
332.75 

303  .  77 
335.45 

306.36 
338.16 

308  .  94 
340.88 

311.55 
343.62 

12 Chord, 

34 Rise,  versed  sine. 

142 Arc. 

A  A Segment. 


Arc,  Segment,  etc.,  of  Circles  (Fig.  342).— To  find  the 
radius  of  an  arc  when  the  chord  and  rise  are  given : 

Rule. — Square  one-half  the  chord,  also  square  the  rise;  divide 
their  sum  by  twice  the  rise  and  the  answer  will  be  the  radius. 


618  ARC,  SEGMENT,  ETC.,  OP  CIRCLES. 

To  find  the  rise  of  an  arc  when  the  chord  and  radius  are 
given : 

Rule. — Square  the  radius;  also  square  one-half  the  chord;  sub- 
tract the  latter  from  the  former  and  take  the  square  root  of  the 
remainder.  Subtract  the  result  from  the  radius  and  the  re- 
mainder will  be  the  rise. 

To  find  the  chord  of  an  arc  when  the  chord  of  half  the  arc  and 
the  rise  are  given:  From  the  square  of  the  chord  of  half  the  arc 
subtract  the  square  of  the  versed  sine,  or  rise,  and  take  twice 
the  square  root  of  the  remainder. 

To  find  the  chord  of  an  arc  when  the  diameter  and  rise  are 
given:  Multiply  the  rise  by  2  and  subtract  the  product  from 
the  diameter;  then  subtract  the  square  of  the  remainder  from 
the  square  of  the  diameter  and  take  the  square  root  of  that 
remainder. 

To  find  the  chord  of  half  an  arc  when  the  chord  of  the  arc 
and  the  rise  are  given:  Take  the  square  root  of  the  sum  of  the 
squares  of  the  rise  and  of  half  the  chord  of  the  arc. 

To  find  the  chord  of  half  an  arc  when  the  diameter  and  rise 
are  given :  Multiply  the  diameter  by  the  rise  and  take  the  square 
root  of  their  product. 

To  find  the  diameter  when  the  chord  of  half  an  arc  and  the 
rise  are  given:  Divide  the  square  of  the  chord  of  half  the  arc 
by  the  rise. 

To  find  the  rise  when  the  chord  of  half  an  arc  and  the  diam- 
eter are  given:  Divide  the  square  of  the  chord  of  half  the  arc 
by  the  diameter. 

To  find  the  rise  when  the  chord  of  an  arc  and  the  diameter 
are  given :  From  the  square  of  the  diameter  subtract  the  square 
of  the  chord  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  remainder; 
subtract  this  root  from  the  diameter  and  take  half  the  remain- 
der. 

To  find  the  length  of  an  are  of  a  circle  when  the  number  of 
degrees  and  the  radius  are  given:  Multiply  the  radius  of  the 
circle  by  0.01745  and  the  product  by  the  degrees  in  the  arc. 

To  find  the  length  of  an  arc  of  a  circle  when  the  length  is 
given  in  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds:  Multiply  the  number 
of  degrees  by  0.01745329  and  the  product  by  the  radius,  and 
multiply  the  number  of  minutes  by  0.00029  and  that  product 
by  the  radius,  and  multiply  the  number  of  seconds  by  0.00000448 
times  the  radius;  add  together  the  three  results  and  the  prod- 
uct will  be  the  length  of  the  arc. 


ELLIPSE.  619 

To  find  the  area  of  a  sector  of  a  circle  when  the  degrees 
of  the  arc  and  the  radius  are  given:  Multiply  the  number  of 
degrees  in  the  arc  by  the  area  of  the  whole  circle  and  divide 
by  360. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  sector  of  a  circle  when  the  length  of  the 
arc  is  given  in  degrees  and  minutes  and  the  radius  is  given: 
Reduce  the  length  of  the  arc  to  minutes,  multiply  by  the  area 
of  the  whole  circle,  and  divide  by  21,600. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  sector  of  a  circle  when  the  length  of  the 
arc  and  the  radius  are  given :  Multiply  the  length  of  the  arc  by 
half  the  length  of  the  radius  and  the  product  is  the  area. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  sector:  Multiply  one-half  of  the  length  of 
the  arc  by  the  radius,  or  divide  the  number  of  degrees  in  the 
arc  of  the  sector  by  360.  Multiply  the  result  by  the  area  of  the 
circle  of  which  the  sector  is  a  part. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  segment  of  a  circle :  Find^  the  area  of  the 
sector  of  which  the  segment  is  a  part,  and  from  this  area  sub- 
tract the  area  of  the  triangle  formed  by  the  two  radii  and  the 
chord  of  the  segment. 

Ellipse. — An  ellipse  is  a  plane  figure  bounded  by  a  curved 
line,  to  any  point  of  which  the  sum  of  the  distances  from  two 
fixed  points  within,  called  the  foci,  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
distances  from  the  foci  to  any  other  point  on  the  curve. 

In  Fig.  343,  A  and  B  are  the  foci  and  C  and  D  any  two  points 
on  the  perimeter.  AC  +  CB=AD  +  DB,  and  both  these  sums 
are  equal  to  the  major  axis-EJF.  The  long 
diameter  EF  is  called  the  major  axis,  and 
the  short  diameter  GD  the  minor  axis. 
The  foci  is  located  from  D  or  G  as  a  centre, 
making  DA  or  DB  equal  to  one-half  the 
length  of  the  long  diameter. 

There  is  no  exact  method  of  finding  the 
circumference  or  perimeter  of  an  ellipse, 
but  to  approximate  close  enough  for  all  practical  purposes 
multiply  the  major  axis  by  1.82  and  the  minor  axis  by  1.315. 
The  sum  of  the  results  will  be  the  perimeter. 

To  find  the  area  of  an  ellipse:  Multiply  the  product  of  its  two 
diameters  by  0.7854. 

When  the  length  of  the  perimeter  and  one  axis  on  an  ellipse 
are  given,  to  approximate  the  length  of  the  other  axis,  divide 
the  length  of  the  perimeter  by  1.6  and  from  this  quotient  sub- 
tract the  length  of  the  given  axis. 


620  VARIOUS  GEOMETRICAL  FIGURES. 

The  Frustum  of  a  Pyramid  or  Cone.— If  a  pyramid 
or  cone  is  cut  by  a  plane  parallel  to  the  base,  so  as  to  form  two 
parts,  the  lower  part  is  called  the  frustum  of  the  pyramid  or 
cone.  The  upper  end  of  the  frustum  is  called  the  upper  base 
and  the  lower  end  the  lower  base.  The  altitude  is  the  perpen- 
dicular distance  between  the  bases. 

To  find  the  convex  area  of  a  frustum  of  a  pyramid  or  cone, 
multiply  one-half  the  sum  of  the  circumferences  of  the  bases  by 
the  slant  height.  To  find  the  entire  area,  add  the  area  of  the  two 
bases. 

To  find  the  volume  of  the  frustum  of  a  pyramid  or  cone :  Add 
the  areas  of  the  upper  base,  the  lower  base,  and  the  square  root 
of  the  product  of  the  areas  of  the  two  bases;  multiply  this  sum 
by  one-third  of  the  length. 

Cylinder. — A  cylinder  is  a  solid  whose  ends  are  equal  and 
similar  curved  figures. 

To  find  the  area  of  the  convex  surface  of  a  cylinder:  Multiply 
the  circumference  of  the  base  by  the  height;  and  to  find  the 
entire  area  add  the  areas  of  the  two  ends. 

To  find  the  volume  or  solid  contents  of  a  cylinder:  Multiply 
the  area  of  the  base  by  the  height. 

Pyramid  and  Cone. — A  pyramid  is  a  solid  whose  base 
is  a  polygon,  and  whose  sides  are  triangles  uniting  at  a  common 
point  called  the  vertex. 

A  cone  is  a  solid  whose  base  is  a  circle  and  whose  convex  sur- 
face tapers  uniformly  to  a  point  called  the  vertex. 

The  altitude  of  a  pyramid  or  cone  is  the  perpendicular  dis- 
tance from  the  vertex  to  the  base. 

The  slant  height  of  a  pyramid  is  a  line  drawn  from  the  vertex 
perpendicular  to  one  of  the  sides  of  the  base  The  slant  height 
of  a  cone  is  any  straight  line  drawn  from  the  vertex  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  base. 

To  find  the  convex  area  of  a  pyramid  or  cone:  Multiply  the 
circumference  of  the  base  by  one-half  of  the  slant  height. 

To  find  the  volume  of  a  pyramid  or  cone :  Multiply  the  area 
of  the  base  by  one-third  of  the  altitude. 

Sphere. — A  sphere  is  a  solid  bounded  by  a  uniformly 
curved  surface  every  point  of  which  is  equally  distant  from  a 
point  within  called  the  centre. 

The  square  of  the  diameter  of  a  sphere  X 3. 141 6= its  sur- 
face. 

Circumference  of  a  sphere  X  by  its  diameter  =  its  surface. 


MISCELLANEOUS  MENSURATION.  621 

Square  of  the  circumference  of  a  sphere  X  0.3 183=  its  surface. 

Surface  of  a  sphere  X  by  £  of  its  diameter = its  solidity. 

Cube  of  the  diameter  of  a  sphere  X  0.5236=  solidity. 

Cube  of  the  radius  of  a  sphere  X  4. 1888=  solidity. 

Cube  of  the  circumference  of  a  sphere  X 0.016887  =solidity. 

Square  root  of  the  surface  of  a  sphere  X  0.5236=  solidity. 

Square  root  of  the  surface  of  a  sphere  XI. 772454= the  cir- 
cumference. 

Cube  root  of  the  solidity  of  a  sphere  X  1.2407=  the  diameter. 

Cube  root  of  the  solidity  of  a  sphere  X  3.8978= the  circum- 
ference. 

Radius  of  a  sphere  X  1.1 547=  side  of  inscribed  cube. 

Square  root  of  (£  of  the  square  of)  the  diameter  of  a  sphere 
=side  of  inscribed  cube. 

To  find  the  solidity  of  a  segment  of  a  sphere:  To  three  times 
the  square  of  the  radius  of  its  base  add  the  square  of  its 
height;  multiply  this  sum  by  the  height  and  the  product  by 
0.5236. 

SPHERICAL  ZONE. — A  spherical  zone  is  the  part  of  a  sphere 
included  between  two  parallel  planes. 

To  find  the  solid  contents  of  a  spherical  zone:  To  the  sum 
of  the  squares  of  radii  of  the  two  ends  add  one-third  of  the 
square  of  the  height  of  the  zone;  multiply  this  sum  by  the 
height,  and  this  product  by  1.5708. 

Miscellaneous  Mensuration. — To  find  the  contents  of 
a  barrel  or  cask,  multiply  the  square  of  the  mean  diameter  by 
the  length  (both  in  inches)  and  this  product  by  0.0034;  the 
answer  will  be  the  contents  in  gallons.  To  find  the  mean 
diameter  of  a  barrel  or  cask,  add  to  the  head  diameter  two- 
thirds,  or,  if  the  staves  are  but  little  curved,  six-tenths,  of  the 
difference  between  the  head  and  bung  diameters. 

To  FIND  THE  CONTENTS  OF  A  ROUND  TAPERING  STICK  OF 
TIMBER. — Multiply  the  diameter  of  one  end  by  the  diameter  of 
the  other  end,  and  to  this  product  add  one-third  of  the  square 
of  the  difference  of  the  diameters;  then  multiply  this  answer 
by  0.7854,  which  gives  the  mean  area  between  the  two  ends, 
which  multiplied  by  the  height  gives  the  cubical  contents. 

To  FIND  THE  CONTENTS  OF  TAPERING  TIMBER. — Multiply  the 
side  of  the  large  end  by  the  side  of  the  small  end  and  to  the 
product  add  one-third  of  the  square  of  the  difference  of  the 
sides,  which  gives  the  mean  area  between  the  two  ends,  which 
multiplied  by  the  length  gives  the  cubical  contents. 


622  VARIOUS  FORMULAE. 

To  FIND  THE  WEIGHT  OF  GRINDSTONES. — Multiply  the  square 
of  the  diameter  (in  inches)  by  the  thickness  (in  inches),  then 
by  the  decimal  0.06363;  the  product  will  be  the  weight  of  the 
stone  in  pounds. 

SIZE  OF  BOXES. — A  box  4"X4"  square  and  4|"  deep  will 
hold  one  quart;  a  box  7"X4"  square  and  4f"  deep  will  hold 
half  a  gallon;  a  box  8"  X  8"  square  and  4J"  deep  will  hold  one 
gallon;  a  box  8"X8"  square  and  8f"  deep  will  hold  one  peck; 
a  box  16"X8f"  square  and  8"  deep  will  hold  half  a  bushel; 
a  box  24"X"16  square  and  14"  deep  will  hold  half  a  barrel; 
a  box  24"  XI 6"  square  and  28"  deep  will  hold  one  barrel,  or 
three  bushels. 

To  FIND  THE  SOLID  CONTENTS  OF  AN  IRREGULAR  BODY. — 
Immerse  it  in  a  vessel  partly  filled  with  water;  then  the  con- 
tents of  that  part  of  the  vessel  filled  by  the  rising  water  will 
be  the  cubical  contents  of  the  body. 

Various  Formulae. — To  find  the  horizontal  thrust  of  an 
arch: 

TT    .  load  on  arch  X  span 

Horizontal  thrust  =  = : 5 —  .   .  \. — z. 

8  X  rise  of  arch  in  feet 

When  tension  rods  are  used  the  diameter  of  the  rod  can  be 
found  as  follows: 

total  load  on  arch  X  span 

Diameter  of  rod  in  inches  =5-—^ -c *—. — * — :     *-0ef 

8  X  rise  of  arch  in  feet  X  7854 

If  two  rods  are  used  substitute  16  in  place  of  8  in  the  formula, 
if  three  rods,  24. 

To  find  the  distance  from  the  intrados  to  the  extrados  of  an 
arch,  in  feet: 


0  24-  4 /radius  +  half  sPan 
V  4 


Strength  of  stone  lintels: 
Distributed  breaking  load 

_2X breadth  in  inches X square  of  depth  in  inches 
span  in  feet 

C  for  granite,  100;    marble,    120;    limestone,  83;    sandstone, 
70;  slate,  300;   bluestone  flagging,  150. 

Concentrated  load  at  centre  =  one-half  distributed  load. 

To  find  the  power  of  a  screw  with  lever:    The  power  multi- 


VARIOUS  FORMULA.  623 

plied  by  the  circumference  which  it  describes  is  equal  to  the 
weight  multiplied  by  the  distance  between  threads. 

To  find  the  power  of  a  lever: 

Rule. — As  the  distance  between  the  weight  and  the  fulcrum 
is  to  the  distance  between  the  power  and  the  fulcrum,  so  is  the 
power  to  the  weight. 

To  find  the  power  of  pulleys  or  set  of  blocks: 

Rule. — As  one  is  to  twice  the  number  of  movable  pulleys,  so  is 
the  power  to  the  weight. 

STRENGTH  OF  WOODEN  BEAMS. — To  find  the  strength  of  a 
beam  fixed  at  one  end  and  load  at  other: 

breadth  X  square  of  depth  X  A 
Safe  load  m  pounds  =  4  X  length  in  feet 

To  find  the  strength  of  a  beam  fixed  at  one  end  and  load  uni- 
formly distributed: 

• 

breadth  X  square  of  depth  X  A 
Safe  load  in  pounds  =  2xiength  in  feet ' 

To  find  the  strength  of  a  beam  supported  at  both  ends  and 
loaded  at  the  centre: 

breadth  X  square  of  depth  X  A 

Safe  load  in  pounds  = — : — ? — - — . 

span  in  feet 

To  find  the  strength  of  a  beam  supported  at  both  ends  and 
uniformly  distributed  load: 

,       2  X  breadth  X  square  of  depth  X  A 

Safe  load  in  pounds = ?— -= — . 

span  in  feet 

To  find  the  strength  of  a  beam  supported  at  both  ends  and 
with  a  concentrated  load  at  any  point  but  the  centre: 

,       breadth  X  square  of  depth  X  span  X  A 
Safe  load  in  pounds  =  —  4x#XC  ~~ " 

To  find  the  strength  of  a  beam  supported  at  both  ends  and 
loaded  with  concentrated  loads  at  two  points  equally  dis- 
tant from  the  supports: 

Safe  load  in  pounds  at  each  point  =  breadth  Xsquare  of  depth  XA^ 

4  XC 


624 


VARIOUS  FORMULAE. 


In  the  last  two  formulae  (7  =  the  distance  from  the  weight 
to  the  nearest  support  and  J5  =  the  distance  from  the  weight 
to  the  other  support. 

The  values  of  the  constant  A  in  the  above  formula  are  as 
follows : 


Ash Ill 

Beech 100 

Birch 90 

Cedar 55 

Hemlock..  66 


White  oak 75 

White  pine 80 

Yellow  pine 100 

Spruce 90 


FLITCH-PLATE  GIRDERS. — To  find  the  strength  of  flitch-plate 
girders  in  which  the  thickness  of  the  iron  plate  is  about  -fa  of 
the  breadth  of  the  beam  (which  is  about  the  correct  proportion). 

Beams  supported  g,t  both  ends: 


The  safe  load  at  centre  in  pounds 


—  (FB  +  75QT). 
Li 


2Z>2 


Safe  distributed  load  in  pounds  =-j-(FB  +  750 T) 


To  find  the  depth  of  beam : 


For  distributed  load  D  =  |/ 


WL 


2FB+15MT 


For  load  at  centre 


In  the  above  formula 


D  =  depth  of  beam. 

B  =  total  thickness  of  wood. 

L  =  clear  span  in  feet. 

T  =  thickness1  of  iron  plate. 

„      (  100  pounds  for  hard  pine, 

~  1  73  pounds  for  spruce. 
W  =  total  load  on  girder. 


VARIOUS  FORMULA.  625 

HOGOHAINS,  OR  BELLY -ROD  TRUSS. — Stresses  in  a  beam  with 
one   strut,   Fig.   344,   with  concentrated  load  at   centre.     To 


o. 

Fio.  344. 

find  the  stress  in  AC  or  DC,  divide  the  length  of  the  line  AC 
by  the  length  of  the  line  BC  and  then  multiply  this  result  by 
one-half  the  concentrated  load. 

To  find  the  stress  in  the  beam  AD,  divide  the  length  of  the 
line  AB  by  the  length  of  the  line  BC  and  multiply  by  one-half 
the  concentrated  load. 

When  the  load  is  distributed  over  the  entire  beam,  use  f  of 
the  entire  load  for  the  load  on  the  strut,  or  concentrated  at 
centre. 

The  length  of  the  members  in  the  above  rules  must  be  taken 
in  the  same  unit  of  measurement.  The  rules  may  be  expressed 
by  the  following  formulae,  in  which  W= weight. 

AC     W 
Stress  in  AC  or  DC=  -579  X-^-=  tensile  strength; 

./JO  £ 

Stress  in  AD  =  i^X  -^—  compression. 

Stresses  in  beams  with  two  struts  and  load  concentrated 
over  the  struts,  Fig.  345. 

w  w 


D  c 

Fio.  345. 

To  obtain  the  stress  in  AC  or  ED,  divide  the  length  of  AC  by 
the  length  of  BC  and  multiply  this  result  by  the  load  at  W. 

To  find  the  stress  in  AE  or  DC,  divide  the  length  of  the 
line  A  B  by  the  length  of  the  line  BC  and  multiply  this  result 
by  the  load  at  W. 

When  a  beam  has  two  struts  placed  one-third  of  its  dis- 
tance from  each  end,  and  has  a  uniformly  distributed  load, 
the  weight  on  each  strut  is  ^  of  the  total  load. 


626 


VARIOUS  FORMULA. 


The  above    rules  may  be  expressed  in  formulae  as  follows: 

Stress  in  AC  or  ED=^X  W: 
JjL 

Stress  in  EA  or  DC  =  ~  X  W. 

-DC 

ROOF-TRUSSES. — To  find  the  strain  on  roof-trusses  with  a 
single  rod.  The  strains  on  a  truss  built  as  shown  in  Fig.  346 
are  found  as  follows : 

Three-tenths  of  the  distributed  weight  by  half  the  length  of 
the  chord  divided  by  the  length  of  ab  equals  the  tensile  strain 
on  the  chord ;  five-eighths  of  weight  equals  tensile  strain  on  the 
rod;  three-tenths  of  the  distributed  weight  by  the  length  of  the 
rafter  divided  by  the  length  of  ab  equals  the  compression  in  the 
rafter.  For  concentrated  weight  at  the  centre:  One-half  the 


FIG.  346. 

weight  by  half  the  length  of  the  chord  divided  by  the  length  of 
ab  equals  the  strain  on  the  chord;  the  strain  on  the  rod  is  equal 
to  the  weight;  one-half  the  weight  by  the  length  of  the  rafter 
divided  by  the  length  of  ab  equals  the  compression  in  the  rafter. 
To  FIND  THE  STRAIN  ON  ROOF-TRUSS  WITH  Two  RODS. — The 
strains  on  a  truss  built  as  shown  in  Fig.  347  are  as  follows :  The 
distributed  weight  by  0.367  by  one-third  the  length  of  the  chord, 


Straining  Beam 
Bolt 


FIG.  347. 

or  cb,  divided  by  the  length  of  ab,  equals  the  strain  on  the  chord 
or  the  compression  of  top  piece;  the  weight  by  0.367  equals  the 
strain  on  the  rods;  the  distributed  weight  by  0.367  by  the  length 
of  the  rafter  divided  by  the  length  of  ab  equals  the  compression 
in  the  rafter.  When  the  weight  is  concentrated  at  1  and  2 :  The 
weight  by  one-third  the  length  of  the  chord,  or  cb,  divided  by  the 
length  of  ab,  equals  the  strain  on  the  chord  or  the  compression  of 
the  top  piece;  the  weight  equals  the  strain  on  the  rods;  the 


STRESS  IN  MEMBERS  OF  ROOF-TRUSSES       627 

weight  by  the  length  of  the  rafter  divided  by  the  length  of  ab 
equals  the  compression  of  the  rafter. 

The  diameter  of  a  single  rod  to  carry  a  given  weight  may  be 
found  by  dividing  the  weight  by  9425,  and  the  square  root  of  the 
product  will  be  the  diameter  of  the  rod,  allowing  12,000  pounds 
per  square  inch  in  the  rod. 

When  two  rods  carry  a  given  weight,  take  half  the  weight  and 
proceed  as  above. 


TABLES  FOR  FINDING  STRESSES  IN  MEMBERS  FOR  ROOF- 
TRUSSES  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  TYPES  AND  PITCHES  AS 
GIVEN  BELOW  AND  OF  ANY  SPAN. 

Rule. — To  find  the  stress  in  any  member,  multiply  the  coefficient  given 
for  that  member  by  total  dead  load  carried  by  truss  (=span  in  feet  X  dis- 
tance between  trusses  in  feetX  weight  per  square  foot).  If  the  truss  is 
acted  upon  by  wind  forces  of  other  unsymmetrical  loading,  the  stresses  in 
the  members  must  be  calculated  accordingly  and  combined  with  the  dead- 
load  stresses  as  found  below 


Member 
of  Truss 

Pitch  (Depth  to  Span). 

Note.  —  Heavy  lines  denote 
compression    and    light    lines 
tension  members.     Loads  are 
considered  as  concentrated  at 
the  joints. 

* 

30° 

i 

} 

Fig.  348. 
AO 
Bb 
Ca 
Cc 
ab 
be 

Fig.  349. 
Aa 
Bb 
Cc 
Da 
Dd 
ab 
be 
cd 

Fig.  350. 
Aa 
Bb 
Cc 
Dd 
Ea 

i 

ab 

bf 

to 

% 
% 

.675 
.537 
.563 
.375 
.208 
.188 

.750 
.589 
.568 
.625 
.375 
.155 
.155 
.250 

.788 
.718 
.649 
.580 
.655 
.562 
.375 
.104 
.093 
.208 
.093 
.104 
.187 
•280 

.750 
.625 
.650 
.433 
.217 
.217 

.833 
.666 
.666 
.721 
.433 
.167 
.167 
.288 

.874 
.812 
.750 
.687 
.758 
.650 
.433 
.108 
.108 
.216 
.108 
.108 
.217 
.325 

.838 
.726 
.750 
.500 
.224 
.250 

.930 

.757 
.783 
.833 
.500 
.180 
.180 
.333 

.978 
.922 
.866 
.810 
.875 
.750 
.500 
.112 
.125 
.224 
.125 
.112 
.250 
.375 

1.010 
.917 
.938 
.625 
.232 
.313 

1.120 
.928 
.995 
1.042 
.625 
.202 
.202 
.417 

1.178 
1.131 
1.085 
1.038 
1.094 
.538 
.625 
.116 
.156 
.232 
.156 
.116 
.313 
.469 

C 
FIG.  348. 

^/\   C  / 
>/^\/ 

D 
FIG.  349. 

5rf\W* 

J^a\/f\/ 

E 
FIG.  350. 

628  STRESSES  IN  PRATT  AND  WHIFFLE  TRUSSES. 

Explanation  of  Tables  on  Maximum  Stresses  in 
Pratt  and  Whipple  Trusses  (Pages  628  to  630,  inclusive). 
— These  tables  give  the  stress  in  each  member  of  a  Pratt  (single 
quadrangular)  or  Whipple  (double  quadrangular)  truss,  for  any 
number  of  panels  not  exceeding  twelve  in  the  former  and  twenty  in 
the  latter  case,  on  the  assumption  that  the  load  is  uniform  per  foot 
and  the  panels  are  all  of  the  same  length.  The  stresses  are  given  in 
terms  of  the  truss-panel  dead  and  moving  loads,  represented  re- 
spectively by  W  and  L.  These  are  obtained  by  multiplying  the 
dead  load  per  foot  of  bridge,  in  the  case  of  W,  and  the  moving  or 
live  load  per  foot  of  bridge,  in  the  case  of  L,  by  half  the  .panel 
length. 

The  letters  W  and  L  are  placed  at  the  top  of  column  in  tables, 
and  not  next  to  the  figures  to  which  they  belong,  for  want  of 
space. 

The  stress  in  aB.  for  example,  in  a  twelve-panel  Pratt  truss, 
=  5.5TF+5.5L,  and  in  £c  =  4.5TF  +  f|L,  both  multiplied  by  the 
quotient  specified  in  the  last  column. 

Tho  system  of  lettering  employed  is  shown  by  Figs.  351  and 
352,  on  page  627,  and,  it  is  believed,  is  the  best  in  use.  By 
making  a  sketch  of  the  truss  under  consideration  and  lettering 
the  vertices  in  the  manner  shown,  the  truss  members  to  which 
reference  is  had  in  the  tables  can  be  readily  identified. 

The  dead  load  is  assumed  as  concentrated  at  the  lower  ver- 
tices of  the  trusses  for  through  bridges  and  at  the  upper  ver- 
tices for  deck  bridges.  For  through  bridges  of  very  large  span, 
the  stresses  thus  obtained  for  the  posts  must  be  increased  by 
the  truss-panel  weight  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  truss,  includ- 
ing the  lateral  bracing;  but  in  small  spans,  the  increase  of  stress 
on  this  account  is  so  inconsiderable  that  it  is  usually  neglected. 

Note. — In  order  to  calculate  the  stresses  in  a  Whipple  or 
double  quadrangular  truss  by  statical  methods,  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  the  truss  as  the  combination  of  two  Pratt  trusses  or 
single  systems  of  bracing  and  assume  that  each  of  these  two 
systems  is  strained  in  the  same  manner  as  if  one  were  inde- 
pendent of  the  other.  If  the  number  of  panels  is  odd,  each  of 
the  two  systems  is  unsymmetrical,  which  has  the  effect  of  mak- 
ing the  stress  in  the  middle  panel  of  the  lower  chord  slightly 
smaller  than  the  stress  in  the  corresponding  panel  of  the  top 
chord.  The  difference  is,  however,  frequently  neglected,  and 
the  stress  in  middle  panel  of  bottom  chord  assumed  the  same 
as  in  middle  papel  of  top  chord. 


ILLUSTRATION  OF  APPLICATION  OF  TABLES.    629 


Each  of  the  two  systems  is  assumed  to  carry  one-half  of  the 
panel  load  at  the  top  of  the  inclined  end  posts. 


FIG.  351.— Pratt  or  Single  Quadrangular  Truss. 

BCD   EFGHIKLMNOP 


\ 


XX 


\x/y 


abcdefghi      k     I     m     n     o    p 
FIG.  352. — Whipple  or  Double  Quadrangular  Truss. 

Illustration  of  Application  of  Tables,  also  of  the 
Use  of  Table  of  Natural  Sines,  Tangents,  and  Se- 
cants.— A  Pratt  truss  of  135  feet  span  and  18  feet  depth  is 
divided  into  nine  panels  of  15  feet  each.  Required  the  stress 
in  first  main  tie  Be,  and  in  middle  panel  DE  of  top  chord,  for 
a  dead  load  of  1200  pounds  and  a  moving  load  of  3000  pounds 
per  lineal  foot  of  bridge. 

•I  OAA 

T7=±|^-X15=9000  pounds; 


0     X 15  =22,500     "     ; 

Zi 


Length 


18 


The  factor  —  ,  or  panel  length  divided  by  depth  of  truss,  is 

lo 

the  tangent  of  the  angle,  for  which  the  length  Be,  divided  by 
depth  of  truss,  is  the  secant.     By  table  of  natural  sines,  tangents, 

and  secants,  for  tangent  =  r^  =  0.833,  the  secant  =  1.302";   there- 

fore 

Bc=  97,000X1.30  =  126,100  pounds] 


315,000  X      =  262,50G 

lo 


630 


STRESSES  IN  TRUSSES. 


MAXIMUM  STRESSES  UNDER  DEAD  AND  MOVING  LOADS  IN 
PRATT  OR  SINGLE  QUADRANGULAR  TRUSSES,  WITH  IN- 
CLINED END  POSTS  AND  EQUAL  PANELS,  FOR  THROUGH 
AND  DECK  BRIDGES. 


dead  load  and  L  =  moving  load  per  truss  and  per  panel. 


Member. 

12-panel 
Truss. 

11-panel 
Truss. 

10-panel 
Truss. 

9-panel 
Truss. 

8-panel 
Truss. 

Mul- 
tiply 
by 

W  +  L 

W  +  L 

W  +  L 

W  +  L 

W  +  L 

1- 

aB 

5.5  +  5.5 

5  +  5 

4.5  +  4.5 

4  +  4 

3.5  +  3.5 

S-l*  • 

Be 

3.5  +  3.6 

3  +  2% 

1  >>" 

Cd 

3  5  +  45/j2 

3  _(_  sty^ 

2.5  +  2.8 

2  +  2% 

1.5  +  1% 

-Sxj  S 

De 

2  5-|-3(W0 

2  +  28/n 

1.5  +  2.1 

1  +  15/9 

0    5  -f_  KJg 

O        -^ 

Ef 

I  '5-|_2£j<j  g 

1  +  21/11 

0.5  +  1.5 

-0^5  +  % 

5*2  "S 

Fg 
Gh 

-o'i+i%2 

-0.5  +  1.0 
-1.5  +  0.6 

-l+%/0 

-2  +  % 

-1.5  +  % 

11 

Hi 

-l!5  +  10/12 

-2  +  6/ii 

MT9 

abc 

5.5+   5.5 

5+   5 

4.5+   4.5 

4+   4 

3.5  +  3.5 

1^2 

BC,  cd 

10.0  +  10.0 

9+   9 

8.0+   8.0 

7+   7 

6.0  +  6.0 

§"3^ 

CD,de 

13.5  +  13.5 

12  +  12 

10.5  +  10.5 

9+   9 

7.5  +  7.5 

I^-d^ 

DE,ef 

16.0  +  16.0 

14  +  14 

12.0+12.0 

10  +  10 

8.0  +  8.0 

EF,fg 

17.5  +  17.5 

15  +  15 

12.5  +  12.5 

FG 

18.0  +  18.0 

^  ",2 

Thro.  Deck 

Cc 

4.5  +  5%2 

4  _J_  45^  j 

3.5  +  3.6 

3  +  2% 

2.5  +  2% 

Cc,   Dd 

3  +  »%i 

2.5  +  2.8 

2  +  2% 

1  .5  +  1% 

|j> 

Dd,  Ee 

25  +  3%  2 

2  +  28/u 

1.5  +  2.1 

1+15/9 

0.5  +  i% 

"3 

Ee,   Ff 

i:5+28/12 

1  +  21/11 

0.5  +  1.5 

0  +  i% 

-0.5  +  % 

p 

Ff,    Gg 

-0.5  +  1.0 

Gg 

-0.5  +  15/12 

Member. 

7-panel 
Truss. 

6-panel 
Truss. 

5-panel 
Truss. 

4-panel 
Truss. 

3-panel 
Truss. 

Multiply 
by 

W  +  L 

W  +  L 

W  +  L 

W  +  L 

W  +  L 

^     >, 

aB 

3  +  3 

2.5  +  2.5 

2  +  2.0 

1.5  +  1.5 

1  +  1 

-a.&5  °  "5 

Be 

2-1-15^ 

1  5-j-io^ 

1  +  1.2 

0.5  +  i 

0+i 

"yj  S-S5  j§ 

Cd 

1  _|_  1  Qlj 

0^5  +  1.0 

0  +  0.6 

-0.5  +  } 

fl  rt'>  §"^3 

De 

0  +  % 

-0.5  +  0.5 

-1+0.2 

i^       ^"° 

Ef 

-1+% 

'** 

abc 

3  +  3 

2.5  +  2.5 

2  +  2 

1.5  +  1.5 

1  +  1 

^8 

BC,cd 

5  +  5 

4.0  +  4.0 

3  +  3 

2.0  +  2.0 

1  +  1 

•slag 

CDE,  de 

6  +  6 

4.5  +  4.5 

i^"^"^ 

Thro.  Deck 

^ 

Cc 

2  +  1% 

1.5  +  io/e 

1  +  1.2 

0.5  +  1 

^> 

Cc,    Dd 

1  +  1% 

0.5  +  1.0 

0  +  0.6 

-0.5  +  } 

•3 

Dd 

0  +  % 

-0.5  +  0.5 

S 

STRESSES  IN  TRUSSES. 


631 


AXIMUM  STRESSES  UNDER  DEAD  AND  MOVING  LOADS  IN 
WHIFFLE  OR  DOUBLE  QUADRANGULAR  TRUSSES,  WITH  IN- 
CLINED END  POSTS  AND  EQUAL  PANELS,  FOR  THROUGH 
AND  DECK  BRIDGES. 

TT  =  dead  load  and  L  Amoving  load  per  truss  and  per  panel. 


20-panel 
Truss. 


19-panel 
Truss. 


18-panel 
Truss. 


17-panel 
Truss. 


16-panel 
Truss. 


aB 
Be 
Bd 

Ce 

I 

Gi 
Hk 
II 

Km 

Ln 

Mo 


W  +  L 

9.5  +  9.5 

4.5  +  90-5/20 
4.0  +  80-5/20 
3.5  +  72-5/20 


[.5  +  42-5/,o 
[.0  +  35-5/20 

).i+3o-y2o 


-0.5  +  20'%o 
-1.0  +  15-5/20 

29.5+     9.5 

14+14 
22  +  22 
29  +  29 
35  +  35 
40  +  40 
44  +  44 
47  +  47 

49  +  49 

50  +  50 


34.5  +  »°-5/2o 

4.0  +  80-5,20 


3.0  +  63-5/jo 


1.0  +  3r,-5/,0 

0.5  +  30-5/20 

0  0  +  24-5/20 

-0.5  +  20-5/2Q 


W  +  L 

19+9 


29  +  9 


42/19+48-5/10 
34/19+42-5/1() 


W+L 

8.5  +  8.5 


2.5  +  48  -5^ 


2  8.5+  S.5 
12.5  +  12.5 
19.5  +  19.5 
25.5  +  25.5 
30.5  +  30.5 
34.5  +  34.5 
37.5  +  37.5 
39.5  +  39.5 
40.5  +  40.5 
IK  =  H1 


34.0  +  72-5/]8 

2.'5+48-5/JJ 


-0.5  +  15-5,48 


W  +  L 


18  +  8 


56/17  +  5«  -5/1 7 
46/17+48-5/17 
39/17+42-5/17 


••VlT 
•5/17 

s-y17 


28  +  8 


39/]7+42-5/17 


W  +  L 

1  75  +  7.5 


1.5  +  30-5J6 

0:5  +  20-y}J 


-1.0  + 
-1.5  + 


27.5  +  7.5 
11  +  11 
17+17 
22  +  22 
26  +  26 
29  +  29 

31  +  31 

32  +  32 
HI  =  GH 


3  3.5  +  56  -5^ 


1  Multiply  by:    Length  of  member  divided  by  depth  of  truss. 

2  Multiply  by:    Panel  length  divided  by  depth  of  truss. 

3  Multiply  by:    Unity. 


632 


STRESSES  IN  TRUSSES. 


MAXIMUM  STRESSES  UNDER  DEAD  AND  MOVING  LOADS  I 
WHIPPLE  OR  DOUBLE  QUADRANGULAR  TRUSSES,  WITH  II 
CLINED  END  POSTS  AND  EQUAL  PANELS,  FOR  THROUGJ 
AND  DECK  BRIDGES— (Continued). 

TF"  =  dead  load  and  L=  moving  load  per  truss  and  per  panel. 


Member. 


15-panel 
Truss. 


14-panel 
Truss. 


13-panel 
Truss. 


12-panel 
Truss. 


11-panel 
Truss. 


aB 
Be 
Bd 
Ce 
Df 


Gi 
Hk 
II 
Km 

abc 

cd 

BC,de 
CD,ef 
DE,fg 
EF,gh 
FG,  hi 

GHI 


Thro.  Deck 
Cc 
Dd 

Cc,  Ee 
Dd,  Ff 
Ee,  Gg 
Ff,  Hh 


%'h 


W  +  L 


W+L 


i  6.5  +  6.5  f 

42/15  +  42 -5/15  !        2.5  +  35 '%J 


12/15  +  20-5/15 

0.0+12'5/14 
-0.5+     8'5^4 
8-5/15    —1.0+     6>5/u 


2  6.5+  6.5 
9.5+  9.5 
14.5  +  14.5 
18.5  +  18.5 
21.5  +  21.5 
23.5  +  23.5 
24.5  +  24.5 
GH  =  FG 


357/15  +  357^5 


3  48/15  +48-5^g 
42/15+42-5/l5 


-0.5+ 


17/i3  +  2»|i3 

-  ^3+    8'5/13 

-  9/l3+    6-5/13 


26  +  6 

%*  +  ^ 

3/13  +  17 

217/J3  +  217/J3 


GH=FG 


>5/i3 


W+L 

1  5.5 +  5.5 

•5/i2 


0.0  + 
-0.5  + 
-1.0  + 


25.5+  5.5 
8.0+  8.0 
12.0+12.0 
15.0+15.0 
17.0+17.0 
18.0+18.0 


1.0+15-5/t2 


0.0+  8-5/12 
-0.5+  e-%2 


W  +  L 


20/,,+20-iy 
13/n+15-5/ 


~     9/4l+     S'E 
2-E 


25  +  5 

79/ll+  7 


167/4i+1G7/i: 
14il  +  159/i: 


1e/1  +  15-/1 

|/;;+1l|; 


1  Multiply  by:    Length  of  member  divided  by  depth  of  truss. 

2  Multiply  by:    Panel  length  divided  by  depth  of  truss. 

3  Multiply  by:   Unity. 


RESISTANCE  TO  SHEARING.  633 

Resistance  to  Shearing. — By  shearing  is  meant  the 
separating  and  pushing  of  one  part  of  a  piece  by  the  other. 

To  find  the  working  shearing  strength  of  wood:  Find  the 
area  to  be  sheared  in  inches  and  multiply  by  the  strength  given 
in  table  on  page  317. 

For  the  compression  and  tensile  strength  proceed  in  like 
manner. 


PART  VI. 


HYDRAULICS  AND  DATA  ON  WATER. 
STRENGTHS,  WEIGHTS,  ETC.,  OF  MA- 
TEEIALS.  YAKIOUS  MATERIALS  AND 
DATA. 


Hydraulics. 

TABLE  SHOWING  CAPACITIES  OF  CENTRIFUGAL  PUMPS,  ALSO 
USEFUL   DATA   REGARDING   SAME. 


Size 

o;,.* 

Econom- 

Horse- 

Diam- 

Pump 
(Diam- 
eter Dis- 
charge 
Pipe). 

oiise 
Pipe 
for 
Suction, 
Inches. 

ical 
Capacity, 
Gallons 
per 
Minute. 

Power 
Required 
for  each 
Foot 
Elevation. 

eter  and 
Face  of 
Pulley 
in 
Inches. 

H 

2 

70 

.058 

6X    6 

If 

2 

90 

.075 

7X   8 

2 

3 

120 

.10 

8X   8 

2* 

3 

180 

.15 

8X   8 

3 

4 

260 

.22 

8X    8 

4 

5 

470 

.30 

10X10 

5 

6 

735 

.45 

12X12 

6 

8 

1050 

.59 

15X12 

8 

10 

2000 

1.00 

20X12 

10 

12 

3000 

1.52 

24X12 

12 

15 

4200 

2.00 

30X14 

15 

18 

7000 

3.50 

40X15 

15 

18 

7000 

3.50 

30X15 

18 

20 

10000 

4.50 

40X16 

18 

20 

10000 

4.50 

30X16 

20 

22 

12000 

5.40 

36X20 

22 

24 

13000 

5.50 

48X20 

24 

24 

15000 

6.50 

48X36 

CAPACITY   OF   SAND   AND    DREDGING    CENTRIFUGAL   PUMPS. 


No. 
Pump 
(Diam- 
eter Dis- 
charge 
Opening) 

Diam- 
eter 
Suction. 

Cubic  Yards  Material 
per  Hour,  10  to  20  Per 
Cent  of  Solids. 

Horse- 
power Re- 
quired for 
each  10 
Feet  Ele- 
vation. 

Will 
Pass 
Solids: 
Diam- 
eter, 
Inches. 

Diam- 
eter and 
Face  of 
Pulley. 

10  Per 
Cent. 

15  Per 
Cent. 

20  Per 
Cent. 

4 

4 

14 

21 

28 

4 

2 

12X12 

6 

6 

30 

45 

60 

8 

4* 

20X12 

8 

8 

60 

90 

120 

15 

6 

24X14 

10 

10 

90 

135 

180 

25 

8 

30X15 

12 

12 

125 

190 

250 

30 

10 

36X20 

15 

15 

210 

315 

420 

50 

10 

42X24 

18 

18 

300 

450 

600 

70 

10 

48X30 

634 


HYDRAULICS. 


635 


REVOLUTION    TABLE 

Speeds  at  which  Standard  Pumps  should  Run  to  Raise  Water  to 
Different  Heights. 


No. 

5  Ft. 

10  Ft. 

15  Ft. 

25  Ft. 

35  Ft. 

50  Ft. 

70  Ft. 

100  Ft, 

H 

428 

604 

739 

955 

1131 

1351 

1599 

1911 

1* 

348 

491 

601 

777 

920 

1099 

1301 

1554 

2 

302 

426 

522 

674 

798 

953 

1128 

1348 

2* 

302 

426 

522 

674 

798 

953 

1128 

1348 

3 

302 

426 

522 

674 

798 

953 

1128 

1348 

4 

285 

402 

493 

637 

754 

901 

1066 

1274 

5 

256 

362 

443 

572 

678 

810 

958 

1145 

6 

214 

302 

368 

478 

566 

675 

800 

955 

8 

183 

259 

317 

409 

485 

579 

685 

819 

10 

168 

238 

291 

376 

445 

532 

629 

752 

12 

133 

188 

230 

298 

352 

421 

498 

595 

15 

105 

148 

181 

234 

277 

331 

391 

468 

15 

151 

213 

261 

337 

399 

477 

564 

674 

18 

105 

148 

181 

234 

277 

331 

391 

468 

18 

151 

213 

261 

337 

399 

477 

564 

674 

20 

142 

202 

245 

317 

376 

450 

532 

635 

24 

95 

134 

163 

212 

252 

300 

355 

424 

If  water  is  to  be  forced  through  long  pipes  or  through  many  elbows, 
speed  must  be  increased  to  correspond. 

Weir-dam  Measurement  for  Flow  of  Water  in 
Streams. — Cut  a  notch  in  a  board  deep  enough  to  pass 
all  the  water  and  about  two-thirds  the  width  of  the  stream, 


Fio.  353. 

as  shown  by  Fig.   353.     Bevel  the  edges  of  the  notch,  then 
secure  it  in  the  position  shown  in  the  above  view.     Drive  a  stake 


636        WEIR-DAM  MEASUREMENT  OF  WATER. 


in  the  bottom  of  the  stream  about  4  or  5  feet  from  the  board 
(shown  as  distance  A  in  the  view).  The  top  of  the  stake  must 
be  exactly  level  with  the, bottom  of  the  notch  in  the  board. 
After  the  water  has  come  to  an  even  flow  and  reached  its 
greatest  depth,  a  careful  measurement  can  be  made  of  the  depth 
of  the  water  over  the  top  of  the  stake.  This  measurement 
gives  the  true  depth  of  water  passing  over  notch.  On  the  down- 
ward side,  the  water  must  have  a  drop  of  10  to  15  inches  after 
leaving  the  board  to  enable  you  to  get  the  true  flow. 

The  nature  of  the  channel  above  the  board  should  be  such 
that  the  water  will  not  rush  over  the  board,  but  should  be  wide 
and  deep  enough  to  allow  it  to  flow  over  quietly. 

The  Weir-dam  table  given  below  shows  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  of  water  passing  per  minute  over  the  notch  for  each  inch 
in  breadth.  The  figures  in  the  first  vertical  column  are  the 
inches  depth  of  water  over  the  weir.  The  figures  on  first 
horizontal  line  show  fractional  parts  of  inches  depth.  The 
table  shows  cubic  feet  that  will  pass  per  minute  per  inch  of 
width  of  notch  in  board. 

Example. — Suppose  the  notch  in  the  board  is  20  inches  wide 
and  the  water  is  5^  inches  above  top  of  stake.  In  the  table 

TABLE  FOR  WEIR-DAM  MEASUREMENT, 

Giving  cubic  feet  of  water  per  minute  that  will  flow  over  a  weir  1  inch 
wide  and  up  to  25  inches  deep. 


Inch. 

I 

i 

i 

* 

I 

* 

1 

1 

.40 

.47 

.55 

.65 

.74 

.83 

.93 

1.03 

2 

1.14 

1.24 

1.36 

1.47 

1.59 

1.71 

1.83 

1.96 

3 

2.09 

2.23 

2.36 

2.50 

2.63 

2.78 

2.92 

3.07 

4 

3.22 

3.37 

3.52 

3.68 

3.83 

3.99 

4.16 

4.32 

5 

4.50 

4.67 

4.84 

5.01 

5.18 

5.36 

5.54 

5.72 

6 

5.90 

6.09 

6.28 

6.47 

6.65 

6.85 

7.05 

7.25 

7 

7.44 

7.64 

7.84 

8.05 

8.25 

8.45 

8.66 

8.86 

8 

9.10 

9.31 

9.52 

9.74 

9.96 

10.18 

10.40 

10.62 

9 

10.86 

11.08 

11.31 

11.54 

11.77 

12.00 

12.23 

12.47 

10 

12.71 

12.95 

13.19 

13.43 

13.67 

13.93 

14.16 

14.42 

11 

14.67 

14.92 

15.18 

15.43 

15.67 

15.96 

16.20 

16.46 

12 

16.73 

16.99 

17.26 

17.52 

17.78 

18.05 

18.32 

18.58 

13 

18.87 

19.14 

19.42 

19.69 

19.97 

20.24 

20.52 

20.80 

14 

21.09 

21.37 

21.65 

21.94 

22.22 

22.51 

22.79 

23.08 

15 

23.38 

23.67 

23.97 

24.26 

24.56 

24.86 

25.16 

25.46 

16 

25.76 

26.06 

26.36 

26.66 

26.97 

27.27 

27.58 

27.89 

17 

28.20 

28.51 

28.82 

29.14 

29.45 

29.76 

30.08 

30.39 

18 

30.70 

31.02 

31.34 

31.66 

31.98 

32.31 

32.63 

32.96 

19 

33.29 

33.61 

33.94 

34.27 

34.60 

34.94 

35.27 

35.60 

20 

35.94 

36.27 

36.60 

36.94 

37.28 

37.62 

37.96 

38.31 

21 

38.65 

39.00 

39.34 

39.69 

40.04 

40.39 

40.73 

41.09 

22 

41.43 

41.78 

42.13 

42.49 

42.84 

43.20 

43.56 

43.92 

23 

44.28 

44.64 

45.00 

45.38 

45.71 

46.08 

46.43 

46.81 

24 

47.18 

47.55 

47.91 

48.28 

48.65 

49.02 

49.39 

49.76 

MEASUREMENTS  OF  LARGE  STREAMS.        637 

5£  inches  show  that  5.18  cubic  feet  flow  over  1  inch  of  width. 
Multiply  this  by  20  (width  of  notch),  and  you  will  have  103.6, 
which  represents  the  cubic  feet  of  water  passing  over  the  weir, 
or  amount  in  the  stream.  This  multiplied  by  7£  will  give 
the  gallons. 

A  " miners'  inch"  of  water  is  approximately  equal  to  a  supply 
of  12  United  States  gallons  per  minute. 

Measurements  of  Large  Streams. — Where  measure- 
ment by  weir  is  impracticable,  the  amount  of  water  can  be  cal- 
culated by  ascertaining  the  average  velocity  of  the  current 
and  the  cross-section  of  the  stream. 

Select  a  place  in  the  stream  where  there  is  a  moderate  cur- 
rent, or  smooth,  even  flow  of  water,  and  measure  the  depth 
of  the  water  at  from  6  to  12  points  across  the  stream  at  equal 


FIG.  354. 

distances  between.  Add  all  the  depths  in  feet  together,  and 
divide  by  the  number  of  measurements  made;  this  will  be 
the  average  depth  of  the  stream,  which,  multiplied  by  its  width, 
will  give  its  area  or  cross-section.  Multiply  this  by  the  velocity 
of  the  stream  in  feet  per  minute,  and  the  result  will  be  the 
discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  minute  of  the  stream. 

Miners'   Inch   Measurement. — The    miners'    inch   is 
another  method  of  measuring  flow  of  water,  and  is  commonly 


638 


PRESSURE  OF  WATER. 


used  by  the  hydraulic  companies  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States. 

The  standard  opening  is  50  inches  long  by  2  inches  wide  in 
a  li-inch  board,  top  of  said  opening  being  6  inches  from  level 
of  water  in  stream,  as  shown  by  Fig.  354.  This  is  equivalent 
to  100  miners'  inches,  and  will  discharge  157  cubic  feet  per 
minute,  commonly  taken  as  150  cubic  feet. 

If  there  is  not  150  cubic  feet  in  the  stream,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  close  part  of  the  longitudinal  2-inch  opening,  so  that  the 
water  will  stand  6  inches  above  the  upper  edge  of  the  slot  at 
all  times.  The  length  of  the  opening  multiplied  by  two  gives 
the  number  of  miners'  inches. 

PRESSURE  OF  WATER. 


Pressure 

Pressure 

Pressure 

Pressure 

Head 

in  Pounds 

Head 

in  Pounds 

Head 

in  Pounds 

Head 

in  Pounds 

in 

per 

in 

per 

in 

per 

in 

per 

Feet. 

Square 

Feet. 

Square 

Feet. 

Square 

Feet. 

Square 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch 

1 

0.43 

34 

14.74 

67 

29.05 

100 

43.35 

2' 

0.87 

35 

15.17 

68 

29.48 

101 

43.78 

3 

1.30 

36 

15.61 

69 

29.91 

102 

44.22 

4 

1.73 

37 

16.04 

70 

30.35 

103 

44.65 

5 

2.17 

38 

16.47 

71 

30.78 

104 

45.08 

6 

2.60 

39 

16.91 

72 

31.21 

105 

45.52 

7 

3.03 

40 

17.34 

73 

31.65 

106 

45  95 

8 

3.47 

41 

17.77 

74 

32.08 

107 

46.39 

9 

3.90 

42 

18.21 

75 

32.51 

108 

46.82 

10 

4.34 

43 

18.64 

76 

32.95 

109 

47.25 

11 

4.77 

44 

19.07 

77 

33.38 

110 

47.69 

12 

5.20 

45 

19.51 

78 

33.81 

111 

48.12 

13 

5.64 

46 

19.94 

79 

34.25 

112 

48.55 

14 

6.07 

47 

20.37 

80 

34.68 

113 

48  99 

15 

6.50 

48 

20.81 

81 

35.11 

114 

49.42 

16 

6.94 

49 

21.24 

82 

35.55 

115 

49.85 

17 

7.37 

50 

21.68 

83 

35.98 

116 

50.29 

18 

7.80 

51 

22.11 

84 

36.41 

117 

50.72 

19 

8.24 

52 

22.54 

85 

36.85 

118 

51.15 

20 

8.67 

53 

22.98 

86 

37.28 

119 

51.59 

21 

9.10 

54 

23.41 

87 

37.72 

120 

52.02 

22 

9.54 

55 

23.84 

88 

38.15 

121 

52.45 

23 

9.97 

56 

24.28 

89 

38.58 

122 

52.89 

24 

10.40 

57 

24.71 

90 

39.02 

123 

53.32 

25 

10.84 

58 

25.14 

91 

39.45 

124 

53.75 

26 

11.27 

59 

25.58 

92 

39.88 

125 

54.19 

27 

11.70 

60 

26.01 

93 

40.32 

126 

54.62 

28 

12.14 

61 

26.44 

94 

40.75 

127 

55.06 

29 

12.57 

62 

26.88 

95 

41.18 

128 

55.49 

30 

13.01 

63 

27.31 

96 

41.62 

.     129 

55.92 

31 

13.44 

64 

27.74 

97 

42.05 

130 

56.36 

32 

13.87 

65 

28.18 

98 

42.48 

131 

56.79 

33 

14.31 

66 

2S.61 

99 

42.92 

,     132 

57.22 

PRESSURE  OF  WATER. 


639 


PRESSURE  OF  WATER— (Continued'). 


Head 
• 

Pressure 
in  Pounds 

Head 

Pressure 
in  Pounds 

Head 

Pressure 
in  Pounds 

Head 

Pressure 
in  Pounds 

in 
Feet. 

per  Sq. 
Inch. 

in 
Feet. 

per  Sq. 
Inch. 

in 
Feet. 

perSq. 
Inch. 

in 
Feet. 

per  Sq. 
Inch. 

133 

57.66 

175 

75.86 

217 

94.06 

259 

112.27 

134 

58.09 

176 

76.30 

218 

94.50 

260 

112.71 

135 

58.52 

177 

76.73 

219 

94.93 

261 

113.14 

136 

58.96 

178 

77.16 

220 

95.37 

262 

113.57 

137 

59.39 

179 

77.60 

221 

95.80 

263 

114.01 

138 

59.82 

180 

78.03 

222 

96  .  23 

264 

114.44 

139 

60.26 

181 

78.46 

223 

96.67 

265 

114.87 

140 

60.69 

182 

78.90 

224 

97.10 

266 

115.31 

141 

61.12 

183 

79.33 

225 

97.53 

267 

115.74 

142 

61.56 

184 

79.77 

226 

97.97 

268 

116.17 

143 

62.00 

185 

80.20 

227 

98.40 

269 

116.61 

144 

62.43 

186 

80.63 

228 

98.83 

270 

117.04 

145 

62.86 

187 

81.07 

229 

99.27 

271 

117.47 

146 

63.29 

188 

81.50 

230 

99.70 

272 

117.91 

147 

63.73 

189 

81.93 

231 

100.13 

273 

118.34 

148 

64.16 

190 

82.37 

232 

100.56 

274 

118.77 

149 

64.59 

191 

82.80 

233 

101.00 

275 

119.21 

150 

65.03 

192 

83  .  23 

234 

101.43 

276 

119.64 

151 

65.46 

193 

83.67 

235 

101.86 

277 

120.07 

152 

65.89 

194 

84.10 

236 

102.30 

278 

120.51 

153 

66.33 

195 

84.53 

237 

102.73 

279 

120.94 

154 

66.76 

196 

84.97 

238 

103.16 

2SO 

121.38 

155 

67.19 

197 

85.40 

239 

103.60 

281 

121.81 

156 

67.63 

198 

85.83 

240 

104.03 

282 

122.24 

157 

68.06 

199 

86.27 

241 

104.46 

283 

122.68 

158 

68.49 

200 

86.70 

242 

104.90 

284 

123.11 

159 

68.93 

201 

87.13 

243 

105.33 

285 

123.54 

160 

69.36 

202 

87.56 

244 

105.76 

286 

123.98 

161 

69.79 

203 

88.00 

245 

106.20 

287 

124.41 

162 

70.23 

204 

88.43 

246 

106.63 

288 

124.84 

163 

70.66 

205 

88.85 

247 

107.06 

289 

125  28 

164 

71.10 

206 

89.30 

248 

107.50 

290 

125.71 

165 

71.53 

207 

89.73 

249 

107.93 

291 

126  14 

166    71.96 

208 

90.15 

250 

108.37 

292 

126.58 

167 

72.40 

209 

90.60 

251 

108.80 

293 

127.01 

168 

72.83 

210 

91.03 

252 

109.23 

294 

127.44 

169 

73.26 

211 

91.46 

253 

109.67 

295 

127.88 

170 

73.70 

212 

91.90 

254 

110.10 

296 

128  31 

171 

74.13 

213 

92.33 

255 

110.53 

297 

128  .  74 

172 

74.56 

214 

92.76 

256 

110.97 

298 

129  .  18 

173 

75.00 

215 

93  .  20 

257 

111.40 

299 

129.61 

174 

75.43 

216 

93.63 

258 

111.83 

300 

130.05 

640 


VELOCITY  OF  WATER. 


VELOCITY  OF  WATER. 

Table  giving  velocity  of  water  in  feet  per  second,  and  the  cubic  feet  of 
water  per  minute,  to  develop  one  horse-power  at  80  per  cent  duty  under 
heads  from  1  to  108  feet. 


Head 

Veloc- 
ity. 

Cubic 
Feet. 

Head 

Veloc- 
ity. 

Cubic 
Feet. 

Head 

Veloc- 
ity. 

Cubic 
Feet, 

1 

8.02 

661  .  765 

37 

48.78 

17.886 

73 

68.53 

9.065 

2 

11.34 

330  .  883 

38 

49.44 

17.415 

74 

69.00 

8.943 

3 

13.89 

220.589 

39 

50.09 

16.968 

75 

69.46 

8.822 

4 

16.04 

165.441 

40 

50.72 

16.544 

76 

69.92 

8.707 

5 

17.92 

132.353 

41 

51.35 

16.141 

77 

70.38 

8.594 

6 

19.65 

110.294 

42 

54.98 

15.756 

78 

70.84 

8.484 

7 

21.22 

94.538 

43 

52.59 

15.390 

79 

71.29 

8.377 

8 

22.68 

82.720 

44 

53.20 

15.040 

80 

71  .  74 

8.272 

9 

24.06 

73  .  529 

45 

53.80 

14.706 

81 

72.19 

8.170 

10 

25.36 

66.177 

46 

54.40 

14.368 

82 

72.63 

8.070 

11 

26.60 

60.160 

47 

54.99 

14.080 

83 

73.07 

7  973 

12 

27.78 

55.147 

48 

55.57 

13.787 

84 

73.51 

7.878 

13 

28.92 

50.905 

49 

56.14 

13  .  505 

85 

73.95 

7.785 

14 

30.01 

47.269 

50 

56.71 

13.236 

86 

74.38 

7.695 

15 

31.06 

44.118 

51 

57.27 

12.976 

87 

74.81 

7.606 

16 

32.08 

41  .  360 

52 

57.84 

12.726 

88 

75.24 

7.520 

17 

33.07 

38  .  927 

53 

58.39 

12.486 

89 

75.67 

7.436 

18 

34.03 

36.765 

54 

58.93 

12.255 

90 

76.09 

7.353 

19 

34.96 

34  .  830 

55 

59.48 

12.032 

91 

76.51 

7.272 

20 

35.87 

33  .  088 

56 

60.01 

11.817 

92 

76.93 

7.193 

21 

36.75 

31.513 

57 

60.56 

11.610 

93 

77.35 

7.116 

22 

37.61 

30.080 

58 

61.08 

11.410 

94 

77.76 

7.040 

23 

38.46 

28.772 

59 

61.61 

11.216 

95 

78.18 

6.966 

24 

39.29 

27  .  574 

60 

62.12 

11.029 

96 

78.59 

6.893 

25 

40.10 

26.471 

61 

62.71 

10.849 

97 

79.00 

6.822 

26 

40.89 

25.453 

62 

63.15 

10.674 

98  * 

79.40 

6.753 

27 

41.67 

24.510 

63 

63.66 

10.504 

99 

79.81 

6.685 

28 

42.44 

23  .  634 

64 

64.16 

10.340 

100 

80.22 

6.618 

29 

43.19 

22.819 

65 

64.66 

10.181 

101 

80.61 

6.552 

30 

43.93 

22.059 

66 

65.16 

10.027 

102 

81.01 

6.487 

31 

44.65 

21  .  347 

67 

65.65 

9.877 

103 

81.40 

6.425 

32 

45.37 

20.680 

68 

66.14 

9.732 

104 

81.80 

6.363 

33 

46.07 

20.053 

69 

66.62 

9.591 

105 

82.19 

6.303 

34 

46.77 

19.464 

70 

67.11 

9.454 

106 

82.58 

6.243 

35 

47.45 

18.908 

71 

67.58 

9.321 

107 

82.97 

6.185 

36 

48.12 

18.382 

72 

68.06 

9.191 

108 

83.35 

6.127 

FLOW  OF  WATER  THROUGH  NOZZLES.        641 


TABLE  SHOWING  FLOW  OF  WATER  THROUGH  NOZZLES. 
Quantity  and  Horse-power. 


Diameters  of  Nozzles. 

1 
1 

1  Inch. 

1.5  Inches. 

2  Inches. 

2.5  Inches. 

3  Inches. 

1 

CQ 

1 

|| 

1 

PH  v 

1 

|| 

-power. 

ll 

I 

ll 

•power. 

1 

fl 

ll 

o 

|| 

o 

fl 

'.3     <3 

1 

'if 

i 

o 

K 

o  a 

W 

Oa 

n 

o  a 

w 

o  a 

w 

o  a 

w 

5 

17.95 

.091 

.051 

.205 

.113 

.364 

.204 

.56 

.315 

.820 

.452 

10 

25.38 

.129 

.146 

.290 

.329 

.516 

.584 

.805 

.915 

1.16 

1.32 

15 

31.08 

.158 

.269 

.355 

.505 

.632 

1.08 

.985 

1.68 

1.42 

2.42 

20 

35.89 

.182 

.414 

.410 

.931 

.728 

1.66 

.14 

2.58 

1.64 

3.72 

25 

40.13 

.204 

.578 

.458 

1.30 

.816 

2.31 

.27 

3.61 

1.83 

5.20 

30 

43.95 

.228 

.760 

.513 

1.71 

.912 

3.04 

.42 

4.75 

2.05 

6.84 

35 

47.47 

.241 

.958 

.542 

2.15 

.964 

3.83 

.51 

5.98 

2.17 

8.60 

40 

50.75 

.257 

1.17 

.579 

2.63 

1.03 

4.68 

.61 

7.31 

2.32 

10.52 

45 

53.83 

.273 

1.40 

.614 

3.14 

1.09 

5.60 

.71 

8.23 

2.46 

12.56 

50 

56.75 

.288 

1.64 

.648 

3.68 

1.15 

6.56 

.79 

10.22 

2.59 

14.72 

60 

62.16 

.385 

2.15 

.709 

4.84 

1.26 

8.60 

1.97 

13.43 

2.84 

19.36 

70 

67.14 

.341 

2.71 

.766 

6.10 

1.36 

10.84 

2.13 

16.93 

3.06 

24.40 

80 

71.78 

.364 

3.31 

.819 

7.45 

1.46 

13.24 

2.27 

20.69 

3.28 

20.80 

90 

76.13 

.386 

3.95 

.864 

8.88 

1.54 

15.80 

2.44 

24.68 

3.46 

35.52 

100 

80.25 

.407 

4.63 

.916 

10.41 

1.63 

18.52 

2.54 

28.90 

3.66 

41.64 

125 

89.72 

.455 

6.47 

.02 

14.55 

1.82 

25.88 

2.81 

40.40 

4.08 

58.20 

150 
175 

98.28 
106.1 

.499 
.539 

8.50 
10.70 

.12 
.21 

19.12 
24.07 

2.00 
2.16 

34.00 
42.80 

3.H53.12 
3.3666.86 

4.48 
4.84 

76.48 
96.28 

200 
250 

113.5 
127.1 

.576 
.644 

13.1 

18.3 

.29 
.45 

29.43 
41  .  13 

2.3052.4 
2.5873.2 

3.5081.75 
4.021114.2 

5.10 
5.80 

117.7 
164.5 

300 
350 
400 

139.0 
150.1 
160.5 

.705 
.762 
.814 

24.0 
30.3 
37.0 

.59 
.71 
.83 

54.07 
68.15 
83.25 

2.8296.0 
3.05  121.2 
3.26148.0 

4.40  150.2 
4.76189.3 
5.09231.2 

6.36 
6.84 
7.32 

216.3 
272.6 
323.0 

450 

170.2 

.864 

44.2 

.94 

99.34 

3.46  176.8 

5.401276.0 

7.76 

397.4 

500 

179.4 

910 

51.7 

2.05 

116.5 

3.64^206.8 

5.60323.2 

8.20 

406.0 

550 

188.2 

.955 

59.7 

2.10 

134.2 

3.82238.8 

5.96 

372  .  7 

8.40 

536.8 

600 

196.6 

.999 

68.0 

2.23 

152.9 

3.99272.0 

6.23 

475.0 

8.92 

611.0 

700 

212.3 

1.06 

85.7 

2.46 

192.8 

4.36342.8 

6.79 

535  .  5 

9.84 

771.2 

800 

226.9 

1.15 

104.7 

2.58 

235  .  5 

4.60418.8 

7.19 

654.0 

10.32 

942.0 

900 

240.7 

1.22 

124.9 

2.75 

281.0 

4  .  88  499  .  6 

7.63 

780.5 

11.00 

1124 

1000 

253.8 

1.29 

146.2 

2.89 

329.0 

5.16 

584.8 

8.04 

914.0 

11.56 

1316 

i 

642 


FIRE  STREAMS. 


FIRE  STREAMS. 

Pressures  required  at  nozzle  and  at  pump,  with  quantity  and  pressure  of 
water  necessary  to  throw  water  various  distances  through  different-sized 
nozzles — using  2^-inch  rubber  hose  and  smooth  nozzles. — G.  A.  ELLIS,  C.E. 


Size  of  Nozzles. 

1  Inch. 

H  Inch. 

Pressure  at  nozzle  

40 

60 

80 

100 

40 

60 

80 

100 

*  Pressure    at  pump  or 

hydrant  with  100  ft. 

2^-inch  rubber  hose. 

48 

73 

97 

121 

54 

81 

108 

135 

Gallons  per  minute  

155 

189 

219 

245 

196 

240 

277 

310 

Horizontal         distance 

thrown   .  . 

109 

142 

168 

186 

113 

148 

175 

193 

Vertical  dist.  thrown  .  .  . 

79 

108 

131 

148 

81 

112 

137 

157 

Size  of  Nozzles. 

11  Inch. 

If  Inch. 

Pressure  at  nozzle  

40 

60 

80 

100 

40 

60 

80 

100 

*  Pressure  at  pump  or 

hydrant  with  100  ft. 

2^-inch  rubber  hose. 

61 

92 

123 

154 

71 

107 

144 

180 

Gallons  per  minute  
Horizontal         distance 

242 

297 

342 

383 

293 

358 

413 

462 

thrown  

118 

156 

186 

207 

124 

166 

200 

224 

Vertical  dist.  thrown.  .  . 

82 

115 

142 

164 

85 

118 

146 

169 

*  For  greater  lengths  of  2}-  hose  the  increased  friction  can  readily  be 
obtained  by  noting  the  differences  between  the  above  given  "pressure  at 
nozzle''  and  "pressure  at  pump  or  hydrant  with  100  feet  of  hose."  For 
instance,  if  it  requires  at  hydrant  or  pump  8  Ibs.  more  pressure  than  it  does 
at  nozzle  to  overcome  the  friction  when  pumping  through  100  feet  of  2^-inch 
hose  (using  1-inch  nozzle,  with  40  Ibs.  pressure  at  said  nozzle),  then  it 
requires  16  Ibs.  pressure  to  overcome  the  friction  in  forcing  through  200 
feet  of  same  size  hose. 


FLOW  OF  WATER  THROUGH  IRON  PIPES.    643 


FABLE   SHOWING    FLOW   OF   WATER    PER   SECOND  THROUGH 
CLEAN  IRON  PIPES. 


Fall  in 
"eet  per 
100 
Feet 
of 
Pipe. 

.10 
.12 
.14 
.16 
.18  , 
.20 
.22 
.24 
.26 
.28 
.30 
.35 
.40 
.50 
.60 
.70 
.80 
.90 
1.00 
1.20 
1.40 
1.60 
1.80 
2.00 
3.00 
4.00 
5.00 
6.00 
7.00 
8.00 
9.00 
10.00 
12.00 
14.00 
15.98 
18.00 
20.00 
25.00 
30.00 
40.00 
50.00 
60.00 
70.00 

Diameters. 

lln. 
Cu.  Ft. 

2  In. 

Cu.  Ft. 

3  In. 

Cu.  Ft. 

4  In. 
Cu.  Ft. 

6  In. 

Cu.  Ft. 

8  In. 
Cu.  Ft. 

10  In. 
Cu.  Ft. 

11  In. 
Cu.  Ft. 

12  In. 

Cu.  Ft. 

'  i  .'  i2o 

1.221 
.320 
.394 
.490 
.580 
.653 
.722 
.788 
.854 
.996 
2.136 
2.397 
2.636 
2.858 
3.062 
3.232 
3.419 
3.760 
4.016 
4.390 
4.679 
5.251 
6.086 
7.022 
8.244 

1.265 
1.402 
1.489 
1.634 
1.728 
1.846 
1.940 
2.026 
2.117 
2.207 
2.297 
2.466 
2.662 
3.020 
3.310 
3.601 
3.856 
4.072 
4.305 
4.728 
5.094 
5.482 
5.839 
6.160 
7.630 
8.860 
9.967 

.878 
.960 
1.047 
1.110 
1.194 
1.265 
1.325 
1.377 
1.423 
1.470 
1.587 
1.683 
1.865 
2.059 
2.222 
2.383 
2.514 
2.662 
2.932 
3.210 
3.450 
3.679 
3.856 
4.762 
5.563 
6.704 

.573 
.611 
.639 
.659 
.703 
.737 
.768 
.808 
.876 
.931 
1.045 
1.575 
1.262 
1.344 
1.424 
1.496 
1.644 
1.782 
1.916 
2.033 
2.155 
2.667 
3.145 
3.513 
3.847 
4.196 

'  !  298 
.314 
.330 
.346 
.359 
.377 
.395 
.444 
.496 
.548 
.589 
.631 
.672 
.721 
.784 
.858 
.922 
.975 
1.022 
1.263 
1.484 
1.665 
1  .  929 
1.976 
2.144 
2.274 
2.399 

'  .'0630 
.0692 
.0749 
.0839 
.0915 
.0992 
.1080 
.1119 
.1190 
.1313 
.1413 
.1507 
.1590 
.1717 
.2081 
.2469 
.2785 
.3049 
.3331 
.3559 
.3816 
.4043 
.4440 
.4977 
.5131 
.5436 
.5832 
.6523 

.1235 
.1298 
.1335 
.1465 
.1562 
.1771 
.1923 
.2146 
.  2339 
.2460 
.2582 
.2893 
.3036 
.3237 
.3412 
.3607 
.4503 
.5331 
.5954 
.6390 
.6967 
.7506 
.7960 
.9464 
.9270 
1  .  0060 
1.0810 

.,!!.. 

.'02584 
.02924 
.03274 
.  03492 
.03776 
.04081 
.04321 
.  04843 
.05150 
.05456 
.05740 
.06111 
.07399 
.  08734 
.1095 
.1200 
.1288 
.1375 
.1442 
.1523 
.1634. 
.1748 
.1855 
.1955 
.2047 
.2276 
.2483 
.2833 

.'66567 
.00617 
.00677 
.00781 
.00841 
.00886 
.00961 
.00990 
.01245 
.01492 
.01666 
.01857 
.01988 
.02141 
.  02283 
.02424 
.02676 
.02890 
.03081 
.03276 
.03458 
.03897 
.04316 
.04987 
.  05648 
.06320 
.  06943 



To  find  the  velocity  in  feet  per  second  necessary  to  carry  a  given  quan- 
ity  of  water  in  a  pipe  of  given  diameter,  divide  the  quantity  in  cubic  feet 
ier  second  by  the  area  of  the  pipe  in  square  feet;  the  quotient  will  give 
he  velocity. 


644    FLOW  OF  WATER  THROUGH  IRON  PIPES. 

TABLE  SHOWING   FLOW   OF   WATER  PER  SECOND   THROUGH 
CLEAN   IRON   PIPES. 


Diameter. 

Fall  in 

Feet  per 

100  Feet 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

30 

36 

40 

48 

of  Pipe. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Cu. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

.02 

10.29 

13.88 

22.98 

!o3 

7  78 

12.70 

17.00 

27  89 

!o4 

8.99 

14  56 

19!  68 

32^93 

05 

7  48  1024 

16  35 

22  08 

37^00 

!06 

3.61 

4.61 

6.10 

7.61  ;  10.  97 

18.02 

24^43 

40^21 

.07 

2.25 

3.10 

4.07 

5.25 

6.64 

8.27  11.90 

19.76 

26.27 

43.67 

.08 

1.71 

'2.05 

2.43    3.27 

4.35 

5.62 

7.13 

8.70  12.84 

20.85 

28.14 

46.81 

.09 

1.83 

2.19 

2.59!  3.49 

4.68 

6.01 

7.56 

9.36  13.48 

22.30 

29.80 

49.06 

.10 

1.91 

2.30 

2.72 

3.66 

4.92 

6.32 

7.95 

9.81 

14.21 

23.47 

31.46 

52.15 

.11 

2.02 

2.43 

2.88 

3.88 

5.15 

6.62 

8.34 

10.44 

15.05 

24.91 

33.25 

54.95 

.12 

2.11 

2.54 

3.02 

4.06 

5.40 

6.94 

8.75 

10.87 

15.81 

26.12 

34.68 

57.36 

.13 

2.18 

2.65 

3.18 

4.23 

5.62 

7.24 

9.14 

11.41 

16.47 

27.20 

36.21 

60.07 

.14 

2.27 

2.75 

3.28 

4.40 

5.82 

7.51 

9.47 

11.80 

17.18 

28.24 

37.57 

62.02 

.15 

2.35 

2.84 

3.39 

4.61 

6.05 

7.78 

9.80 

12.26 

17.94 

29.19 

39.18 

64.47 

.16 

2.44 

2.94 

3.49 

4.75 

6.27 

8.03 

10.13 

12.70 

18.58 

30.29 

40.54 

66.53 

.17 

2.54 

2.98 

3.62 

4.90 

6.48 

8.36 

10.57 

13.13 

19.21 

31.42 

41.88 

68.50 

.18 

2.59 

3.11 

3.69 

5.03 

6.65 

8.55 

10.77 

13.46 

19.66 

32.48 

43.07 

70.62 

.19 

2.67 

3.21 

3.81 

5.17 

6.92 

8.85 

11.10 

13.84 

20.32 

33.40 

44.28 

72.75 

20 

2.72 

3.29 

3.92 

5.30 

7.05 

9.07 

11.43 

14.23 

20.79 

34.49 

45.20 

74.44 

.22 

2.88 

3.47 

4.12 

5.63 

7.42 

9.55 

12.05 

14.98 

21.80 

36.15 

48.12 

78.29 

.24 

3.02 

3.63 

4.32 

5.87 

7.79 

10.01 

12.61 

15.69 

22.83 

37.74 

50.48 

81.68 

.26 

3.15 

3  79 

4.51 

6.18 

8.14 

10.48 

13.23 

16.42 

23.93 

39.40 

52.67 

85.20 

.'28 

3.29 

3.95 

4.68 

6.38 

8.48 

10.91 

13.79 

17.07 

24.86 

40.86 

55.04 

88.46 

*30 

3  42 

4.11 

4.87 

6.64 

8.77 

11.29 

14.25 

17.75 

25.87 

42.28 

56.33 

91.73 

!35 

3.62 

4.46 

5.31 

7.17 

9.49 

12.25 

15.50 

19.25 

27.96 

45.95 

61.09 

100.40 

.40 
.50 
60 

3.99 
4.46 
4.91 

4.78 
5.37 
5.91 

5.67 
6.39 
7.02 

7.65 
8.66 
9.54 

10.16 
11.43 
12.59 

13.12 
14.78 
16.20 

16.62 
18.71 
20.42 

20.62 
23.13 
25.30 

29.84 
33.55 
36.79 

48.83 
54.89 
59.95 

65.41 
73.09 
80.32 

105.89 
119.34 
130.88 

70 

5^37 

6.45 

7.66 

10.33 

13.66 

17.53 

22.05  27.12 

39.66 

65.17 

86.70  148.09 

'.80 

5.77 

6.90 

8.16 

11.09 

14.66 

18.78 

23.6129.20 

42.39 

69.80 

92.58 

153.49 

f\{\ 

C  1  1 

7  31 

8  64 

11  71 

15  54 

19.93 

25.07  31.00 

45.23 

74.33 

98.00 

.yu 
1.00 

0.  1  i 

6  44 

/  .0  1 

7  70 

9!  10 

12.37 

16^47 

21.06 

26.42  32.73 

47.71 

78.46 

103.99 

L20 

7.00 

8.39 

9.95 

13.65 

17.99 

23.07 

29.0336.18 

52.91 

82.84 



1  40 

7.60 

9.15 

10.87 

14.75 

19.49 

24.68 

31.49  39.31 

57.65 



1.60 

8.17 

9.81 

11.63 

15.84 

21.03 

26.97 

33.9042.35 

1  f\   A*7 

i  <y  jq 

in  on 

22  45 

29.70 

36.18  44.10 

1.80 

8.93 

O  OA 

1U.4/ 

HfiQ 

[Z.  4o 
1014 

lo.yu 
17.85 

23.56 

5L15 

38*45 

2.00 

0    f)f\ 

y.zo 

nOQ 

.uy 

1  3  fifi 

lo.  I1* 

16  17 

2L86 

28^86 

o.UU 
4.00 

.oy 
13.22 

lo.  00 

15.84 

18.77 

To  find  the  area  of  a  required  pipe,  the  quantity  and  velocity  being  given, 
divide  the  quantity  in  a  stated  time  by  the  velocity  in  the  same  period ;  the 
quotient  will  be  the  required  area,  from  which  the  diameter  may  readily  be 
calculated. 


LOSS  OF  HEAD  BY  FRICTION. 


645 


LOSS  OF  HEAD  BY  FRICTION. 

The  following  tables  give  the  friction  head  in  pipe  1  to  12  inches  diam- 
ter,  per  100  feet  length,  with  velocities  from  2  to  7  feet  per  second. 

INSIDE  DIAMETER  OF  PIPE  IN  INCHES. 


'   1  _  _ 

L 

t 

J 

I 

t 

4 

[ 

eioc- 

Kin 
_i 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

set 

Head 

Feet 

Head 

Feet 

Head 

Feet 

Head 

Feet 

per 

o_rt 

in 

per 

in 

per 

in 

per 

in 

per 

oec. 

Feet. 

Min. 

Feet. 

Min. 

Feet. 

Min. 

Feet. 

Min. 

2.0 

2.37 

.65 

1.185 

2.62 

.791 

5.89 

.593 

10.4 

2.2 

2.80 

.73 

1.404 

2.88 

.936 

6.48 

.702 

11.5 

2.4 

3.27 

.79 

1.639 

3.14 

1.093 

7.07 

.819 

12.5 

2.6 

3.78 

.86 

1.891 

3.40 

1.26 

7.65 

.945 

13.6 

2.8 

4.32 

.92 

2.16 

3.66 

1.44 

8.24 

1.08 

14.6 

3.0 

4.89 

.99 

2.44 

3.92 

1.62 

8.83 

1.22 

15.7 

3.2 

5.47 

.06 

2.73 

4.18 

1.82 

9.42 

1.37 

16.7 

3.4 

6.09 

.12 

3.05 

4.45 

2.04 

10.00 

1.52 

17.8 

3.6 

6.76 

.19 

3.38 

4.71 

2.26 

10.60 

1.69 

18.8 

3.8 

7.48 

.26 

3.74 

4.97 

2.49 

11.20 

1.87 

19.9 

4.0 

8.20 

.32 

4.10 

5.23 

2.73 

11.80 

2.05 

20.9 

4.2 

8.97 

.39 

4.49 

5.49 

2.98 

12.30 

2.24 

22.0 

4.4 

9.77 

.45 

4.89 

5.76 

3.25 

12.90 

2.43 

23.0 

4.6 

10.60 

.52 

5.30 

6.02 

3.53 

13.50 

2.64 

24.0 

4.8 

11.45 

.58 

5.72 

6.28 

3.81 

14.10 

2.85 

25.1 

5.0 

12.33 

.65 

6.17 

6.54 

4.11 

14.70 

3.08 

26.2 

5.2 

13.24 

.72 

6.62 

6.80 

4.41 

15.30 

3.31 

27.2 

5.4 

14.20 

1.78 

7.10 

7.06 

4.73 

15.90 

3.55 

28.2 

5.6 

15.16 

1.85 

7.58 

7.32 

5.06 

16.50 

3.79 

29.3 

5.8 

16.17 

1.91 

8.09 

7.58 

5.40 

17.10 

4.04 

30.3 

6.0 

17.23 

1.98 

8.61 

7.85 

5.74 

17.70 

4.31 

31.4 

7.0 

22.89 

2.31 

11.45 

9.16 

7.62 

20.60 

5.72 

36.6 

INSIDE  DIAMETER  OF  PIPE  IN  INCHES. 


^ln/» 

t 

( 

5 

r 

* 

j 

61OC— 

tyin 

7»     ~.f 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

.  C6  1 

Head 

Feet 

Head 

Feet 

Head 

Feet 

Head 

Feet 

per 
Sec. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

in 
Feet. 

Min. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

in 
Feet. 

M?n. 

2.0 

.474 

16.3 

.395 

23.5 

.338 

32.0 

.96 

41.9 

2.2 

.561 

18.0 

.468 

25.9 

.401 

35.3 

.351 

46.1 

2.4 

.650 

19.6 

.547 

28.2 

.468 

38.5 

.410 

50.2 

2.6 

.757 

21.3 

.631 

30.6 

.540 

41.7 

.473 

54.4 

2.8 

.864 

22.9 

.720 

32.9 

.617 

44.9 

.540 

58.6 

3.0 

.978 

24.5 

.815 

35.3 

.698 

48.1 

.611 

62.8 

3.2 

.098 

26.2 

.915 

37.7 

.785 

51.3 

.686 

67.0 

3.4 

.22 

27.8 

1.021 

40.0 

.875 

54.5 

.765 

71.2 

3.6 

.35 

29.4 

1.131 

42.4 

.969 

57.7 

.848 

75.4 

3.8 

.49 

31.0 

1.25 

44.7 

1.070 

60.9 

.936 

79.6 

4.0 

.64 

32.7 

1.37 

47.1 

1.175 

64.1 

1.027 

83.7 

4.2 

.79 

34.3 

1.49 

49.5 

1.28 

67.3 

1.122 

87.9 

4.4 

.95 

36.0 

1.62 

51.8 

1.39 

70.5 

1.22 

92.1 

4.6 

2.11 

37.6 

1.76 

54.1 

1.51 

73.7 

.32 

96.3 

4.8 

2.27 

39.2 

1.90 

56.5 

1.63 

76.9 

.43 

100.0 

5.0 

2.46 

40.9 

2.05 

58.9 

1.76 

80.2 

.54 

105.0 

5.2 

2.65 

42.5 

2.21 

61.2 

1.89 

83.3 

.65 

109.0 

5.4 

2.84 

44.2 

2.37 

63.6 

2.03 

86.6 

.77 

113.0 

5.6 

3.03 

45.8 

2.53 

65.9 

2.17 

89.8 

.89 

117.0 

5.8 

3.24 

47.4 

2.70 

68.3 

2.31 

93.0 

2.01 

121.0 

6.0 

3.45 

49.1 

2.87 

70.7 

2.46 

96.2 

2.15 

125.0 

7.0 

4.57 

57.2 

3.81 

82.4 

3.26 

112.0 

2.85 

146.0 

LOSS  OF  HEAD  BY  FRICTION. 


LOSS   OF  HEAD   BY  FRICTION— (Continued). 
INSIDE  DIAMETER  OF  PIPE  IN  INCHES. 


J 

> 

1 

0 

1 

1 

1 

3 

ity  in 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

Pf!" 

in 

per 

in 

per 

in 

per 

in 

per 

bee. 

Feet. 

Min. 

Feet. 

Min. 

Feet. 

Min. 

Feet. 

Min. 

2.0 

.264 

53 

.237 

65.4 

.216 

79.2 

.198 

94 

2.2 

.312 

58.3 

.281 

72 

.255 

87.1 

.234 

103 

2.4 

.365 

63.6 

.327 

78.5 

.297 

95.0 

.273 

113 

2.6 

.420 

68.9 

.378 

85.1 

.344 

103 

.315 

122 

2.8 

.480 

74.2 

.432 

91.6 

.392 

111 

.360 

132 

3.0 

.544 

79.5 

.488 

98.2 

.444 

119 

.407 

141 

3.2 

.609 

84.8 

.549 

105 

.499 

127 

.457 

151 

3.4 

.680 

90.1 

.612 

111 

.557 

134 

.510 

160 

3.6 

.755 

95.4 

.679 

118 

.617 

142 

.566 

169 

3.8 

.831 

101 

.749 

124 

.680 

150 

.624 

179 

4.0 

.913 

106 

.822 

131 

.747 

158 

.685 

188 

4.2 

.998 

111 

.897 

137 

.816 

166 

.749 

198 

4.4 

.086 

116 

.977 

144 

.888 

174 

.815 

207 

4.6 

.177 

122 

1.059 

150 

.963 

182 

.883 

217 

4.8 

.27 

127 

.145 

157 

1.040 

190 

.954 

226 

5.0 

.37 

132 

.23 

163 

1.122 

198 

.028 

235 

5.2 

.47 

138 

.32 

170 

1.20 

206 

.104 

245 

5.4 

.57 

143 

.41 

177 

I1.  28 

214 

.183 

254 

5.6 

.68 

148 

.51 

183 

1.37 

222 

.26 

264 

5.8 

.80 

154 

1.61 

190 

1.46 

229 

.34 

273 

6.0 

.92 

159 

1.71 

196 

1.56 

237 

1.43 

283 

7.0 

2.52 

185 

2.28 

229 

2.07 

277 

1.91 

330 

The  following  tables  give  the  friction  head  in  pipe  13  to  36  inches'  diam- 
eter, per  100  feet  length  with  velocities  of  water  from  2  to  7  feet  per  second. 

INSIDE  DIAMETER  OF  PIPE  IN  INCHES. 


Volr»r> 

1 

3 

1 

4 

1 

5 

1 

6 

V  eioc- 
ity  in 

Tr*    -.4. 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

Loss  of 

Cubic 

.feet 

Head 

Feet 

Head 

Feet 

Head 

Feet 

Head 

Feet 

per 
Sec. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

in 
Feet. 

M?n. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

2.0 

.183 

110 

.169 

128 

.158 

147 

.147 

167 

2.2 

.216 

121 

.200 

141 

.187 

162 

.175 

184 

2.4 

.252 

133 

.234 

154 

.218 

176 

.205 

201 

2.6 

.290 

144 

.270 

167 

.252 

191 

.236 

218 

2.8 

.332 

156 

.308 

179 

.288 

206 

.270 

234 

3.0 

.375 

166 

.349 

192 

.325 

221 

.306 

251 

3.2 

.422 

177 

.392 

205 

.366 

235 

.343 

268 

3.4 

.471 

188 

.438 

218 

.408 

250 

.383 

284 

3.6 

.522 

199 

.485 

231 

.452 

265 

.425 

301 

3.8 

.576 

210 

.535 

243 

.499 

280 

.468 

318 

4.0 

.632 

221 

.587 

256 

.548 

294 

.513 

335 

4.2 

.691 

232 

.641 

269 

.598 

309 

.561 

352 

4.4 

.751 

243 

.698 

282 

.651 

324 

.611 

368 

4.6 

.815 

254 

.757 

295 

.707 

339 

.662 

385 

4.8 

.881 

265 

.818 

308 

.763 

353 

.715 

402 

5.0 

.949 

276 

.881 

321 

.822 

368 

.770 

419 

5.2 

.020 

287 

.947 

333 

.883 

383 

.828 

435 

5.4 

.092 

298 

1.014 

346 

.947 

397 

.888 

452 

5.6 

.167 

309 

1.083 

359 

1.011 

412 

.949 

469 

5.8 

.245 

321 

1.155 

372 

1.078 

427 

1.011 

486 

6.0 

.325 

332 

1.229 

385 

1.148 

442 

1.076 

502 

7.0 

1.75 

387 

1.630 

449 

1.520 

515 

1.430 

586 

LOSS  OF  HEAD  BY  FRICTION. 


647 


LOSS   OF  HEAD    BY   FRICTION— (Continued). 
INSIDE  DIAMETER  OF  PIPE  IN  INCHES. 


18 

20 

22 

24 

Veloc- 
ity in 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

per 
Sec. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

2.0 

.132 

212 

.119 

262 

.108 

316 

.098 

377 

2  2 

.156 

233 

.140 

288 

.127 

348 

.116 

414 

2.4 

.182 

254 

.164 

314 

.149 

380 

.136 

452 

2  6 

.210 

275 

.189 

340 

.171 

412 

.157 

490 

2.8 

.210 

297 

.216 

366 

.195 

443 

.180 

528 

3  0 

.271 

318 

.245 

393 

.222 

475 

.204 

565 

3.2 

.305 

339 

.275 

419 

.249 

507 

.229 

603 

3  4 

.339 

360 

.306 

445 

.278 

538 

.255 

641 

3.6 

.377 

382 

.339 

471 

.308 

570 

.283 

678 

3.8 

.416 

403 

.374 

497 

.340 

601 

.312 

716 

4.0 

.456 

424 

.410 

523 

.373 

633 

.342 

754 

4.2 

.499 

445 

.449 

550 

.408 

665 

.374 

791 

4.4 

.542 

466 

.488 

576 

.444 

697 

.407 

829 

4.6 

.588 

483 

.529 

602 

.'482 

728 

.441 

867 

4.8 

.636 

509 

.572 

628 

.521 

760 

.476 

905 

5.0 

.685 

530 

.617 

654 

.561 

792 

.513 

942 

5.2 

.736 

551 

.662 

680 

.602 

823 

.552 

980 

5.4 

.788 

572 

.710 

707 

.645 

855 

.591 

1018 

5.6 

.843 

594 

.758 

733 

.690 

887 

.632 

1055 

5.8 

.899 

615 

.809 

759 

.735 

918 

.674 

1093 

6.0 

.957 

636 

.861 

785 

.782 

950 

.717 

1131 

7.0 

1.270 

742 

1.143 

916 

1.040 

1109 

.953 

1319 

INSIDE  DIAMETER  OF  PIPE  IN  INCHES. 


IT   1 

26 

28 

30 

36 

veloc- 
ity in 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

Loss  of 
Head 

Cubic 
Feet 

per 

Sec. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

in 
Feet. 

per 
Min. 

in 
Feet. 

iSfn. 

2.0 

.091 

442 

.084 

513 

.079 

589 

.066 

848 

2  2 

.108 

486 

.099 

564 

.093 

648 

.078 

933 

2.4 

.126 

531 

.116 

616 

.109 

707 

.091 

1018 

2  6 

.145 

575 

.134 

667 

.126 

766 

.104 

1100 

2.8 

.165 

619 

.153 

718 

.144 

824 

.119 

1188 

3  0 

.188 

663 

.174 

770 

.163 

883 

.135 

1273 

3.2 

.211 

708 

.195 

821 

.182 

942 

.152 

1357 

3.4 

.235 

752 

.218 

872 

.204 

1001 

.169 

1442 

3.6 

.261 

796 

.242 

923 

.226 

1060 

.188 

1527 

3.8 

.288 

840 

.267 

974 

.249 

1119 

.207 

1612 

4.0 

.315 

885 

.293 

1026 

.273 

1178 

.228 

1697 

4.2 

.345 

929 

.320 

1077 

.299 

1237 

.249 

1782 

4.4 

.375 

973 

.348 

1129 

.325 

1296 

.271 

1866 

4.6 

.407 

1017 

.378 

1180 

.353 

1355 

.294 

1951 

4.8 

.440 

1062 

.409 

1231 

.381 

1414 

.318 

2036 

5.0 

.474 

H06 

.440 

1283 

.411 

1472 

.342 

2121 

5.2 

.510 

1150 

.473 

1334 

.441 

1531 

.368 

2206 

5.4 

.546 

1194 

.507 

1385 

.473 

1590 

.394 

2291 

5.6 

.583 

1239 

.542 

1437 

.506 

1649 

.421 

2376 

5.8 

.622 

1283 

.578 

1488 

.540 

1708 

.450 

2460 

6.0 

.662 

1327 

.615 

1539 

.574 

1767 

.479 

2545 

7.0 

.879 

1548 

.817 

1796 

.762 

2061 

.636 

2968 

Example. — Have  200  feet  head  and  600  feet  of  11-inch  pipe,  carrying  119 
cubic  feet  of  water  per  minute.  To  find  effective  head.  In  right-hand 
column  under  11-inch  pipe,  find  119  cubic  feet;  opposite  this  will  be  found 
the  coefficient  of  friction  for  this  amount  of  water,  which  is  444.  Multiply 
this  by  the  number  of  hundred  feet  of  pipe,  which  is  6,  and  you  will  have 
2.66  feet,  which  is  the  loss  of  head.  Therefore  the  effective  head  is  200- 
2.66  =  197.34. 


648    CAPACITIES  OF  PIPES  OF  VARIOUS  SIZES. 


CONTENTS  IN  CUBIC  FEET,  U.  S.  GALLONS,  AND  WEIGHT  OF 
WATER  PER  FOOT  LENGTH  FOR  PIPE  OF  VARIOUS 
DIAMETERS,  ALSO  AREA  IN  SQUARE  FEET  AND  INCHES, 
AND  CIRCUMFERENCE  IN  INCHES. 


Diam- 
eter of 
Pipe  in 
Inches. 

Area  in  Sq. 
Feet  or 
Contents  in 
Cubic  Feet 
per  Foot 
of  Length. 

Contents  in 
U.  S.  Gal- 
lons per 
Foot 
Length. 

Weight  of 
Water  in 
One-foot 
Length,  in 
Pounds. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Inches. 

Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 

1 

.0055 

.0408 

.34 

.78 

3.14 

2 

.0218 

.1632 

1.36 

3.14 

6.28 

3 

.0491 

.3672 

3.06 

7.06 

9.42 

4 

.0873 

.6528 

5.44 

12.56 

12.56 

5 

.1364 

1.020 

8.51 

19.63 

15.70 

6 

.1963 

1.469 

12.25 

28.27 

18.85 

7 

.2673 

1.999 

16.68 

38.48 

21.99 

8 

.3491 

2.611 

21.79 

50.26 

25.13 

9 

.4418 

3.305 

27.57 

63.61 

28.27 

10 

.5454 

4.08 

34.04 

78.54 

31.41 

11 

.66 

4.937 

41.19 

95.03 

34.55 

12 

.7854 

5.875 

49.02 

113.10 

37.69 

13 

.9218 

6.895 

57.54 

132.73 

40.84 

14 

1.069 

7.997 

66.73 

153.94 

43.98 

15 

1.227 

9.180 

76.60 

176.71 

47.12 

16 

1.396 

10.44 

87.16 

201.06 

50.26 

18 

1.768 

13.22 

110.31 

254.47 

56.54 

20 

2.182 

16.32 

136.19 

314.16 

62.83 

22 

2.640 

19.75 

164.79 

380.13 

69.11 

24 

3.142 

23.50 

196.11 

452.39 

75.39 

26 

3.687 

27.58 

230.16 

530.93 

81.68 

28 

4.276 

31.99 

266  .  93 

615.75 

87.96 

30 

4.009 

36  .  72 

306.42 

706.86 

94.24 

32 

5.585 

41.78 

348  .  64 

804  .  25 

100.53 

34 

6.305 

47.16 

393.59 

907.92 

106.81 

36 

7.069 

52.88 

441.25 

1017.9 

113.09 

38 

7.876 

58.92 

491.64 

1134.1 

119.38 

40 

8.727 

65.28 

544.76 

1256.6 

125.66 

42 

9.621 

71.97 

600.59 

1385.4 

131.94 

44 

10.559 

78.99 

659.16 

1520.5 

138.23 

46 

11.541 

86.33 

720.44 

1661.9 

144.51 

48 

12.566 

94.00 

784  .  45 

1809.6 

150.79 

50 

13.635 

102.00 

851.18 

1963.5 

157.08 

52 

14.748 

110.32 

920.64 

2123.7 

163.36 

54 

15.90 

118.97 

992  .  82 

2290  .  2 

169.64 

60 

19.63 

146.88 

1225.71 

2827.4 

.188.49 

66 

23.76 

177.72 

1483.11 

3421.2 

207.34 

72 

28.27 

211.51 

1765.02 

4071.5 

226.19 

NUMBER  OF  GALLONS  OF  WATER  IN  TANKS-  649 


NUMBER   OF   GALLONS   IN   ROUND   CISTERNS  AND   TANKS. 


Diameter  in  Feet. 

Depth 

in 

Feet, 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

±2 

5 

735 

1,060 

1,440 

1,875 

2,380 

2,925 

3,550 

4,237 

6 

881 

1,270 

1,728 

2,250 

2,855 

3,510 

4,260 

5,084 

7 

1V028 

1,480 

2,016 

2,625 

3,330 

4,095 

4,970 

5,931 

g 

1,175 

1,690 

2,304 

3,000 

3,805 

4,680 

5,680 

6,778 

9 

1,322 

1,900 

2,592 

3,375 

4,280 

5,265 

6,390 

7,625 

10 

1,469 

2,110 

2,880 

3,750 

4,755 

5,850 

7,100 

8,472 

11 

1,616 

2,320 

3,168 

4,125 

5.250 

6,435 

7,810 

9,319 

12 

1,762 

2,530 

3,456 

4,500 

5,705 

7,020 

8,520 

10,166 

13 

1,909 

2,740 

3,744 

4,875 

6,180 

7,605 

9,230 

11,013 

14 

2,056 

2,950 

4,032 

5,250 

6,655 

8,190 

9,940 

11,860 

15 

2,203 

3,160 

4,320 

5,625 

7,130 

8,775 

10,650 

12,707 

16 

2,356 

3,370 

4,608 

6,000 

7,605 

9,360 

11,360 

13,554 

17 

2,497 

3,580 

4,896 

6,375 

8,080 

9,945 

12,070 

14,401 

18 

2,644 

3,790 

5,184 

6,750 

8,535 

10,530 

12,780 

15,248 

19 

2,791 

4,000 

5,472 

7,125 

9,010 

11,115 

13,490 

16,095 

20 

2,938 

4,210 

5,760 

7,500 

9,490 

11,700 

14,200 

16,942 

TV         J.U 

Diameter  in  Feet. 

Depth 

in 

Feet. 

13 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

5 

4,960 

5,765 

6,698 

7,520 

9,516 

11,750 

14,215 

16,918 

6 

5,952 

6,918 

8,038 

9,024 

11,419 

14,100 

17,059 

20,302 

7 

6,944 

8,071 

9,378 

10,528 

13,322 

16,450 

19,902 

23,680 

8 

7,936 

9,224 

10,718 

12,032 

15,225 

18,800 

22,745 

27,070 

9 

8,928 

10,377 

12,058 

13,536 

17,128 

21,150 

25,588 

30,454 

10 

9,920 

11,530 

13,398 

15,040 

19,031 

23,500 

28,431 

33,838 

11 

10,913 

12,683 

14,738 

16,544 

20,934 

25,850 

31,274 

37,222 

12 

11,904 

13,836 

16,078 

18.048 

22,837 

28,200 

34,117 

40,606 

13 

12,896 

14,989 

17,418 

19,552 

24,740 

30,550 

36,960 

43,990 

14 

13,888 

16,142 

18,758 

21,056 

26,643 

32,900 

39,803 

47,374 

15 

14,880 

17,295 

20,098 

22,260 

28,546 

35,250 

42,646 

50,758 

16 

15,872 

18,448 

21,438 

26,064 

30,449 

37,600 

45,489 

54,142 

17 

16,864 

19,601 

22,778 

25,568 

32,352 

39,950 

48,332 

57,520 

18 

17,856 

20,754 

24,118 

27,072 

34,255 

42,300 

51,175 

60,910 

19 

18,848 

21,907 

25,458 

28,576 

36,158 

44,650 

54,018 

64,294 

20 

19,840 

23,060 

26,798 

30,080 

38,062 

47,000 

56,861 

67,678 

To  find  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  tank  of  unequal  diameter  multiply 
the  inside  bottom  diameter  in  inches  by  the  inside  top  diameter  in  inches, 
then  this  product  by  34:  point  off  four  figures  and  the  result  will  be  the 
average  number  of  gallons  to  one  inch  in  depth  of  the  tank. 


650  DATA  REGARDING  WATER. 

Data  Regarding  Water. — Doubling  the  diameter  of  a 
pipe  increases  its  capacity  four  times. 

A  gallon  of  water  (United  States  standard)  weighs  8.3311 
pounds  and  contains  231  cubic  inches. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  contains  7£  gallons,  1728  cubic  inches, 
and  weighs  62^  pounds. 

Cubic  feet  of  water  multiplied  by  62.5  equals  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois; cubic  inches  of  water  multiplied  by  0.03608  equals  pounds 
avoirdupois. 

Cubic  feet  multiplied  by  7.48  equals  United  States  gal- 
lons. 

Cubic  inches  multiplied  by  0.004329  equals  United  States 
gallons. 

A  column  of  water  1  inch  square  and  2.31  feet  high  weighs 
1  pound. 

A  column  of  water  1  inch  square  and  1  foot  high  weighs 
0.433  pound. 

A  column  of  water  33.947  feet  high  equals  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  at  the  sea-level. 

Water  is  an  almost  universal  solvent;  consequently  pure 
water  does  not  occur  in  nature.  Sea- water  contains  nearly 
every  known  substance  in  solution. 

The  latent  heat  of  water  is  79  thermal  units.  When  water 
freezes  it  gives  off  its  latent  heat.  The  latent  heat  of  steam 
is  536  thermal  units.  When  steam  condenses  into  water  it 
gives  off  its  latent  heat. 

Pure  water  consists  of  2  parts  hydrogen  and  1  part  oxygen. 
Chemical  name,  hydrogen  oxide;  chemical  symbol,  H2O.  Pure 
water  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  tasteless,  transparent  liquid,  and 
is  practically  incompressible.  Water  freezes  at  32°  Fahr. 
and  boils  at  212°  Fahr.  At  its  maximum  density,  39.1° 
Fahr.,  it  is  the  standard  for  specific  gravities,  and  1 
cubic  centimetre  weighs  1  gram.  Salt  water  boils  at  224° 
Fahr. 

231  cubic  inches. 
,  0.13369  cubic  foot. 
8.3311  pounds  of  distilled  water. 
8.34  pounds  in  ordinary  practice. 


DATA  REGARDING  WATER. 


651 


1  cubic  foot 


62.425  pounds  at  39.1°  Fahr.,  maximum  den- 
sity. 

62.418  pounds  at  32°  Fahr.,  freezing-point. 

62.355  pounds  at  62°  Fahr.,  standard  tempera- 
ture. 

59.64  pounds  at  212°  Fahr.,  boiling-point. 

57.5  pounds  at  ice. 

7.480  U.  S.  gallons. 


1  pound  =  27. 7  cubic  inches. 
1  cubic  inch  =  0.036 12-pound. 


Data  on  Pumps. — DEPTH  OF  SUCTION. — Theoretically  a 
perfect  pump  will  lift  water  from  a  depth  of  nearly  34  feet,  cor- 
responding to  a  perfect  vacuum  (14.7  Ibs.  X2.309  =  33.95  feet); 
but  since  a  perfect  vacuum  cannot  be  obtained,  on  account  of 
valve  leakage,  air  contained  in  the  water,  and  the  vapor  of  the 
water  itself,  the  actual  height  is  generally  less  than  30  feet.  In 
pumping  hot  water,  the  water  must  flow  into  the  pump  by 
gravity.  The  following  table  shows  the  theoretical  maximum 
depth  of  suction  for  different  temperatures,  leakage  not  con- 
sidered : 


Absolute 

Maxi- 

Absolute 

Maxi 

Tem- 
pera- 
ture, F. 

Pressure 
of  Vapor, 
Pounds 
per  Sq. 

Vacuum 
in  Inches 
of  Mer- 
cury. 

mum 
Depth 
of  Suc- 
tion, 

Tem- 
pera- 
!  ture,  F. 

Pressure 
of  Vapor, 
Pounds 
per  Sq. 

Vacuum 
in  Inches 
of  Mer- 
cury. 

mum 
Depth 
of  Suc- 
tion, 

Inch. 

Feet. 

Inch. 

Feet. 

101.4 

1 

27.88 

31.6 

183.0 

8 

13.63 

15.5 

120.2 

2 

25.85 

29.3 

188.4 

9 

11.59 

13.2 

144.7 

3 

23.81 

27.0 

193.2 

10 

9.55 

10.9 

153.3 

4 

21.77 

21.7 

197.6 

11 

7.51 

8.5 

162.5 

5 

19.74 

22.4 

201.9 

12 

5.48 

6.2 

170.3 

6 

17.70 

20.1 

205  .  8 

13 

3.44 

3.9 

177.0 

7 

15.66 

17.8 

209.6 

14 

1.40 

1.6 

A  suction-lift  pump  is  one  that  raises  water  only  to  the  level 
of  the  pump  spout. 

A  force-pump  is  one  that  raises  water  to  the  pump  and  also 
forces  it  to  any  reasonable  altitude  above  the  pump 


652 


DATA  REGARDING  WATER. 


WEIGHT  OF   WATER   PER   CUBIC   FOOT  AT  DIFFERENT 
TEMPERATURES. 


32° 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 
110 
120 
130 


il 


62.42 
62.42 
62.41 
62.37 
62.31 
62.23 
62.13 
62.02 
61.69 
61.74 
61.56 


If. 

140° 
150 
160 
170 
180 
190 
200 
210 
212 
220 
230 


«*a.9 
III 


61.37 
61.18 
60.98 
60.77 
60.55 
60.32 
60.07 
59.82 
59.71 
59.64 
59.37 


£  . 


240° 
250 
260 
270 
280 
290 
300 
310 
320 
330 
340 


•SC.S 


59.10 
58.81 
58.52 
58.21 
57.90 
57.59 
57.26 
56.93 
56.58 
56.24 
55.88 


gg 
8J5 


350° 

360 

370 

380 

390 

400 

410 

420 

430 

440 

450 


55.52 
55.16 
54.79 
54.41 
54.03 
53.64 
53.26 
52.86 
52.47 
52.07 
51.66 


460° 
470 
480 
490 
500 
510 
520 
530 
540 
550 
560 


-n 


fi.S 


51.26 
50.85 
50.44 
50.05 
49.61 
49.20 
48.78 
48.36 
47.94 
47.52 
47.10 


One  ft.  of  water  column  at  39.1°  F.  =62.425  Ibs.  on  the  square  ft. 
"   "  "       "  "      "      "         =0.4335  Ib.     "    "        "      in. 

"   "  "       "  "      "      "         =0.0295     atmospheric    pres- 

sure. 
"   "  "       tl  lt      tl      "         =0.8826  in.  mercury  column 

at  32°  F. 

"   "  "       "  "      "      "         =773.3  ft.  of  air  column  at 

32°    F.  and   atmospheric 
pressure. 

One  Ib.  pressure  on  sq.  ft.  =0.01602  ft.  water  column  at  39.1°  F. 

"    "         "        "   "  in.  =2.307       "        "        "        "  39.1°  F. 

One  atmospheric  pressure  =  29. 92  in.  mercury  column  =  33  9  ft. 

water  column. 

One  inch  of  mercury  column  at  32°  F.  =1.133  ft.  water  column. 
One  foot  of  air  column  at  32°  F.  and  1  atmospheric  pressure  = 
0.001293  ft.  water  column. 


Useful  Information  Regarding-  Water. — The  mean 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  usually  estimated  at  14.7  pounds 
per  square  inch,  so  that  with  a  perfect  vacuum  it  will  sustain 
a  column  of  mercury  29.9  inches,  or  a  column  of  water  33.9 
feet  high. 

To  find  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  a  column 
of  water,  multiply  the  height  of  the  column  in  feet  by  .434. 
Approximately,  we  say  that  every  foot  elevation  is  equal  to 


DATA  REGARDING  WATER.  653 

$  pound  pressure  per  square  inch;  this  allows  for  ordinary 
friction. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a  pump-cylinder  to  move  a  given  quantity 
of  water  per  minute  (100  feet  of  piston  being  the  standard  of 
speed),  divide  the  number  of  gallons  by  4,  then  extract  the 
square  root,  and  the  product  will  be  the  diameter  in  inches  of 
the  pump-cylinder. 

To  find  quantity  of  water  elevated  in  one  minute  running  at 
100  feet  of  piston  speed  per  minute,  square  the  diameter  of 
the  water-cylinder  in  inches  and  multiply  by  4.  Example: 
Capacity  of  a  5-inch  cylinder  is  desired.  The  square  of  the 
diameter  (5  inches)  is  25,  which,  multiplied  by  4,  gives  100, 
the  number  of  gallons  per  minute  (approximately). 

To  find  the  horse-power  necessary  to  elevate  water  to  a  given 
height,  multiply  the  total  weight  of  the  water  in  pounds  by 
the  height  in  feet,  and  divide  the  product  by  33,000  (an  allow- 
ance of  25  per  cent  should  be  added  for  water-friction,  and  a 
further  allowance  of  25  per  cent  for  loss  in  steam-cylinder). 

The  area  of  the  steam-piston,  multiplied  by  the  steam  pres- 
sure, gives  the  total  amount  of  pressure  that  can  be  exerted. 
The  area  of  the  water-piston,  multiplied  by  the  pressure  of 
water  per  square  inch,  gives  the  resistance.  A  margin  must 
be  made  between  the  power  and  resistance  to  move  the  pistons 
at  the  required  speed: — say  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  according 
to  speed  and  other  conditions. 

To  find  the  capacity  of  a  cylinder  in  gallons.  Multiplying 
the  area  in  inches  by  the  length  of  stroke  in  inches  will  give 
the  total  number  of  cubic  inches;  divide  this  amount  by  231 
(which  is  the  cubical  contents  of  a  United  States  gallon  in 
inches),  and  product  is  the  capacity  in  gallons. 

To  find  the  height  in  feet  of  a  column  of  water  correspond- 
ing with  a  given  pressure,  multiply  the  pressure  in  pounds 
by  2.3  feet. 

The  following  table  is  arranged  to  show  at  a  glance  the  equiva- 
lent pressure  due  to  columns  of  water  from  10  to  400  feet  in 
height.  Also  more  particularly  to  show  the  number  of  gallons 
of  water  delivered,  and  the  height  to  which  it  will  be  projected 
through  nozzles  from  ^  inch  to  2  inches  in  diameter. 


654 


DATA  REGARDING  WATER. 


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DISCHARGE  OF  WATER  IN  PIPES. 


655 


WEIGHT  AND  CAPACITY  OF  DIFFERENT  STANDARD  GALLONS 
OF   WATER. 


Cubic  Inches 
in  a  Gallon. 

Weight  of  a 
Gallon     in 
Pounds. 

Gallons  in  a 
Cubic  Foot. 

Imperial  or  English  
United  States  

277.274 
231 

10.00 
8.33111 

6.232102 
7.480519 

DISCHARGE    OF    WATER    IN    PIPES. 

For  any  Length  and  Head,  and  for  Diameters  from  1  Inch  to  10  Feet,  in 
Cubic  Feet  per  Minute. — (BEARDMORE.) 


Diameter. 

Tabular 
Number. 

Diameter. 

Tabular 
Number. 

Diameter. 

Tabular 
Number. 

Ft.  Ins. 

Ft.    Ins. 

Ft.  Ins. 

1 

4.71 

1       7 

7433 

3       7 

57265 

1.25 

8.48 

1       8 

8449 

3       8 

60648 

1.5 

13.02 

1       9 

9544 

3       9 

64156 

1.75 

19.15 

1     10 

10722 

3     10 

67782 

2 

26.69 

1     11 

11983 

3     11 

71526 

2.5 

46.67 

2 

13328 

4 

75392 

3 

73.5 

2       1 

14758 

4       3 

87730 

3.5 

108.14 

2       2 

16278 

4       6 

101207 

4 

151.02 

2       3 

17889 

4       9 

115854 

4.5 

194.84 

2       4 

19592 

5 

131703 

5 

263  .  87 

2       5 

21390 

5       3 

148791 

6 

416.54 

2       6 

23282 

5       6 

167139 

7 

612.32 

2       7 

25270 

5       9 

186786 

8 

654  .  99 

2       8 

27358 

6 

207754 

9 

1147.6 

2       9 

29547 

6       6 

253781 

10 

1493.5 

2     10 

31834 

7 

305437 

11 

1894.9 

2     11 

34228 

7       6 

362935 

2356 

3 

36725 

8 

426481 

1 

2376.7 

3       1 

39329 

8       6 

496275 

2 

3463  .  3 

3       2 

42040 

9 

572508 

3 

4115.9 

3       3 

44863 

9       6 

655369 

4 

4836.9 

3       4 

47794 

10 

745038 

5 

5628  .  5 

3       5 

50835 

1     6 

6493  .  1 

3       6 

53995 

This  table  is  applicable  to  sewers  and  drains  by  taking  same  proportion 
of  tabular  numbers  that  area  of  cross-section  of  water  in  sewer  or  drain 
bears  to  whole  area  of  sewer  or  drain. 

To  COMPUTE  VOLUME  DISCHARGED  WHEN  LENGTH  OF  PIPE, 
HEIGHT  OR  FALL,  AND  DIAMETER  ARE  GIVEN.  —  Rule.  —  Divide 
tabular  number,  opposite  to  diameter  of  tube,  by  square  root 
of  rate  of  inclination,  and  quotient  will  give  volume  required 
in  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

Example.  —  A  pipe  has  a  diameter  of  9  inches,  and  a  length 
of  4750  feetj  what  is  its  discharge  per  minute  under  a  head  of  17.5 
feet? 


Tab.  No.  9  in.  =  1147.6,  and 


4750        16.47 
17.5 


69.67  cubic  feet. 


656  DISCHARGE  OF  WATER  IN  PIPES. 

To  COMPUTE  DIAMETER  WHEN  LENGTH,  HEAD,  AND  VOLUME 
ARE  GIVEN. — Rule. — Multiply  discharge  per  minute  by  square 
root  of  ratio  of  inclination;  take  nearest  corresponding  number 
in  table,  and  opposite  to  it  is  diameter  required. 

Example. — Take  elements  of  preceding  case. 


69.67  X|  =  1147.61,  and  opposite  to  this  is  9  inches. 

l  /  .  o 


5, 

\f 


=d  m  ^ee^    v  representing  velocity  in  feet   per 


1542/1 
second,  and  I  length  in  feet. 

To  COMPUTE  HEAD  WHEN  LENGTH,  DISCHARGE,  AND  DIAMETER 
ARE  GIVEN. — Rule. — Divide  tabular  number  for  diameter  by 
discharge  per  minute,  square  quotient,  and  divide  length  of 
pipe  by  it ;  quotient  will  give  head  necessary  to  force  given 
volume  of  water  through  pipe  in  one  minute. 

Example. — Take  elements  of  preceding  cases: 

••4*7'!!1  =16.47;  16.472  =  271.3;  4750^271.2  =  17.5  feet. 
69.67 

To  COMPUTE  VELOCITY  WHEN  VOLUME  AND  DIAMETER  ALONE 
ARE  GIVEN. — Rule. — Divide  volume  when  in  feet  per  minute  by 
area  in  feet,  and  quotient,  divided  by  60,  will  give  velocity 
in  feet  per  second. 

Example. — Take  elements  of  preceding  case: 

69-67        ^60  =  2.63  feet. 


0.752X  0.7854 

WHEN  VOLUME  is  NOT  GIVEN  — Rule. — Multiply  square  root 
of  product  of  height  of  pipe  by  diameter  in  feet,  divided  by 
length  in  feet,  by  50,  and  product  will  give  velocity  in  feet 
per  second.  (Beardmore.) 

To  COMPUTE  INCLINATION  OF  PIPE  WHEN  VOLUME,  DIAMETER, 

(     V    }  2  1      H 

AND  LENGTH  ARE  GIVEN  :  <  ^^^  >    ™f  =  -F-. 
(  2356  )     D*      L 

Illustration. — Take  elements  of  preceding  case: 

I  If  I'  X0-^  =  0.000847X4.214  =  0.00368, 
and 

i^-|  =  0 . 00368,    or    4750  X  0 . 00368  =  17 . 49  ft.  head. 
4750 


EQUATION  OF  PIPES. 


657 


tig  capacity  to  one  pipe  of  a  larger 
oportional  to  the  squares  of  their 
same  head,  however,  the  velocity 
fth  power  (i.e.,  as  the  2.5  power), 
i  of  any  two  sizes  represent  the 
s  equal  to  5.7  2-inch  pipes. 

N 

»H  rH  i-i  i-i  0*  T(i  U5  t^  OS 

i 

CO  CO  OS  CO  00  CO  •<*  OS       CO 
f-t  rH  rH  rH  M  (N  •*'  CO  00  <N  IT 

00 

rHCOt-rHLO       CO^COCOCOCO 

rHrHtf 

CD 

rH 

CM  CO  10  b-  <N  00  T*  rn  00  CO  <N  CO  OS  <N 

rHrtNM 

rH 

w^coa   •"*.   .oc!r>!t^l>!  .   .oc.°*. 

EQUATION  OF  PIPES. 
It  is  frequently  desired  to  know  what  number  of  pipes  of  a  given  size  are  equal  in  carrvi 
size.  At  the  same  velocity  of  H0w  the  volume  delivered  by  two  pipes  of  different  sizes  is  pr 
diameters  ;  thus,  one  4-inch  pipe  will  deliver  the  same  volume  as  four  2-inch  pipes  With  the 
is  less  in  the  smaller  pipe,  and  the  volume  delivered  varies  about  as  the  square  root  of  the  fi 
The  following  table  has  been  calculated  on  this  basis.  The  figures  opposite  the  intersectiol 
number  of  the  smaller-sized  pipes  required  to  equal  one  of  the  larger.  Thus,  one  4-inch  pipe 

rHrH<N<NCO 

rH 

N  IO  b-  rH  Tf<  00  CM  CO  CO  b-  rH  CO  OS  CO                       OS 

0 

CO  CD  O5  CO  00  <N  00  CO       t^  (N  O5  O5  rH  CO  CO  CM  1C  00  <N 

**         2  rH  rH  <N  CO  §  CO  00 

Ci 

CO  t^  --I  iO  O  CO  <N  O5  1>  UO  ^  CO  CC  N  rH  CO            1><N 

rHrHrHC^(NCOCO'<*l^»OCOl>OSrHTtlt>.OC<lt^C<IOO»O 

00 

CO  t-  CM  00  ^  rH  00  t^  CD  CO  t>  O5  iO  CO       O5  CN       C<IC<I 

rHrHrHlMCN^COOOrHiO 

- 

•*  OJ  •*  rn  00  l>  «>  t>  O  CN  CO  rH  00  1C  00  CO                 N 

rHr-lrHrH                                                 rH  rH  M 

CD 

lO  rH  00  CO  CO  t^  rH  CO  OS  t^  lO  CD  00  CO  I>         rH         OS  M 

'"H'H                ^                                     rHrHrHrHlNMtOCO^lOOOCOOO^rH 
rHrH<NCO 

•0 

CO  CO  N  CO  t^  (N  OS  OS  rH  CO  CO  CO  CO  rH       CO  lO  l>  N  (M 

« 

*SS32^^g^S|8S||||g 

. 

rH  CO  O  CO  t^  CO  CO  b-        rH        OS  1>  Tfl  M 

N 

OOI>O5COOS            OSOIN 

l-HrHrHrHS<NC^CO°^COt2t2      '.'.'.             '. 

H 

t^CO       O5(N 

1C  1C  CM  »0  CO  O  rH  CO  CO  rH  OS  OS  CO  b-      • 

Diameter, 
Inches. 

658      TABLES  O 


GTHS,  ETC. 


TABLES  OF  WEIGHTS,  STRENGTHS,  ETC. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF   VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES. 


Names  of  Substances. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Names  of  Substances. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Aluminum]  ^me'e(j; 
Amber  

2.60 
2.75 
1.08 
1.40-1.70 
1.10-1.20 
8.40-8.70 
8.57 
1.53-2.30 
1.85 
0.44 
0.76-0.84 
1.80-2.60 
1.20-1.50 
0.55 
2.47 
8.79 
8.78-9.00 
3.52 
1.30-1.80 
2.64 
2.40-2.70 

19.28 
19.33 
2.50-3.00 
0.97 
3.00 
0.88-0.92 
7.10-7.50 
7.79 
1.82 
11.37 
2  .  30-3  .  20 
1  .  30-1  .  40 
2.46-2.84 
1.74 

Mahogany  

0.56-1.09 
0.70 
2.52-2.85 
2.00-2.55 
1.50-1.60 
13.596 
2.80 
8.8 
0.69-1.03 
0.80 
0.35-0.60 
21.15 
21.3-21.5 
2.5-2.80 
2.26 
1.95-2.08 
1.40-1.65 
1.90-2.05 
1.40-1.50 
2.20-2.50 
10.48 
10.62 
2.60-2.70 
0  19 
7.26-7.86 
1.93-2.07 
0.978 
7.20 
7.30 

1.00 
1.03 
0.60-0.81 
0.95-0.98 
6.90 
7.20 

Maple,  dry.  . 

Marble  
Masonry,  stone,  dry.  .  .  . 
brick,     "    ... 
Mercury  at  32°  Fahr.  .  .  . 
Mica.  .  .  . 

Anthracite.  .                 .    . 

l  cast. 

Brass)  rolled 

Brick,  common,  hard.  .  . 
Cement,  ground,  loose.  . 
Charcoal  
Cherry,  dry        .  . 

Nickel  

Oak,  dry  
Petroleum  at  59°  Fahr.  . 
Pine. 

Clay,  dry  

Platinum  |^-me'e(j;: 
Quartz  
Saltpetre,  Chili 

Coal,  bituminous  
Coke,  loose  
Concrete  

1  cast   . 

Kali 

Copperiroiied..:::  :: 

Diamond  

Sand,  fine,  dry  

wet  

Earth,  humus  
Glass,  common  window. 
Gneiss,  common  
(  cast,  pure,  or  24 
Gold-<      carat  
f  pure,  hammered. 
Granite  
Gypsum,  cast,  dry.  .  .    . 

'  '      coarse  

Sandstone  

OM        J  cast.  .  . 

Sllver1  hammered...! 
Slate  
Snow,  freshly  fallen  .... 
Steel  
Sulphur.  . 

Sodium 

Ice     . 

rp-     i  cast.  .  , 

T        i  cast.  . 

Tm  Trolled  
Water,  pure  rain  or  dis- 
tilled   at  39°  F 

Iron  1  wrought  

Lead  

Water,  sea  
Walnut,  dry  
Wax  

Lime,  slaked  

Limestones  .  . 

Zinced  

WEIGHT  OF  A  CUBIC  FOOT  OF  SUBSTANCES. 
Names  of  Srbstances. 


Aluminum 

Anthracite,  solid,  of  Pennsylvania 

"          broken,  loose 

"       moderately  shaken. 

heaped  bushel,  loose 

Ash,  American,  white,  dry 

Asphaltum 


Average 
Weight, 
Pounds. 

.  162 
93 
54 
58 

,  (80) 
38 
87 


WEIGHT  OF  SUBSTANCES.  659 

WEIGHT  OF  SUBSTANCES— (Continued). 

Average 

Names  of  Substances.  Weight, 

Pounds. 

Brass  (copper  and  zinc),  cast 504 

"      rolled 524 

Brick,  best  pressed 150 

"      common,  hard 125 

"      soft,  inferior 100 

Brickwork,  pressed  brick 140 

"           ordinary 112 

Cement,  hydraulic,  ground,  loose,  American  Rosendale.  .  56 

«               "               "           "            "            Louisville..  50 

"               "               "           "       English,  Portland 90 

Cherry,  dry. 42 

Chestnut,  dry 41 

Clay,  potters'  dry 119 

"     in  lump,  loose 63 

Coal,  bituminous,  solid 84 

"              "           broken,  loose 49 

"              "           heaped  bushel,  loose (74) 

Coke,  loose,  of  good  coal 26 . 3 

"           "      heaped  bushel (40) 

Copper,  cast 542 

rolled 548 

Earth,  common  loam,  dry,  loose 76 

"             "           "           "    moderately  rammed 95 

"      as  a  soft,  flowing  mud 108 

Ebony,  dry 76 

Elm,  dry 35 

Flint 162 

Glass,  common  window. 157 

Gneiss,  common 168 

Gold,  cast,  pure,  or  24  carat 1204 

' '     pure,  hammered 1217 

Grain,  at  60  Ibs.  per  bushel 48 

Granite 170 

Gravel,  about  the  same  as  sand,  which  see. 

Gypsum  (plaster  of  Paris) 142 

Hemlock,  dry.  . 25 

Hickory,  dry 53 

Hornblende,  black 203 

Ice 58.7 


660  WEIGHT  OF  SUBSTANCES. 

WEIGHT  OF  SUBSTANCES— (Continued). 

Average 

Names  of  Substances.  Weight, 

Pounds. 

Iron,  cast 450 

' '     wrought,  purest 485 

"            "        average 480 

Ivory 114 

Lead 711 

Lignum  vitse,  dry 83 

Lime,  quick,  ground,  loose,  or  in  small  lumps 53 

"           "          "      thoroughly  shaken 75 

"        "           "          "      per  struck  bushel 66 

Limestones  and  marbles 168 

"            *'          "     loose,  in  irregular  fragments 96 

Magnesium 109 

Mahogany,  Spanish,  dry 53 

' '          Honduras,  dry 35 

Maple,  dry 45 

Marbles,  see  Limestones. 

Masonry,  of  granite  or  limestone,  well  dressed 165 

' '         "  mortar  rubble 154 

"dry           "      (well  scabbled) 138 

' '         ' '  sandstone,  well  dressed 144 

Mercury,  at  32°  Fahrenheit 849 

Mica 183 

Mortar,  hardened 103 

Mud,  dry,  close 80  to  110 

Mud,  wet,  fluid,  maximum 120 

Oak,  live,  dry 59 

Oak,  white,  dry 50 

"     other  kinds 32  to  45 

Petroleum 55 

Pine,  white,  dry 25 

"      yellow,  Northern 34 

"           "      Southern 45 

Platinum 1342 

Quartz,  common,  pure 165 

Rosin 69 

Salt,  coarse,  Syracuse,  N.  Y 45 

' '    Liverpool,  fine,  for  table  use 49 

Sand,  of  pure  quartz,  dry,  loose 90  to  106 

"     well  shaken..  .  99  to  117 


WEIGHT  OF  SUBSTANCES.  661 

WEIGHT  OF  SUBSTANCES— (Continued). 

Average 

Names  of  Substances.  Weight, 

Pounds. 

Sand,  perfectly  wet 120  to  140 

Sandstones,  fit  for  building 151 

Shales,  red  or  black ' 162 

Silver 655 

Slate 175 

Snow,  freshly  fallen 5  to  12 

"  moistened  and  compacted  by  rain 15  to  50 

Spruce,  dry 25 

Steel 490 

Sulphur 125 

Sycamore,  dry 37 

Tar 62 

Tin,  cast 459 

Turf  or  peat,  dry,  unpressed 20  to  30 

Walnut,  black,  dry 38 

Water,  pure  rain  or  distilled,  at  60°  Fahrenheit 62£ 

"  sea 64 

Wax,  bees 60.5 

Zinc  or  spelter 437 . 5 

Green  timbers  usually  weigh  from  one-fifth  to  one-half  more 
than  dry. 

WEIGHT   OF   DIFFERENT  MATERIALS. 

Pounds. 

1  barrel  of  lime 200  to  230 

"  "  cement  (hydraulic  or  Rosendale) 300 

"  "  "  (Portland) 400 

"  "  "  (Scotch,  Roman) 350 

"  "  fire-clay  (American) 300 

"  "  "  (English) 350 

"  "  brick-dust 350 

"  "  marble-dust 350 

"  "  plaster,  California 260 

"  "  "  Wotherspoon  (Eastern) 275 

"  "  ' '  (ground  gypsum  or  land) 320 

Fire-brick  6|  to  7  pounds  each. 


662       EXPANSION  OF  SUBSTANCES  BY  HEAT. 


LINEAR  EXPANSION  OF  SUBSTANCES  BY  HEAT. 

To  find  the  increase  in  the  length  of  a  bar  of  any  material 
due  to  an  increase  of  temperature,  multiply  the  number  of 
degrees  of  increase  of  temperature  by  the  coefficient  for  100 
degrees  and  by  the  length  of  the  bar  and  divide  by  100. 


Name  of  Substance. 

Coefficient 
for  100° 
Fahrenheit. 

Coefficient 
for  180° 
Fahrenheit, 
or  100° 
Centigrade. 

Bay  wood  (in  the  direction  of  the  grain, 
dry).  . 

.00026 

to 

.00046 
to 

Brass  (cast)  

.00031 
.00104 

.00057 
.00188 

(wire)  

.00107 

00193 

Brick  (fire).  . 

0003 

0005 

Cement  (Roman).  .    . 

0008 

0014 

Copper.  .  .  . 

0009 

0017 

Deal  (in  the  direction    of   the  grain,  ) 
dry)  \ 
Glass  (English  flint)  

.00024 
.  00045 

.00044 
.00081 

"     (French  white  lead)  

.  00048 

.00087 

.0008 

.0015 

Granite  (average).             ...        .    .  .  . 

.  00047 

.00085 

Iron  (cast).  .                        

.0006 

.0011 

"     (soft  forged) 

.0007 

.0012 

"     (wire).  . 

.0008 

.0014 

iwuc;  

.Lead.  .     . 

0016 

.0029 

Marble  (Carrara).                                      -\ 

.00036 
to 

.00065 
to 

Mercury.  .                                                   .  . 

.0006 
0033 

.0011 
.0060 

Platinum.  ... 

0005 

0009 

Sandstone  •< 

.0005 
to 

.0009 
to 

Silver  

.0007 
.0011 

.0012 
.002 

Slate  (Wales).  .                                      .    . 

.0006 

.001 

Water  (varies  considerably  with  the  ) 
temperature)  .                                      .   j 

.0086 

.0155 

Tin  

.0003 

.0069 

Zinc  .... 

.0004 

.0088 

STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS.  663 

STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

Ultimate  resistance  to  tension,  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

METALS   AND    ALLOYS. 

Aluminum  bronze:  Average. 

10  per  cent  Al  and  90  per  cent  copper 85,000 

H     "          "     "    98|     "             "      28,000 

Brass,  cast 18,000 

Brass  wire 49,000 

Bronze  or  gun  metal 36,000 

Copper,  cast 19,000 

Copper,  sheet 30,000 

Copper,  bolts 36,000 

Copper  wire  (unannealed) 60,000 

Iron,  cast,  13,400  to  29,000 16,500 

Iron  wire,  black  or  annealed. .' 56,000 

Iron  wire,  bright,  hard  drawn 78,400 

Lead,  sheet 3,300 

Steel 45,000  to  120,009 

Steel  aluminum,  24  per  cent  aluminum 70,000 

Steel  copper,  35  per  cent  copper 60,000 

Steel  nickel,  3i  per  cent  nickel 86,000 

Steel  cast,  wire  Bessemer 2,896,000 

Steel  cast,  wire  high  carbon 179,200 

Steel  cast,  wire  mild  O.  H 134,000 

The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  steel  from  recent  tests  is  from 
27,000,000  to  31,000,000.     Average,  29,000,000. 

Tin,  cast 4,600 

Zinc 7,000  to  8,000 

STONE,    NATURAL   AND    ARTIFICIAL. 

Brick  and  cement.  . 280  to  300 

Glass 2,560 

Slate 2,400  to  4,600 

Mortar,  ordinary  lime. 10  to  20 

ULTIMATE    RESISTANCE    TO    COMPRESSION. 

Metals. 

Brass,  cast 10,300 

Iron,      " 85,000  to  125,000 

Steel.  .  45,000  to  120,000 


664  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 

STONE,    NATURAL   AND    ARTIFICIAL. 

Average. 

Brick,  weak 550  to  800 

"         strong 1,100 

fire 1,700 

Brickwork,  ordinary,  in  cement 300  to  600 

"          best 1,000 

Glass 30,000 

Granite 5,000  to  18,000 

Limestone 4,000  to  16,000 

Marble 4,000  to  18,000 

Sandstone,  ordinary 2,500  to  10,000 

ULTIMATE   RESISTANCE    TO    SHEARING. 

Metals. 

Iron,  cast 25,000 

Steel 50,000 

MODULI    OF    ELASTICITY. 

Metals. 

Iron  (cast) 12,000,000 

Iron  (wrought  shapes) 27,000,000 

Iron  (rerolled  bars) 26,000,000 

Steel  (casting) 30,000,000 

Steel  (structural) 29,000,000 


STANDARD  WIRE-HOISTING  ROPE 


665 


WEIGHT,    STRENGTH,    ETC.,    OF   STANDARD   HOISTING   ROPE 

Composed  of  Six  Strands  and  a  Hemp  Centre,  Nineteen  Wires  to  the  Strand 
SWEDISH  IRON. 


Trade 
Number. 

Diameter 
in  Inches. 

Approxi- 
mate 
Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 

Weight 
per  Foot 
in 
Pounds. 

Approxi- 
mate 
Breaking 
Strain  in 
Tons  of 
2000 
Pounds. 

Allowable 
Working 
Strain  in 
Tons  of 
2000 
Pounds. 

Minimum 
Size  of 
Drum  or 
Sheave 
in  Feet. 

21 

g« 

11.95 

114 

22.8 

16 

2^ 

71 

9.85 

95 

18.9 

15 

i' 

2J 

71 

8.00 

78 

15.60 

13 

2 

2 

gi 

6.30 

62 

12.40 

12 

3 

If 

5i 

4.85 

48 

9.60 

10 

4 
5 
5* 

If 

!! 

5 

8 

4.15 
3.55 
3.00 

42 
36 
31 

8.40 
7.20 
6.20 

P 

6 

it 

4 

2.45 

25 

5.00 

•i 

7 

4 

3* 

2.00 

21 

4.20 

6 

OOO5OOO 

1 

3 
21 

I1 

H 

1.58 
1.20 
0.89 
0.62 
0.50 

17 
13 
9.7 
6.8 
5.5 

3.40 
2.60 
1.94 
1.36 
1.10 

ft 

4 

I! 

101 

1 

H 

0.39 

4.4 

0.88 

2t 

10a 

jg. 

li- 

0.30 

3.4 

0.68 

2 

106 

i 

lt 

0.22 

2.5 

0.50 

H 

lOc 

5 

1 

0.15 

1.7 

0.34 

1 

Wd 

i6 

1 

0.10 

1.2 

0.24 

i 

CAST  STEEL. 


21 
21 

8| 

11.95 
9.85 

228 
190 

45.6 
37.9 

10 

i 

2* 

71 

8.00 

156 

31.2 

8t 

2 
3 

2 
11 

i 

6.30 
4.85 

124 
96 

24.8 
19.2 

8 
71 

4 

If 

5 

4.15 

84 

16.8 

5 

if 

41 

3.55 

72 

14.4 

5* 

If 

4* 

3.00 

62 

12.4 

6 

H 

4 

2.45 

50 

10.0 

5 

7 

li 

3* 

2.00 

42 

8.40 

4i 

8 

1 

3 

1.58 

34 

6.80 

4 

9 

21 

1.20 

26 

5.20 

8$ 

10 

A 

2i 

0.89 

19.4 

3.88 

3 

10* 
10} 

i 

2 

11 

0.62 
0.50 

13.6 
11.0 

2.72 
2.20 

I 

101 
10a 

i 

1! 

0.39 
0.30 

8.8 
6.8 

1.76 
1.36 

u 

106 

t 

0.22 

5.0 

1.00 

1 

lOc 

^ 

i 

0.15 

3.4 

0.68 

I 

lOd 

1 

i 

0.10 

2.4 

0.48 

* 

CRUCIBLE  CAST-STEEL  ROPE. 


WEIGHT,    STRENGTH,    ETC.,    OF    EXTRA    STRONG    CRUCIBLE 
CAST-STEEL   ROPE. 

Composed  of  Six  Strands  and  a  Hemp  Centre,  Nineteen  Wires  to  the  Strand. 


Trade 
Number. 

Diameter 
in  Inches. 

Approxi- 
mate 
Circum- 
ference in 
Inches. 

Weight 
per  Foot 
in 
P/ounds. 

Approxi- 
mate 
Breaking 
Strain  in 
Tons  of 
2000 
Pounds. 

Allowable 
Working 
Strain  in 
Tons  of 
2000 
Pounds. 

Minimum 
Size  of 
Drum  or 
Sheave 
in  Feet. 

2* 

81 

11.95 

266 

53 

10 

21 

71 

9.85 

222 

45 

i' 

3 

8.00 

182 

36.4 

8 

2 

2* 

6t 

6.30 

144 

28.8 

8 

3 

If 

5* 

4.85 

112 

22.4 

7i 

4 
5 
5* 

11 
if 

5 

n 

4.15 
3.55 
3.00 

97 
84 
72 

19.4 

16.8 
14.4 

i 

6 

it 

4 

2.45 

58 

11.6 

5 

7 

i* 

31 

2.00 

49 

9.80 

41 

8 

i 

3 

1.58 

39 

7.80 

4 

9 

1.20 

30 

6.00 

3* 

10 

§ 

2t 

0.89 

22 

4.40 

3 

101 

5 

2 

0.62 

15.8 

3.16 

101 

A 

If 

0.50 

12.7 

2.54 

If 

10f 

£ 

If 

0.39 

10.1 

2.02 

'      11 

10a 

T8 

if 

0.30 

7.8 

1.56 

If 

106 

M 

0.22 

5.78 

1.15 

1 

We 

!L 

1 

0.15 

4.05 

0.81 

i 

lOd 

* 

f 

0.10 

2.70 

0.54 

i 

Seven  Wires  to  the  Strand. 


11 

H 

4f 

3.55 

79 

15.8 

81 

12 

If 

4i 

3.00 

68 

13.6 

8 

13 

H 

4 

2.45 

56 

11.2 

7i 

14 

Ii 

31 

2.00 

46 

9.20 

6^ 

15 

1 

3 

1.58 

37 

7.40 

5f 

16 

i 

2f 

1.20 

28 

5.60 

5 

17 

I 

0.89 

21 

4.20 

18 

11 

2i 

0.75 

18.4 

3.68 

4 

19 

i 

2 

0.62 

15.1 

3.02 

31 

20 

TS 

If 

0.50 

12.3 

2.46 

3 

21 

I 

H 

0.39 

9.70 

1.94 

21 

22 

_!_ 

H 

0.30 

7.50 

1.50 

2| 

23 

| 

If 

0.22 

5.58 

1.11 

2 

24 

_3_ 

1 

0.15 

3.88 

0.77 

If 

25 

* 

I 

0.125 

3.22 

0.64 

If 

SASH-CORDS—MANILA  ROPE. 


667 


WEIGHT,  STRENGTH,   ETC.,   OF    COPPER,  IRON,  TINNED    AND 
GALVANIZED    SASH-CORDS. 

Composed  of  Six  Strands  and  a  Cotton  Centre,  Seven  Wires  to  the  Strand. 


Trade 
~  Number. 

Diameter 
in  Inches. 

Weight  per  Foot  in 
Pounds. 

Approximate  Breaking  Strain 
in  Pounds. 

Iron. 

Copper. 

Iron. 

Bright 
Copper. 

Bright. 

Annealed. 

26 
27 
27* 

28 
28* 
29 

| 

0.100 
0.076 
0.056 

0.025 
0.014 
0.006 

0.115 
0.087 
0.064 

0.029 
0.016 
0.007 

2200 
1809 
1417 

790 
510 
262 

1600 
1254 
947 

467 
280 
132 

1265 
1022 
792 

435 
272 
140 

APPROXIMATE   WEIGHT   AND    STRENGTH    OF   MANILA    ROPE. 

Manila,  Sisal,  New  Zealand,  and  Jute  Ropes  weigh  (about)  alike.  Tarred 
Hemp  Cordage  will  weigh  (about)  9ne-fourth  more.  Manila  is  about  25 
per  cent  stronger  than  Sisal.  Working  load  about  one-fourth  of  breaking 
strain. 


Circumfer- 
ence in 
Inches. 

Diameter 
in  Inches. 

Weight  of 
.1000  Feet 
in  Pounds. 

Number  of 
Feet  and 
Inches  in 
One  Pound. 

Strength  of 
New  Manila 
Rope  in 
Pounds. 

Ft.       Ins. 

i 

4; 

23 

50 

450 

1 

w 

33 

33 

780 

If 

f 

42 

25 

1,000 

li 

iff 

52 

19 

1,280 

if 

74 

11 

1,760 

If 

101 

9 

2,400 

2 

132 

7 

3,140 

» 

167 

6 

3,970 

2J- 

207 

5 

4,900 

2* 

250 

4 

5,900 

3 

1 

297 

3         6 

7,000 

3* 

1A 

349 

2       10 

8,200 

3* 

li 

405 

2         4 

9,600 

3| 

H 

465 

2         1 

11,000 

4 

ift 

529 

1       10 

12,500 

i 

If 

if 

597 
669 
746 

1         8 
1         5 
1.        4 

14,000 
15,800 
17,600 

5 

If 

826 

1         2 

19,500 

|i 

if 

1000 

1 

23,700 

6 

it 

1190 

10 

28,000 

6i 

2 

1291 

9* 

33,000 

P 

2i 

1397 

8* 

38,000 

? 

2J- 

i 

1620 
1860 
2116 

7 
6* 
5* 

44,000 
50,000 
60,000 

f 

i\ 

2388 
2673 

5 

4* 

63,000 
67,700 

9* 

3 

2983 

4 

70,000 

10 

3ft- 

3306 

31 

7S,eOfr 

668 


WIRE  ROPE  FOR  INCLINE  PLANES- 


WIRE   ROPE   FOR   INCLINE   PLANES. 

For  inclines  and  other  places  where  wire  cables  are  subject  to  friction, 
coarse  wires  are  preferable  to  fine,  since  the  latter  wear  in  two  more  rapidly. 

This  table  gives  only  the  strain  produced  on  a  rope  by  a  load  of  one  ton 
of  2000  pounds,  an  allowance  for  rolling  friction  being  made.  An  addi- 
tional allowance  for  the  weight  of  the  rope  will  have  to  be  made. 

Example. — For  an  inclination  of  100  feet  in  100  feet,  corresponding  to  an 
angle  of  45°,  a  load  of  2000  pounds  will  produce  a  strain  on  the  rope  of  1419 
pounds,  and  for  a  load  of  9000  pounds  the  strain  on  the  rope  will  be 
( 1419 X 9000) -^200=6,385*  pounds,  or  338%0oo  tons. 


Eleva- 
tion in 
100 
Feet. 

Correspond- 
ing Angle  in 
Degrees  of 
Inclination. 

Strain  in 
Pounds  on 
Rope  from  a 
Load  of  2000 
Pounds. 

Eleva- 
tion in 
100 
Feet. 

Correspond- 
ing Angle  in 
Degrees  of 
Inclination. 

Strain  in 
Pounds  on 
Rope  from  a 
Load  of  2000 
Pounds. 

5 

21 

112 

70 

35 

1156 

10 

5 

211 

75 

37 

1210 

15 

8 

308 

80 

38$ 

1260 

20 

Hi 

404 

85 

40* 

1304 

25 

14 

497 

90 

42 

1347 

30 

16 

586 

95 

43* 

1385 

35 

19i 

673 

100 

45 

1419 

40 

21| 

754 

105 

46* 

1457 

45 

24J 

r 

832 

110 

1487 

50 

2fr 

- 

905 

115 

49 

1516 

55 

28^ 

975 

120 

501 

1544 

60 

31 

1040 

125 

51* 

1570 

65 

33^ 

1100 

A  factor  of  safety  of  five  to  seven  times  should  be  taken;  that  is,  the 
working  load  on  the  rope  should  only  be  one-fifth  to  one-seventh  of  its 
breaking  strength.  As  a  rule,  ropes  for  shafts  should  have  a  factor  of 
safety  of  five,  and  on  inclined  planes,  where  the  wear  is  much  greater,  the 
factor  of  safety  should  be  sveen. 


TABLE  SHOWING  HOW  THE  LIFE  OF  AN  INCLINE  STEEL- 
WIRE  ROPE  IS  AFFECTED  BY  REDUCING  THE  SIZE  OF 
SHEAVES  AND  DRUMS. 

Computed  for  Ropes  of  Seven  Wires  to  the  Strand. 


Diam- 

Life for  Various  Diameters. 

eter  of 

Rope 

in  Ins. 

100 

90 

80 

75 

60 

50 

25 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet, 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

16 

14 

12 

11 

9 

7 

4.75 

14 

12 

10 

8.5 

7 

6 

4.5 

12 

10 

8 

7.25 

6.5 

5  5 

4.25 

JJL 

10 

8.5 

7.75 

7 

6 

5 

4 

1 

8.5 

7.75 

6.75 

6 

5 

4.5 

3.75 

7.75 

7 

6.25 

5.75 

4.5 

3.75 

3.25 

A 

7 

6.25 

5.5 

5 

4.25 

3.5 

2.75 

5 

6 

5.25 

4.5 

4 

3.26 

3 

2.5 

* 

5 

4.5 

4 

3.5 

2.75 

2.25 

1.75 

GENERAL  INFORMATION  ON  WIRE  ROPE.    669 

General  Information  Relating  to  Wire  Rope. — 

Wire  rope  is  made  of  wires  either  twisted  together  or  laid 
parallel  to  each  other.  The  latter  kind  is  only  employed  on 
large  suspension  bridges,  while  the  former  is  in  general  use. 

There  are  two  classes  of  twisted,  or,  as  it  is  usually  called, 
stranded  wire  rope — flat  and  round. 

Flat  wire  ropes  consist  of  a  number  of  wire  strands  which  have 
been  laid  side  by  side  and  sewed  together  with  annealed  wire. 

Round  wire  ropes  are  composed  of  a  number  of  wire  strands 
twisted  around  a  core  of  hemp  or  around  a  wire  strand  or  wire 
rope. 

The  standard  wire  rope  is  made  of  six  wire  strands  and  a 
hemp  core.  This  arrangement  affords  the  most  convenient  and 
compact  form,  as  the  strands  and  the  core  are  practically  all  of 
the  same  size.  For  special  purposes,  however,  four,  five,  seven, 
eight,  nine,  or  any  reasonable  number  of  strands  may  be  utilized. 

Wire  strands  are  twisted  around  the  core,  either  to  the  right 
or  left,  and  the  resulting  rope  is  thereby  designated  as  right  lay 
or  left  lay  The  twist  may  be  long  or  short,  according  to  require- 
ments. The  shorter  twist  forms  the  more  flexible  rope,  the 
longer  twist  the  more  rigid  rope. 

The  core  of  a  wire  rope  is,  as  a  rule,  hemp  saturated  with  tar. 
It  provides  little  additional  strength,  but  acts  as  a  cushion  to 
preserve  the  shape  of  the  rope  and  helps  to  lubricate  the  wires. 

When  the  core  is  a  wire  strand  or  rope,  it  adds  from  7  to  10 
per  cent  to  the  strength  of  the  rope,  but  will  wear  from  the  fric- 
tion between  it  and  the  outer  strands  as  rapidly  as  the  outside 
of  the  rope.  This  does  not  apply  to  stationary  ropes. 

Wire  strands  are  made  of  wires  twisted  together.  The  number 
of  wires  commonly  used  are  four,  seven,  twelve,  nineteen,  and 
thirty-seven,  and  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  work  for  which 
the  strands  are  intended.  Ordinarily  the  wires  are  twisted 
into  strands  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  twist  of  the  strands 
into  rope. 

When  wires  and  strands  are  twisted  in  the  same  direction, 
the  rope  is  known  as  "Lang"  rope.  For  great  flexibility,  the 
strands  of  a  wire  rope  sometimes  consist  of  wire  ropes,  which 
in  turn  are  made  of  strands  composed  of  wires,  as  in  tiller  ropes. 

When  considerable  outside  friction  and  corrosion  are  to  be 
resisted  and  pliability  is  also  demanded,  strands  are  made  of 
twelve  or  eighteen  wires,  twisted  about  a  hemp  centre,  as  in 
ships'  hawsers  and  running  ropes. 


670    GENERAL  INFORMATION  ON  WIRE  ROPE. 

Individual  strands  of  wires  are  employed  as  smoke-stack  guys, 
span  wires  for  trolley  roads,  and  wherever  only  moderate  flexi- 
bility is  needed. 

Iron,  open-hearth  steel,  crucible  steel,  and  plough  steel  possess 
qualities  which  cover  almost  every  demand  upon  the  material 
of  a  wire  rope.  Copper,  bronze,  etc.,  are,  however,  used  for  a 
few  special  purposes. 

In  order  to  provide  a  protection  against  the  action  of  salt  air, 
rust,  etc.,  wire  is  often  galvanized  or  tinned,  as  for  ships'  rigging, 
etc.  Ropes  subject  to  constant  bending  around  drums  and 
sheaves  are  not  usually  so  treated. 

The  strength  of  wire  ropes  depends  primarily  upon  the  material 
of  which  the  wires  are  made.  It  is  hard  to  obtain  from  a  sample 
of  wire  rope  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the  aggregate  strength  of 
all  of  its  wires  in  a  testing-machine,  the  average  being  about 
82^  per  cent.  This  is  due  to  the  difficulty  in  making  perfect 
attachments  to  the  ends  of  the  test-piece,  in  order  that  every 
wire  shall  carry  its  share  of  the  load;  to  the  fact  that  the  inside 
wires  of  the  strands  are  shorter  than  the  outside  wires  and  tend 
to  break  before  them,  and  to  the  construction  of  the  rope, 
which  causes  the  adjacent  strands  to  nick  each  other.  While 
the  last-mentioned  action  reduces  the  breaking  strain  of  a 
rope,  it  occurs  only  at  stresses  far  above  those  employed  in 
practice.  On  account  of  the  nicking,  ropes  with  a  short  twist, 
or  ropes  made  of  hard  steel  break  at  a  lower  percentage  of  the 
aggregate  strength  of  their  wires  than  ropes  with  a  long  twist 
or  ropes  made  of  soft  wire.  So  that,  while  it  may  be  advisable 
in  certain  cases  to  use  a  rope  with  a  short  twist,  its  breaking 
strain  will  be  lower  than  if  the  twist  were  long. 

The  strength  of  iron  wire  ranges  from  45,000  to  100,000  pounds 
per  square  inch;  open-hearth  steel  from  50,000  to  130,000  pounds 
per  square  inch;  crucible  steel  from  130,000  to  190,000  pounds 
per  square  inch;  and  plough  steel  from  190,000  to  350,000 
pounds  per  square  inch,  according  to  quality,  treatment,  size 
of  wire,  etc. 

The  breaking  strains  given  in  the  preceding  tables  were  deter- 
mined by  means  of  our  own  testing-machine,  which  has  a 
capacity  of  300,000  pounds,  and  those  at  Watertown  Arsenal 
and  Phoenixville.  They  represent  fair  averages  of  the  rope 
usually  supplied. 

The  working  loads  were  calculated  at  one-fifth  the  breaking 
strains,  but  it  should  be  understood  that  this  factor  of  safety 


GENERAL  INFORMATION  ON  WIRE  ROPE.     671 

is  not  recommended  for  all  cases,  as  it  is  imperative  to  deter- 
mine for  every  set  of  conditions  a  reasonable  factor  of  safety. 
For  instance,  elevator  ropes  seldom  have  a  load  of  more  than 
one-tenth  or  one-fifteenth  of  their  breaking  strain. 

The  minimum  sizes  of  drums  or  sheaves  given  in  the  tables 
were  calculated  on  a  basis  of  a  working  load  of  one-fifth  the 
breaking  strain,  and  provide  that  ropes  shall  not  have  their 
wires  strained  beyond  the  elastic  limit  when  passing  around 
the  drums  or  sheaves  indicated.  While  the  theoretical  sizes 
for  cast-steel  ropes  are  smaller  than  for  the  corresponding  iron 
ropes,  because  the  elastic  limit  of  the  former  is  much  higher 
than  of  the  latter,  and  the  modulus  of  elasticity  is  nearly  the 
same  for  both,  still  it  is  better  to  use  the  larger  sizes  of  drums 
and  sheaves  for  steel  ropes,  because  when  steel  wire  becomes 
worn  or  nicked  it  cracks  very  easily. 

When  high  speeds  are  used,  much  larger  drums  and  sheaves 
must  be  employed. 

When  working  loads  less  than  those  given  in  the  tables  are 
used,  or  when  the  bending  around  sheaves  and  drums  is  very 
occasional,  slightly  smaller  dimensions  may  be  adopted. 

In  general,  however,  the  larger  the  drum  or  sheave,  the  longer 
the  rope  will  last,  and  the  use  of  diameters  less  than  those 
stated  in  the  tables  will  often  result  in  a  rapid  deterioration 
of  the  rope. 

Wire  rope  should  be  protected  from  all  unnecessary  wear,  and 
should  be  lubricated  and  kept  as  dry  as  possible.  Wear  increases 
with  speed;  it  is  therefore  better  to  increase  the  load,  within 
certain  limits,  than  the  speed. 

For  lubrication  and  to  prevent  rusting,  linseed-oil,  tar,  or 
other  similar  materials  free  from  acids  or  corrosive  substances 
should  be  used.  This  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  is  a 
large  factor  in  the  life  of  a  wire  rope.  Applications  of  lubricants 
should  be  frequent,  and  in  most  cases  the  spaces  between  the 
strands  of  a  wire  rope  should  be  gradually  so  filled  that  the 
rope  eventually  presents  the  appearance  of  a  round  iron  bar. 
Many  operators  prefer  to  apply  compositions  of  their  own  when 
the  rope  is  put  on,  and  for  this  reason  we  usually  apply  a  coat- 
ing of  oil  or  paint  merely  to  prevent  the  rope  rusting  while 
in  transit  or  storage  We,  however,  are  prepared  upon  request 
not  only  to  apply  any  of  the  many  commercial  rope  coatings 
and  preservers,  but  if  notified  in  time  can  lay  the  rope  up  in 
the  same,  thus  insuring  a  thorough  protection  and  lubrication. 


672 


MEASUREMENT  OF  WIRE  ROPE. 


Wire  rope  must  not  be  coiled  or  uncoiled  like  hemp  rope.  When 
it  is  received  upon  a  reel,  the  latter  should  be  mounted  upon  a 
spindle  or  turntable  and  the  rope  then  run  off. 

When  shipped  in  a  coil,  it  should  be  rolled  along  the  ground 
like  a  wheel.  All  untwisting  and  kinking  must  be  avoided. 
When  a  wire  rope  is  to  be  cut,  soft  iron  wire  should  be  served 
on  each  side  of  the  place  where  the  division  is  to  be  made  to 
prevent  the  rope  from  untwisting. 

The  Right  and  Wrong  Ways  to  Measure  Wire 
Rope. — The  diameter  of  a  wire  rope  is  that  of  a  true  circle. 
Note  where  the  dotted  line  touches  the  strands  in  Fig.  355. 


FIG.  355. 


FIG.  356. 

Right  way  to  measure. 
(A  true  circle. ) 


FIG.  357. 

Wrong  way  to  measure. 
(Not  a  true  circle.) 


We  always  understand  the  diameter  of  a  wire  rope  to  be  that 
of  a  circle  inclosing  the  rope.  Care  should  be  taken  in  measur- 
ing to  obtain  this  diameter.  If  a  rope  is  measured  the  wrong 
way  (see  cut)  and  a  wheel  is  ordered  grooved  to  take  the  rope, 
the  groove  would  be  too  small. 


WEIGHT,  LENGTH  ETC.,  OF  STEEL  WIRE.      673 
WEIGHT,   LENGTH,  AND  STRENGTH  OF  STEEL  WIRE. 


Breaking 

Weight  in  Pounds. 

Number, 
Roebling 
Gauge. 

Diameter 
in  Inches. 

Area  in 
Square 
Inches. 

Strain  at 
Rate  of 
100,000 
Pounds 
per  Square 

1 

Number 
of  Feet 
in  2000 
Pounds. 

Per  1000 
Feet. 

Per  Mile. 

Inch. 

000000 

.460 

.166191 

16,619 

558.4 

2948 

3,582 

00000 

.430 

.  145221 

14,522 

487.9 

2576 

4,099 

0000 

.39? 

.  121304 

12,130 

407.6 

2152 

4,907 

000 

.362 

.  102922 

10,292 

345.8 

1826 

5,783 

00 

.331 

.086049 

8,605 

289.1 

1527 

6,917 

0 

.307 

.074023 

7,402 

248.7 

1313 

8,041 

1 

.283 

.  062902 

6,290 

211.4 

1116 

9,463 

2 

.263 

.054325 

5,433 

182.5 

964 

10,957 

3 

.244 

.  046760 

4,676 

157.1 

830 

12,730 

4 

.225 

.039761 

3,976 

133.6 

705 

14,970 

5 

.207 

.033654 

3.365 

113.1 

597 

17,687 

6 

.192 

.  023953 

2,895 

97.3 

514 

20,559 

7 

.177 

.024606 

2,461 

82.7 

437 

24,191 

8 

.162 

.020612 

2,061 

69.3 

366 

28,878 

9 

.148 

017203 

1,720 

57.8 

305 

34,600 

10 

.135 

.014314 

1,431 

48.1 

254 

41,584 

11 

.120 

.011310 

1,131 

38.0 

201 

52,631 

12 

.105 

.008659 

866 

29.1 

154 

68,752 

13 

.092 

.006648 

665 

22.3 

118 

89,525 

14 

.080 

.005027 

503 

16.9 

89.2 

118,413 

15 

.072 

.004071 

407 

13.7 

72.2 

146,198 

16 

.063 

.003117 

312 

10.5 

55.3 

191,022 

17 

.054 

.002290 

229 

7.70 

40.6 

259,909 

18 

.047 

.001735 

174 

5.83 

30.8 

343,112 

19 

.041 

.001320 

132 

4.44 

23.4 

450,856 

20 

.035 

.000962 

96 

3.23 

17.1 

618,620 

21 

.032 

.000804 

80 

2.70 

14.3 

740,193 

22 

.028 

.000616 

62 

2.07 

10.9 

966,651 

23 

.025 

.000491 

49 

1.65 

8.71 



24 

.023 

.000415 

42 

1.40 

7.37 

25 

.020 

.000314 

31 

1.06 

5.58 



26 

.018 

.000254 

25 

.855 

4.51 

27 

.017 

.000227 

23 

.763 

4  03 

28 

016 

.000201 

20 

.676 

3  57 

29 

.015 

.000177 

18 

.594 

3!l4 

30 

.014 

.000154 

15 

517 

2.73 

31 

.0135 

.000143 

14 

!481 

2.54 

32 

.013 

.000133 

13 

.446 

2.36 



33 

.011 

.000095 

9.5 

.319 

1.69 

34 

.010 

.000079 

7.9 

.264 

1.39 



35 

.0095 

.000071 

7.1 

.238 

1.26 

36 

.009 

.000064 

6.4 

.214 

1.13 

This  table  was  calculated  on  a  basis  of  483.84  pounds  per  cubic  foot  for 
steel  wire.  Iron  wire  is  a  trifle  lighter. 

The  breaking  strains  were  calculated  for  100,000  pounds  per  square  inch 
throughout,  simply  for  convenience,  so  that  the  breaking  strains  of  wires  of 
any  strength  per  square  inch  may  be  quickly  determined  by  multiplying 
the  values  given  in  the  table  by  the  ratio  between  the  strength  per  square 
inch  and  100,000.  Thus  a  No.  15  wire  with  a  strength  per  square  inch  of 


150,000  pounds  has  a  breaking  strain  of  407  X 


150,000 
100,000 


=  610.5  pounds. 


It  must  not  be  thought  from  this  table  that  steel  wire  invariably  has  a 
strength  of  100,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  ranges 
from  45,000  pounds  for  soft  annealed  to  over  400,000  pounds  per  square 
inch  for  hard  wire. 


674 


STANDARD  GAUGES. 


STANDARD   GAUGES. 


*s  i 

r 

Thickness  in  Decimals  of  an  Inch. 

& 
03 

e 

Birm- 
ingham. 

Browne 
&  Sharpe 

U.  S.  Stand- 
ard Plate 
Iron  and 
Steel. 

British 
Impe- 
rial. 

Wash- 
burn 
&  Moen 
Co. 

Trenton 
Iron  Co. 

Stubs 
Steel 
Wire. 

7° 

.500 

.500 

7° 

6° 

.46875 

.464 

6° 

5° 

4375 

.432 

45 

5° 

4° 

.454 

.46 

.40625 

.400 

'  '.  3938  ' 

!40 

4° 

3° 

.425 

.40964 

.375 

.372 

.3625 

.36 

3° 

2° 

.380 

.3648 

.  34375 

.348 

.3310 

.33 

2° 

0 

.340 

.  32486 

.3125 

.324 

3065 

.305 

o 

1 

.300 

.2893 

.28125 

.300 

.2830 

.285 

.227 

1 

2 

.284 

.25763 

.265625 

.276 

.2625 

.265 

.219 

2 

3 

.259 

.22942 

.25 

.252 

.2437 

.245 

.212 

3 

4 

.238 

.20431 

.234375 

,232 

.2253 

.225 

.207 

4 

5 

.220 

.  18194 

.21875 

.212 

.2070 

.205 

.204 

5 

6 

.203 

.  16202 

.203125 

.192 

.1920 

.190 

.201 

6 

7 

.180 

.  14428 

.1875 

.176 

.1770 

.175 

.199 

7 

8 

.165 

.  12849 

.171875 

.160 

.1620 

.160 

.197 

8 

9 

.148 

.11443 

.  15625 

.144 

.1483 

.145 

.194 

9 

10 

.134 

.10189 

.  140625 

.128 

.1350 

.130 

.191 

10 

11 

.120 

.090742 

.125 

.116 

.1205 

.1175 

.188 

11 

12 

.109 

.  080808 

.  109375 

.104 

.1055 

.1050 

.185 

12 

13 

.095 

.071961 

.09375 

.092 

.0915 

.0925 

.182 

13 

14 

.083 

.064084 

.078125 

.080 

.0800 

.0800 

.180 

14 

15 

.072 

.057068 

.0703125 

.072 

.0720 

.0700 

.178 

15 

16 

.065 

.05082 

.0625 

.064 

.0625 

.0610 

.175 

16 

17 

.058 

.045257 

.05625 

.056 

.0540 

.0525 

.172 

17 

18 

.049 

.040303 

.05 

.048 

.0475 

.0450 

.168 

18 

19 

.042 

.03589 

.04375 

.040 

.0410 

.0400 

.164 

19 

20 

.035 

.031961 

.0375 

.036 

.0348 

.0350 

.161 

20 

21 

.032 

.028462 

.034375 

.032 

.03175 

.0310 

.157 

21 

22 

.028 

.025347 

.03125 

.028 

.0286 

.0280 

.155 

22 

23 

.025 

.022571 

.028125 

.024 

.0258 

.0250 

.153 

23 

24 

.022 

.0201 

.025 

.022 

.0230 

.0225 

.151 

24 

25 

.020 

.0179 

.021875 

.020 

.0204 

.0200 

.148 

25 

26 

.018 

.01594 

.01875 

.018 

.0181 

.0180 

.146 

26 

27 

.016 

.014195 

.0171875 

.0164 

.0173 

.0170 

.143 

27 

28 

.014 

.012641 

.015625 

.0148 

.0162 

.0160 

.139 

28 

29 

.013 

.011257 

.0140625 

.0136 

.0150 

.0150 

.134 

29 

30 

.012 

.010025 

.0125 

.0124 

.0140 

.0140 

.127 

30 

31 

.010 

.  008928 

.0109375 

.0116 

.0132 

.0130 

.120 

31 

32 

.009 

.  00795 

.01015625 

.0108 

.0120 

.0120 

.115 

32 

33 

.008 

.00708 

.009375 

.0100 

.0118 

.0110 

.112 

33 

34 

.007 

.  006304 

.  00859375 

.0092 

.0104 

.0100 

.110 

34 

35 

.005 

.005614 

.0078125 

.0084 

.0095 

.0095 

.108 

35 

36 

.004 

.005 

.00703125 

.0076 

.0090 

.0090 

.106 

36 

37 

.004453 

.  006640625 

.0068 

.0085 

.103 

37 

38 

.  003965 

.  00625 

.0060 

.0080 

.101 

38 

39 

.003531 

.0075 

.099 

39 

40 



.003144 

.0070 

.097 

40 

SIZE,  WEIGHT,  AND  STRENGTH  OF  CHAINS.    675 


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NOTES  ON  ROOFS. 


677 


NOTES  O1ST  EOOFS. 


APPROXIMATE   WEIGHT   OF   VARIOUS   ROOF   COVERINGS. 


Material. 


Weight  in  Pounds 

per  Square  of 

Roof. 


Yellow  pine  (Northern)  sheathing  1  inch  thick 300 

"  (Southern) 400 

Spruce 200 

Chestnut  or  maple 400 

Ash  or  oak 500 

Shingles,  pine 200 

Slate  i  inch  thick 900 

Sheet  iron  ^  inch  thick 300 

"  ^inch  "  and  laths 500 

Iron,  corrugated 100  to  375 

"  galvanized,  flat 100  to  350 

Tin : 70  to  125 

Felt  and  asphalt "  100 

"  "  gravel 800  to  1000 

Skylights,  glass,  &  inch  to  \  inch  thick 250  to  700 

Sheet  lead 500  to  800 

Copper 80  to  125 

Zinc 100  to  200 

Tiles,  flat 1500  to  2000 

"       "    with  mortar 2000  to  3000 

"      pan 1000 

ANGLES  OF  ROOFS  AS   COMMONLY   USED. 


Propor- 
tion of 
Rise  to 
Span. 

Angle. 

Length  of 
Rafter  to 
Rise. 

Propor- 
tion of 
Rise  to 
Span. 

Angle. 

Length   of 
Rafter  to 
Rise. 

Deg. 

Min. 

Deg. 

Min. 

f 

45 
33 

30 

4i 

1.4142 
1.8028 

2.0000 

I 

i 

26 
21 

18 

34 

48 

26 

2.2361 
2.6926 

3  .  1623 

2^3 

678 


NOTES  ON  ROOFS. 


APPROXIMATE  LOADS  PER  SQUARE  FOOT  FOR  ROOFS  OF 
SPANS  UNDER  SEVENTY-FIVE  FEET,  INCLUDING  WEIGHT 
OF  TRUSS. 


Roof  covered  with  corrugated  sheets,  unboarded ...  8  pounds. 

11      on  boards....  11 

"           "  slate,  on  laths 13 

Same,  on  boards  1|  in.  thick 16 

Roof  covered  with  shingles,  on  laths 10 

Add  to  above,  if  plastered  below  rafters 10 

Snow,  light,  weighs  per  cubic  foot 5  to  12 


For  spans  over  75  feet  add  4  pounds  to  the  above  loads  per 
square  foot. 

It  is  customary  to  add  30  pounds  per  square  foot  to  the  above 
for  snow  and  wind  when  separate  calculations  are  not  made. 


PRESSURE  OF  WIND  ON  ROOFS.  (UNWIN.) 


a  =  angle  of  surface  of  roof  with  direction  of  wind; 
F  =  force  of  wind  in  pounds  per  square  foot; 
A- 
B 
C  =•-  pressure  parallel  to  direction  of  wind  =  F  sin  a1 


1.84  cos  a-1 


:  pressure  normal  to  surface  of  roof  =  F  sin  a 

••  pressure  perpendicular  to  direction  of  wind  =  jP  cot  a  sin  a 


1.84  cos  a 


Angle  of  roof  =  a  

5 

10° 

20° 

30° 

40° 

50° 

60° 

70° 

80° 

90° 

A=FX  . 

19R 

.24 

.45 

66 

83 

95 

1  00 

1  02 

1  01 

1  00 

B=FX  

.122 

.24 

.42 

.57 

.64 

.61 

.50 

,35 

17 

00 

C=FX  

.01 

.04 

.15 

.33 

.53 

.73 

.85 

.96 

.99 

1.00 

MISCELLANEOUS  DATA. 


679 


MISCELLANEOUS   DATA. 


FORCE   OF    THE   WIND. 


Description. 

Miles 
Hour. 

Feet  per 
Minute. 

Feet  per 
Second. 

Force  in 
Pounds  per 
Sq.  Foot. 

Hardly  perceptible  

1 
2 

88 
176 

1.47 
2.93 

0.005 
0.02 

Gentle  breeze  •} 

3 

4 

264 
352 

4.4 

5.87 

0.044 
0.079 

5 
10 

440 
880 

7.33 
14.67 

0.  123 
0.492 

Brisk  gale                                  •! 

15 
20 

1320 
1760 

22 
29.3 

1.107 
1.968 

25 

30 

2200 
2640 

36.6 
44 

3.075 
4.428 

Very  high  wind.  .  .        .    .      < 

35 
40 

3080 
3220 

51.3 
58.6 

6.027 

7.872 

Storm  .              

45 
50 

3960 
4400 

66 
73  3 

9.963 
12  300 

Great  storm  -j 
Hurricane  or  cyclone  •< 

60 
70 
80 
100 

5280 
6160 
7040 
8800 

88 
102 
117.3 
146.6 

17.712 
24JD8 
31.488 
49.200 

MELTING-POINTS   OF   METALS. 


Metals. 

Centi-  • 
grade, 
Degrees. 

Fahren- 
heit, 
Degrees. 

Metals. 

Centi- 
grade, 
Degrees. 

Fahren- 
heit, 
Degrees. 

Aluminum  
Antimony  
Arsenic 

700 
425 
185 

1292 
797 
365 

Lead  
Magnesium  

334 
235 
40 

617 
455 
40 

Bismuth  

264 

507 

Nickel  

1600 

2912 

Cadmium  
Cobalt 

320 
1200 

608 
2192 

Potassium  

62 
2600 

143 

4712 

Copper  
Gold  
Indium  

1091 
1381 
176 

1995 
2485 
348 

Silver  
Steel  
Sodium  

1040 
1400 
96 

1944 
2552 
173 

Iron,  wrought.  .. 

1500 

2786 

Tin        

235 

455 

Iron,  cast  

1200 

2192 

Zinc  

412 

774 

COLOR    OF    HOT    METALS    AND    TEMPERATURE     AT 
CERTAIN  COLORS. 


Color. 


Incipient  red  heat.  . 

Dull  red 

Incipient  cherry-red. 

Cherry-red 

Clear  cherry-red.  .  .  . 

Deep  orange 

Clear  orange 

White..... 

Bright  white 

Dazzling  white 


Corresponds  to 


Centigrade, 
Degrees. 

Fahrenheit, 
Degrees. 

525 

977 

700 

1292 

800 

1472 

900 

1652 

1000 

1832 

1100 

2012 

1200 

2192 

1300 

2372 

1400 

2552 

1500 

2732 

680 


MISCELLANEOUS  DATA. 


To  find  the  weight  of  metal  objects:  Measure  the  number  of 
cubic  inches  contained  in  the  piece  and  multiply  by  0.2816  for 
wrought  iron,  0.2607  for  cast  iron,  0.32418  for  copper,  0.41015 
for  lead,  0.3112  for  brass,  and  the  answer  will  be  the  number  of 
pounds  in  the  piece. 

MOULDERS   AND  PATTERN-MAKERS'   TABLE. 


White  Pine  being  1. 

Cast  Iron  being 

I. 

Bar  Iron 

being  1. 

Cast  iron.  .  . 
Copper.  . 

..   13 
..   13.4 

Bar  iron.  ... 
Steel.  .....: 
Brass.  . 

.07 
.08 
.16 
.21 
.55 

Cast  iron.  . 

95 

Steel 

1  03 

fl  *^ 
.Brass  

..   12.7 

Copper 

1  16 

Lead  

..   18.1 

Copper  
Lead.  . 

Brass 

1  09 

Steel  

.   14 

Lead 

1  48 

Pattern-makers'  rule. 


SHRINKAGE  IN  CASTINGS. 

Aluminum ^  inch  per  foot, 

Cast  iron |  "  " 

Brass &  "  "      " 

Copper ^ 

Lead -J 

Steel i  "  "      " 

Tin TV  "  "      " 

Zinc &  "  "      " 

REDUCTION  FOR  ROUND  CORES  AND  CORE-PRINTS. — Rule. — 
Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  the  length  of  the 
core  in  inches  and  the  product  multiplied  by  0.017  is  the 
weight  of  the  pine  core  to  be  deducted  from  the  weight  of  the 
pattern 


SASH-WEIGHTS.  681 

WEIGHT    OF    CAST-IRON    SASH-WEIGHTS. 


Round. 

Inches  in  Diameter. 

in 

Inches. 

1 

H 

1* 

H 

2 

2k 

3* 

St 

3 

Weight  in  Pounds. 

1 

.20 

.31 

.45 

.62 

.81 

1.04 

1.27 

1.53 

1.83 

2 

.40 

.62 

.90 

1.24 

1.62 

2.08 

2.54 

3.06 

3.66 

3 

.60 

.93 

1.35 

1.86 

2.43 

3.12 

3.81 

4.59 

5.41 

4 

.80 

1.24 

1.80 

2.48 

3.24 

4.16 

5.08 

6.12 

7.32 

5 

1.00 

1.55 

2.25 

3.10 

4.05 

5.20 

6.35 

7.65 

9.15 

6 

1.20 

1.86 

2.70 

3.72 

4.86 

6.24 

7.62 

9.18 

10.98 

7 

1.40 

2.17 

3.15 

4.34 

5.67 

7.28 

8.89 

10.71 

12.81 

8 

1.60 

2.48 

3.60 

4.96 

6.48 

8.32 

10.16 

12.24 

14.64 

9 

1.80 

2.79 

4.05 

5.58 

7.29 

9.36 

11.43 

13.77 

16.47 

10 

2.00 

3.10 

4.50 

6.20 

8.10 

10.40 

12.70 

15.30 

18.30 

11 

2.20 

3.41 

4.96 

6.88 

9.91     11.44 

13.97 

16.83 

20.13 

12 

2.43 

3.72 

5.40 

7.44 

9.72 

12.48 

15.24 

18.36 

21.96 

Square. 

Inches  Square. 

in 
Inches. 

1 

H 

Li 

If 

2 

H 

2* 

* 

3 

Weight  in  Pounds. 

1 

.26 

.40 

,58 

.79 

1.04 

1.31 

1.62 

1.96 

2.34 

2 

.52 

.80 

1.16 

1.58 

2.08 

2.62 

3.24 

3.92 

4.68 

3 

.78 

1.20 

1.74 

2.37 

3.12 

3.93 

4.86 

5.88 

7.02 

4 

1.04 

1.60 

2.32 

3.16 

4.16 

5.24 

6.48 

7.84 

9.36 

5 

1.30 

2.00 

2.90 

3.95 

5.20 

6.55 

8.10 

9.88 

11.70 

6 

1.56 

2.40 

3.48 

4.74 

6.24 

7.86 

9.72 

11.76 

14.04 

7 

1.82 

2.80 

4.06 

5.53 

7.28 

9.17 

11.34 

13.72 

16.38 

8 

2.08 

3.29 

4.64 

6.32 

8.32 

10.48 

12.96 

15.68 

18.72 

9 

2.34 

3.60 

5.22 

7.11 

9.36 

11.79 

14.58 

17.64 

21.06 

10 

2.60 

4.00 

5.88 

7.90 

10.40 

13.10 

16.20 

19.60 

23.40 

11 

2.86 

4.40 

6.38 

8.69 

11.44 

14.41 

17.82 

21.56 

25.74 

12 

3.12 

4.80 

6.96 

9.48 

12.48 

15.72 

19.44 

23.52 

28.08 

WEIGHT  OF  CROWDS. — The  weight  of  crowds  on  floors  per 
square  foot  varies  from  100  to  145  pounds.  Prof.  Kernot  of 
Victoria  made  some  experiments  with  a  crowd  of  persons  in 
which  he  packed  them  close  enough  to  give  a  weight  on  the 
floor  of  147.4  pounds  per  square  foot. 

Miscellaneous  Materials. — GLUE. — This  valuable  prod- 
uct consists  essentially  of  gelatine  and  is  prepared  from  a 
variety  of  animal  products.  It  varies  in  purity  and  in  quality 


682 


SASH-WEIGHTS. 


TABLE   OF   LEAD  SASH-WEIGHTS. 


Size. 

Round  Weights, 
Weight  per  Lineal  Foot. 

Square  Weights, 
Weight  per  Lineal  Foot. 

1    inch 

3*       pounds 

4.93  pounds 

rj  * 

6 

7.68 

li    ' 

10.27 

l£ 

111 

15.08 

2 

15* 

19.02 

-  ~8  i 

18* 
23 
28.93 

24 
30.82 
37.27- 

3 

34.81 

44.38 

1 

3f  ; 

40.52 
47.26 
54 

52.07 
60.82 
69.33 

4 

61.93 

from  the  almost  colorless  varieties  of  gelatine  or  fish  glue  to 
the  dark-brown  color. 

Glue  is  made  by  digesting  bones  and  other  animal  tissues  at  a 
low  temperature  (best  in  a  vacuum  apparatus), -then  clarifying 
the  liquid  from  any  insoluble  portions,  and  setting  this  in  moulds 
to  cool;  when  cold,  cutting  it  into  thin  slices  and  exposing  these 
on  netting  until  dry.  The  palest  glues  are  made  from  the  best 
materials,  and  the  hot  liquids  are  bleached.  The  darkest  glues 
are  usually  made  from  bones  and  are  not  treated  before  drying. 

The  best  glues  are  transparent  and  of  a  clear  amber  color. 
When  glue  is  prepared  it  should  be  broken  up  and  allowed  to 
stand  overnight  in  cold  water.  It  should  be  melted  in  a  double 
pot  and  covered  to  keep  out  all  dirt.  The  water  in  the  outer 
pot  should  always  be  high  enough  to  be  above  the  glue  in  the 
small  pot. 

Glue  that  has  been  remelted  several  times  loses  its  strength. 
Glue  should  be  used  when  it  is  boiling  hot,  and  the  pieces  to 
be  glued  together  should  be  heated  and  the  glue  spread  on 
them  in  a  thin  film;  then  the  pieces  should  be  clamped  together 
tight  enough  to  force  out  all  surplus  glue. 

ALUM. — Alum  is  a  whitish,  astringent,  saline  substance;  prop- 
erly it  is  a  double  salt,  being  composed  of  sulphate  of  potash  and 
sulphate  of  alumina,  which,  along  with  a  certain  proportion  of 
water,  crystallize  together  in  cubes. 

It  is  soluble  in  eighteen  times  its  weight  in  cold  water,  and  in 
its  own  weight  of  hot  water.  The  solution  thus  obtained  has  a 
peculiar  astringent  taste,  and  is  strongly  acid  to  colored  test- 
papers. 


STANDARD  SCREW-THREADS,  NUTS,  ETC.      683 


STANDARD   SCREW-THREADS,    NUTS,    AND    BOLT-HEADS. 
Recommended  by  the  Franklin  Institute. 


SCREW-THREADS. 


A  —  X? 

Nuts  and  bolt-heads  are  de- 

^ii^1   /^m^    /^m^ 

termined    by     the     following 

^lllllW"60?-»>Jlllll^.  ^^llPH^ 

rules,    which    apply    to    both 

/^iis    ^H^  Jlls     ^1^  '  /^ii?    ^i^. 

square  and  hexagon  nuts: 

Short  dia.  of  rough  nut 

==l*Xdia.  of  bolt  +  i  in. 

Angle  of  thread  60°.     Flat  at  top  and  bot- 
tom =  £  of  pitch. 

Short  dia.  of  finished  nut 
=  HXdia.  of  bolt  +  ^5  in. 
Thickness  of  rough  nut 

Diameter  of 

Diameter  at 

Threads  per 

=  dia.  of  bolt. 
Thickness  of  finished  nut 

Screw, 

Root  of 

Inch,  Num- 

== dia.  of  bolt  V  in 

Inches. 

Thread, 
Inches. 

ber. 

Short  dia.  of  rough  head 

=  liXdia.  of  bolt  +  -4-  in 

i 

.185 
240 

20 

18 

Short  dia.  of  finished  head 

tf 

.'294 

16 

=  HXdia.  of  bolt  +  ^t  in. 

T5 

.344 

14 

Thickness  of  rough  head 

£ 

.400 

13 

=  1  short  dia.  of  head. 

If 

'.507 

11 

Thickness  of  finished  head 

I 

.620 

10 

=  dia.  of  bolt  —  ^  in. 

i 

.731 

9 

The  long  diameter  of  a  hex- 

.837 

8 

agon  nut  may  be  obtained  by 

fa 

.940 

7 

multiplying    the    short    diam- 

1 

1.065 
j   160 

7 

eter   by    1.155    and    the   long 

| 

1^284 

6 

diameter  of  a  square  nut  by 

'  £ 

1.389 

5fc 

multiplying    the   short    diam- 

| 

1.490 
1.615 

5 
5 

eter  by  1.414. 

0 

The    above    standards    for 

2 

1.712 

4* 

screw-threads,  nuts,  and  bolt- 

2* 

11 

1.962 
2.175 
2.425 

\ 

heads  were  recommended  by 
the  Franklin  Institute  in  De- 

cember, 1864.      The  standard 

3 

2.629 
2.879 

1 

for    screw-threads     has    been 

3i 

3.100 

very  generally  adopted  in  the 

2i 

3.317 

3 

United  States,  but  the  propor- 

4 

3  567 

3 

tions   recommended    for   nuts 

3.798 

21 

and  bolt-heads  have  not  found 

4* 
4-J- 

4.028 
4  255 

2i 

25 

general  acceptance  because  of 

g1 

the  odd  sizes  of  bar  —  not  usu- 

5 

4.480 

2i 

ally  rolled  by  the  mills  —  re- 

5t 

4.730 

2^ 

quired  to  make  the  nut. 

Oy 

4.953 

2| 

M 

5.203 

6 

5.423 

2i 

684  MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIALS. 

Alum  is  made  by  digesting  aluminous  earths  with  sulphuric 
acid,  treating  the  mass  with  water,  and  adding  to  the  solution 
potassium  sulphate,  after  which  it  is  allowed  to  crystallize  out. 

The  manufacture  of  the  colors  or  paints  called  lakes  depends 
on  this  property  of  alumina  to  attach  to  itself  certain  coloring- 
matters. 

Thus,  if  a  solution  of  alum  is  colored  with  cochineal  or  madder, 
and  ammonia  or  carbonate  of  soda  is  added,  the  alumina  in  the 
alum  is  precipitated  with  the  color  attached  to  it,  and  the  liquid 
is  left  colorless. 

It  is  commonly  used  by  paperhangers  to  keep  paste  sweet. 

AMMONIA. — Ammonia  is  the  solution  of  gas  ammonia  in  water. 
Ammonia  gas  is  composed  of  1  part  nitrogen  and  3  parts  hydro- 
gen. 

Ammonia  is  a  volatile  liquid,  characterized  by  a  strong,  pecul- 
iar odor,  and  evaporates  completely  away  when  exposed  to  air 
or  boiled.  It  is  a  powerful  base,  uniting  with  and  neutralizing 
all  acids,  and  will  dissolve  many  gums  and  acids. 

It  is  used  as  a  powerful  cleaner  for  glass  or  woodwork  when 
diluted  to  a  light  solution.  Especially  useful  in  fairly  strong 
solution,  cleaning  floors  where  revarnishing  is  to  be  done. 

WHITING. — This  pigment  is  prepared  from  chalk.  Chalk  is  a 
natural  deposit  of  calcium  carbonate,  found  extensively  in  Eng- 
land and  France.  When  chalk  is  examined  under  a  microscope 
it  is  seen  to  consist  of  minute  shells,  the  remains  of  a  group  of  ani- 
mals known  as  Foraminifera,  of  which  there  are  many  species. 
These  form  a  skeleton  of  calcium  carbonate.  They  live  on  the 
surface  of  the  sea.  Whiting  is  nothing  more  than  chalk  ground 
up  with  water.  Whiting  is  largely  used  as  a  body  color  in  dis- 
temper work,  using  water  as  a  vehicle.  It  is  quite  permanent 
when  used  as  a  pigment,  resisting  exposure  to  all  ordinary 
atmospheric  conditions. 

ASPHALTUM. — This  substance  is  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  varnishes  such  as  black  japan.  It  was  originally  obtained 
from  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  imported  from  Egypt, 
South  America,  and  is  found  in  a  few  places  in  the  United 
States.  The  exact  chemical  composition  has  not  yet  been 
ascertained;  presumably  allied  to  petroleum  and  the  paraffines. 

Artificial  asphaltum  is  made  by  melting  or  mixing  together 
rosin,  coal-tar,  wood,  and  other  pitches,  and  is  used  in  preparing 
cheap  black  varnishes. 

BEESWAX. — This  is  the  best  known  of  waxes  and  is  the  prod- 


MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIALS  685 

uct  of  various  species  of  insects  belonging  to  the  genus  Apis 
which  are  found  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 

The  wax  is  obtained  by  melting  the  combs  in  water  and  then 
allowing  the  molten  wax  to  cool. 

ALCOHOL. — It  is  a  limpid,  colorless  liquid  of  a  hot,  pungent 
taste,  and  having  a  slight  but  agreeable  smell.  Owing  to  its 
extensive  application,  it  becomes  one  of  the  most  important 
substances  produced  by  art. 

There  is  only  one  source  of  alcohol,  namely,  the  fermenta- 
tion of  sugar  and  other  saccharine  matter.  The  best  vegetable 
substances  for  yielding  it  are  those  that  contain  the  greatest 
abundance  of  sugar  or  starch. 

Owing  to  the  attraction  of  alcohol  for  water,  it  is  impossible 
to  procure  pure  alcohol  by  distillation  alone. 

Alcohol  has  the  property  of  non-freezing.  This  property  of 
non-freezing  at  any  degree  of  cold  to  which  the  earth  is  sub- 
jected has  led  to  the  employment  of  alcohol  colored  by  red  cochi- 
neal in  the  thermometers  sent  out  to  the  Arctic  regions. 

It  is  a  powerful  solvent  for  acids,  resins,  gums,  oils,  and  waxes, 
and  hence  is  employed  in  the  preparation  of  varnishes.  On 
account  of  rapid  evaporation  it  is  especially  used  in  making 
shellac  varnish. 

.It  acts  as  a  poison  by  abstracting  the  water  from  the  parts  it 
touches.  It  is  highly  inflammable,  its  combustion  yielding  only 
carbonic  acid  and  water. 

GRAPHITE. — Silica-graphite  is  as  pure  and  sweet  as  charcoal, 
is  mined  at  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  and  is  an  ideal  pigment  in 
flake  form. 

Graphite  possesses  greater  affinity  for  iron  and  steel  than  any 
other  pigment.  Silica-graphite,  while  smooth  and  slippery 
and  apparently  oily  to  touch,  is  absolutely  free  from  any  oil  or 
grease.  In  this  respect  it  differs  entirely  from  lampblack  and 
similar  products. 

It  is  an  ideal  protective  coating  for  all  kinds  of  metal  or  wood. 
It  lasts  four  or  five  times  longer  than  any  other  paint,  and  covers 
two  or  three  times  more  surface.  It  is  also  easier  to  apply  than 
any  other  paint  and  wears  brushes  less. 

This  silica-graphite  is  used  on  new  and  old  work,  should  be 
used  for  all  priming  or  first  coats,  and  can  be  used  on  top  of 
any  old  paint.  This  paint  has  no  bad  odor,  and  will  not  taint 
water,  and  is  as  pure  and  sweet  and  healthful  as  charcoal,  con- 
taining nothing  poisonous.  Good  for  inside  of  water-tanks. 


686  MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIALS. 

It  has  twice  the  bulk  of  mineral  paint,  therefore  covers  just  so  much 
more  surface,  and  is  applied  and  used  the  same  as  linseed-oil  paint. 

Graphite  is  equally  useful  for  wood  or  metal,  and  never  fades, 
therefore  stands  without  a  rival  for  durability,  economy,  and 
for  beauty  of  finish. 

MURIATIC  ACID. — Muriatic  acid  is  prepared  by  heating  com- 
mon salt  with  sulphuric  acid,  dissolving  the  evolved  gas  in  water. 
When  pure  it  is  a  colorless  liquid,  fuming  slightly  and  having  a 
strong  acid  smell. 

Muriatic  acid  is  a  powerful  acid.  It  dissolves  in  the  cold  such 
metals  as  zincs,  iron  magnesium,  nickel,  and  aluminum.  When 
boiling  it  dissolves  tin,  lead,  copper,  bismuth,  and  many  other 
metals.  Muriatic  acid  is  used  largely  in  cleaning  the  alkali  col- 
lecting on  brick  or  stone  buildings. 

OXALIC  ACID. — Oxalic  acid  was  first  discovered  in  the  juice  of 
the  Oxalis  acetosella.  It  is  widely  distributed  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom  in  the  form  of  potassium,  sodium,  and  calcium  salts, 
and  is  made  artificially  by  heating  sawdust  with  a  mixture  of 
caustic  potash  and  soda.  It  forms  white  crystals,  is  readily 
soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  has  an  intensely  acid  taste,  and  is 
violently  poisonous.  It  is  often  sold  under  the  erroneous  name 
of  salts  of  lemon.  Oxalic  acid  is  largely  used  in  calico-printing 
dyeing,  and  in  bleaching  flax  and  straw.  It  is  used  by  painters 
in  bleaching  floors  and  woodwork. 

GYPSUM. — Gypsum  is  used  principally  for  wall  plaster,  and 
the  most  important  markets  are  the  large  cities  in  which  modern 
buildings  are  being  constructed.  Gypsum  plaster  is  largely 
displacing  lime  mortar  as  wall  finish.  Not  only  is  it  found 
to  be  more  suitable  and  durable,  but  its  strength  and  hardness, 
and  the  fact  that  construction  can  be  completed  more  quickly 
when  it  is  used,  have  brought  it  into  favor. 

In  the  Rocky  Mountain  States  and  the  region  westward  to 
the  Pacific  coast,  the  gypsum  industry  is  in  its  infancy.  There 
are  plants  in  Montana,  in  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota,  in 
Wyoming,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Nevada,  California, 
and  Oregon.  Some  of  them  have  a  large  capacity,  and  their 
product  is  finding  a  ready  market.  This  is  more  particularly 
true  of  those  which  supply  the  larger  cities.  The  deposits  are 
well  distributed  in  these  States,  and  the  character  of  the  gypsum 
is  such  that  they  can  meet  any  requirements  of  the  trade.  No 
doubt  the  industry  will  advance  with  the  growth  of  the  country, 
and  when  the  value  of  gypsum  plaster  is  better  appreciated 


MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIALS.  687 

it  will  displace  the  lime  and  sand  plaster  in  these  States,  as  it  is 
doing  in  the  East. 

STAFF. — This  composition,  which  was  used  so  extensively 
in  the  construction  of  buildings  for  the  Chicago  Exposition,  and 
has  been  employed  even  more  extensively  in  the  buildings  for 
the  St.  Louis  Exposition,  is  a  mixture  of  ordinary  plaster  of 
Paris  with  a  suitable  binding  material.  The  latter  must  be 
rather  coarse  and  loose,  to  allow  the  plaster  to  percolate  through 
it  and  afford  the  necessary  surface  for  adhesion.  Manila  fibre, 
hemp,  etc.,  are  commonly  used  for  a  binder.  As  a  building 
material  staff  is  well-nigh  fire-proof.  Frost  does  not  hurt  it. 
Rain  as  little  effect  upon  it.  A  drip  injures  it.  The  short 
durability  of  staff  plaster  on  exposition  buildings  in  some 
instances  has  been  due  to  their  inadequate  foundations  and 
the  shrinkage  of  the  sheeting  to  which  the  plaster  is  applied. 
If  spread  on  expanded  metal  lathing,  staff  plaster  would 
doubtless  prove  durable.  Staff  and  cement  do  not  give  a  good 
mixture. 

SILICATE  STONE. — This  is  an  English  invention  and  consists 
essentially  of  silica  and  lime.  The  proportion  of  lime  used  is 
from  5  to  10  per  cent,  the  purity  of  the  silica  regulating  the 
quantity.  When  the  proper  mixture  has  been  made  it  is  put 
into  moulds,  water  and  steam  are  injected,  and  the  whole  sub- 
jected to  a  high  heat  and  pressure.  In  this  way,  it  is  stated, 
the  lime  combines  with  part  of  the  sand  and  forms  a  silicate 
of  lime,  to  the  presence  of  which  the  mechanical  strength  of 
the  stone  is  principally  due.  The  crushing  strength  is  given 
as  10,776  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  process  takes  six  hours 
from  the  time  the  mixture  enters  the  moulds  until  it  is  ready 
for  shipment.  In  appearance  the  stone  resembles  granite, 
though  the  color  can  be  changed  in  manufacturing  to  suit  the 
taste  of  customers.  It  is  adapted  to  working  in  intricate 
ornamental  designs,  and  is  claimed  to  have  the  property  of 
resisting  the  injurious  action  of  salt  or  fresh  water  and  varying 
atmospheric  conditions. 

BUILDING  PAPERS. — There  are  a  number  of  different  building 
papers  on  the  market,  such  as  asbestos,  parchment,  felt,  rosin- 
sized,  asphalt,  tar,  etc. 

They  are  usually  graded  as  to  weight  or  thickness. 

The  felt  or  deafening  papers  are  usually  graded  as  to  weight  per 
square  yard,  and  generally  come  in  three  weights,  viz.:  9  square 
feet  to  a  pound,  and  which  is  about  /T  inch  in  thickness;  6 


688  MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIALS. 

square  feet  to  a  pound,  and  which  is  about  jg  inch  in  thickness] 
4J  square  feet  to  a  pound,  and  which  is  about  ^  inch  in  thickness. 

The  asbestos  papers  usually  run  in  three  thicknesses  as  fol- 
lows: Thin,  which  weighs  6  pounds  per  100  square  feet  and 
which  is  about  T|s  inch  in  thickness;  medium,  which  weighs  10 
pounds  per  100  square  feet,  and  which  is  about  -g\  inch  in  thick- 
ness; and  heavy,  weighing  14  pounds  per  100  square  feet,  and 
which  is  about  $V  inch  in  thickness. 

Rosin-sized  papers  also  come  in  various  thicknesses,  but  are 
usually  very  thin ;  they  are  made  by  immersing  Manila  or  other 
paper  in  a  mixture  of  rosin,  glue,  and  ochre. 

Asphalt  papers  are  made  by  saturating  felt  paper  with  asphal- 
tum,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  petroleum  residuum. 

The  various  tar  and  roofing  papers  are  made  in  one,  two,  or 
three  thicknesses,  and  are  designated  as  "one-ply,"  "two-ply," 
etc. 

ASBESTOS. — This  is  a  mineral  of  so  fibrous  a  nature  that  it  can 
be  woven  into  a  textile  fabric,  which  is  naturally  incombustible, 
having  also  the  quality  of  slow  conduction  of  heat.  Its  chief 
use  in  building  has  been  for  covering  of  steam-pipes,  deafening 
for  floors,  sheathing  paper,  etc. 

Its  color  ranges  from  white,  through  many  shades  of  yellow 
to  a  dull  brown. 

COAL-TAR. — Coal-tar  is  a  by-product  produced  in  the  manu- 
facture of  coal-gas.  When  distilled  it  produces,  in  various 
stages,  coal-naphtha,  dead  oil  or  creosote,  and  tar  or  pitch;  this 
last  is  used  for  roofing,  waterproofing,  etc.  Coal-tar  after  being 
distilled  is  very  brittle  at  the  freezing-point,  and  softens  and 
flows  between  70°  and  115°  Fahr. 

Paving  pitch  is  the  residue  obtained  from  distilling  coal-tar. 

Creosote-oil  is  a  product  obtained  in  distilling  coal-tar.  It 
is  mostly  used  for  preserving  timber. 

ASPHALTUM  AND  BITUMINOUS  RCCK. — The  general  term 
"asphaltum"  may  be  applied  to  the  numerous  varieties  of 
hydrocarbons  of  an  asphaltic  base  which  exist  in  all  condi- 
tions, from  the  liquid  to  the  solid  state.  The  general  rule  has 
been  to  include  under  asphaltum  only  material  used  as  such, 
for  instance,  the  residuum  from  petroleum-refining  processes 
which  is  sold  and  used  as  asphalt. 

The  term  "bituminous  rock"  includes  sandstones  and  lime- 
stones impregnated  with  asphaltum  or  bitumen  which  are  shipped 
and  sold  without  previous  mixing.  This  rock  is  used  prin- 


MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIALS. 


689 


pally  for  street  pavement,  and  is  either  used  in  its  natural  state 
or  mixed  with  other  ingredients. 

Bituminous  rock  is  also  treated  to  obtain  asphaltum  or  bitu- 
men, the  product  being  sold  as  refined  or  gum  asphalt. 

Asphaltum  is  much  used  for  roofing  purposes,  and  is  much 
superior  to  the  ordinary  tar  or  pitch,  as  the  sun  and  weather 
does  not  affect  it. 

When  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  composition  of  either 
asphaltum  or  bituminous  rock,  a  careful  analysis  should  be  made. 

MINERAL  WOOL  is  essentially  a  vitreous  substance  converted 
to  a  fibrous  condition.  In  appearance  it  consists  of  a  mass 
of  very  fine  fibres  interlacing  each  other  in  every  direction, 
thus  forming  an  innumerable  number  of  minute  air-cells.  The 
resemblance  of  these  fibres  to  those  of  wool  or  cotton  has  given 
to  the  material  the  name  of  mineral  wool  in  this  country,  and  of 
silicate  cotton  elsewhere;  but  it  is  only  in  appearance  and 
softness  that  any  similarity  exists  between  the  mineral  and 
organic  fibres. 

Mineral  wool  partakes  of  the  nature  of  glass  without  its  brittle- 
ness,  the  fibres  being  soft,  pliant,  and  inelastic.  They  are  of 
irregular  thickness,  and  cross  each  other  in  all  possible  direc- 
tions. It  is  made  by  converting  scoria  and  certain  rocks, 
while  in  a  melted  condition,  to  a  fibrous  state. 


Average  Weight. 

Pounds 
per  Cubic 
Foot. 

Square 
Foot  One 
Inch  Thick. 

Cubic 
Feet  to 
Ton. 

Ordinary  slap  wool 

12 

1  pound 

166 

Selected     "       "    
Extra 

9 
6 

223 
333 

Ordinary  rock  wool  

12 

1 

166 

Selected      "        "    .                     .... 

8 

a 

250 

Extra           "        " 

6 

| 

333 

LITHARGE. — Obtained  by  melting  lead  and  passing  a  current 
of  air  over  the  molten  lead.  The  oxygen  is  absorbed;  the 
resulting  oxide  is  allowed  to  melt  and  run  into  suitable  vessels. 
On  cooling  it  breaks  into  fragments,  which  are  again  broken 
into  flakes  or  powdered,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  ready  for  the 
market. 

Litharge  is  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes:  in  making 
glass,  cements,  colors,  pottery,  calico-printing,  and  as  a  dryer 
in  paints  and  oils,  etc. 

MICA. — Common   mica   is   a   double   silicate   of   potash  and 


690  MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS. 

alumina.  A  characteristic  feature  of  mica  is  that  it  occurs  in 
plates  which  are  readily  split  into  thin  transparent  slices,  with 
great  power  of  resisting  heat.  Mica  forms  one  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  a  typical  granite,  and  it  appears  in  small  flakes  through- 
out the  stone. 

Miscellaneous  Receipts.  —  TEST  FOR  SEWER-GAS.  — 
Saturate  unglazed  paper  with  a  solution  of  1  ounce  pure  lead 
acetate  in  half  a  pint  of  rain-water;  let  it  partially  dry,  then 
expose  in  the  room  suspected  of  containing  sewer-gas. 

The  presence  of  gas  in  any  considerable  quantity  soon  darkens 
or  blackens  the  test-paper.  A  suspected  joint  of  a  pipe  can  be 
tested  by  wrapping  with  a  single  layer  of  white  muslin,  moist- 
ened with  the  above  solution,  and  if  gas  is  escaping  it  will  darken 
the  cloth. 

To  CLEAN  COPPER. — Take  1  ounce  of  oxalic  acid,  6  ounces  of 
rotten  stone,  £  ounce  of  gum  arabic,  all  in  powder,  1  ounce  of 
sweet-oil,  and  sufficient  water  to  make  a  paste.  Apply  a  small 
portion  and  rub  dry  with  a  flannel  or  leather. 

REMOVAL  OF  STAINS  FROM  GRANITE. — A  paste  of  1  ounce  of 
ox-gall,  1  gill  of  strong  solution  of  caustic  soda,  1 J  tablespoonfuls 
of  turpentine,  with  enough  pipe-clay  to  make  it  thick,  and  scour 
well. 

Or,  mix  together  J  pound  soft  soap,  1  ounce  washing-soda,  and 
a  piece  of  sulphate  of  soda  as  big  as  a  walnut.  Rub  it  over  the 
surface  proposed  to  clean,  let  it  stand  twenty-four  hours,  and 
then  wash  off ;  or,  smoke  and  soot  stains  can  be  removed  with  a 
hard  scrubbing-brush  and  fine  sharp  sand,  to  which  add  a  little 
potash. 

Or,  use  strong  lye,  or  make  a  hot  solution  of  3  pounds  of 
common  washing-soda  dissolved  in  1  gallon  of  water.  Lay  it  on 
the  granite  with  a  paint-brush. 

To  CLEAN  MARBLE. — Mix  2  parts  by  weight  of  sal-soda,  1 
part  powdered  chalk  or  fine  bolted  whiting,  and  1  part  pow- 
dered pumice-stone  with  enough  water  to  make  a  thin  batter, 
and  by  the  means  of  a  scrubbing-brush  apply  it  to  the  spots; 
then  wash  off  with  soap  and  water. 

Or,  to  remove  grease  spots  from  marble,  moisten  fine  whiting 
or  fullers'  earth  with  benzine,  apply  it  in  a  thick  layer  to  the  spots, 
and  let  it  remain  for  some  time;  then  remove  the  dry  paste  and 
wash  the  spot  with  soap  and  water. 

To  extract  oil  stains  from  marble,  make  a  paste  by  mixing 
2  parts  of  fullers'  earth,  1  part  soft  soap,  and  1  part  potash  with 


MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS.  691 

boiling  water.  Apply  this  paste  to  the  spots  and  let  it  remain 
three  or  four  hours. 

To  REMOVE  PAINT  FROM  WINDOW  GLASS. — Put  sufficient 
saleratus  into  hot  water  to  make  a  strong  solution,  and  with  this 
saturate  the  paint  which  adheres  to  the  glass.  Let  it  remain 
until  nearly  dry,  then  rub  it  off  with  a  woollen  cloth. 

To  MAKE  MODELLING  CLAY. — Knead  dry  clay  with  glycerine 
instead  of  water,  work  thoroughly  with  the  hands,  moisten  work 
at  intervals  of  two  or  three  days,  and  keep  covered  to  prevent 
evaporation  of  moisture. 

To  CLEAN  PAINT. — When  paint  is  washed  with  any  strong 
alkaline  solution,  such  as  soda  or  strong  soap,  the  oil  of  the 
paint  is  liable  to  be  changed  to  soap  and  the  paint  is  seriously 
injured.  To  avoid  this,  take  some  of  the  best  whiting,  and  have 
ready  some  clean  warm  water  and  a  piece  of  flannel,  which  dip 
into  the  water  and  squeeze  nearly  dry;  then  take  up  as  much 
whiting  as  will  adhere  to  it,  apply  it  to  the  painted  surface, 
when  a  little  rubbing  will  quickly  remove  any  dirt  or  grease 
stains.  After  this  wash  the  part  well  with  clean  water,  rubbing 
it  dry  with  a  soft  chamois.  Paint  thus  cleaned  will  look  as  well 
as  when  first  put  on,  and  the  operation  may  be  tried  without 
fear  of  injury  to  the  most  delicate  colors.  It  answers  far  better 
than  the  use  of  soap,  and  does  not  require  more  than  one-half 
the  time  and  labor.  Another  simple  method  is  the  following : 
Put  a  tablespoonful  of  aqua  ammonia  in  a  quart  of  moderately 
hot  water,  dip  in  a  flannel  cloth,  and  with  this  merely  wipe  over 
the  surface  of  the  woodwork.  No  rubbing  is  necessary.  The 
first  recipe  is  preferable,  except  where  the  paint  is  badly  dis- 
colored. 

To  AGE  OR  COLOR  COPPER. — Add  about  1  pound  of  powdered 
sal  ammoniac  to  5  gallons  of  water,  dissolve  it  thoroughly, 
and  let  it  stand  at  least  twenty-four  hours  before  putting  it 
on  the  copper.  Apply  it  to  the  copper  with  a  brush,  being 
sure  to  cover  every  place ;  let  it  stand  for  a  day  and  sprinkle 
with  water,  using  a  brush  to  sprinkle  the  water  on  so  that  it 
will  not  run  and  streak  the  copper.  After  standing  overnight 
the  color  will  be  as  desired.  The  same  effect  can  be  produced 
by  using  vinegar  and  salt  instead  of  the  sal  ammoniac,  using 
J  pound  of  salt  to  2  gallons  of  vinegar. 

To  REMOVE  OLD  GLASS  FROM  SASH. — Take  a  hot  iron  and 
run  along  the  surface  of  the  putty,  when  it  can  easily  be  re- 
moved with  a  chisel. 


692   GLOSSARY  OF  NEW  BUILDING  MATERIALS. 

To  REMOVE  RUST  STAINS. — To  remove  rust  stains  from 
wood,  wash  the  disfigured  parts  with  a  solution  of  2  ounces 
of  oxalic  acid  to  1  pint  of  hot  water. 

In  fitting  doors,  always  keep  the  hollow  side  next  the  stop 
or  rebate  strip. 

A  flour  barrel  is  28  to  30  inches  high  and  20  to  21  inches 
in  diameter. 

When  hanging  transoms,  where  possible,  if  the  transom  is  to 
be  hung  at  the  top,  hang  them  so  that  when  they  are  open  the 
glass  will  lay  on  the  wood  and  not  on  the  putty. 

Wash-stands  are  usually  set  2  feet  6  inches  from  the  floor. 

The  relative  strength  of  timbers  is  estimated  by  multiplying 
the  breadth  by  the  square  of  the  depth.  Example. — How 
many  times  as  strong  is  a  joist  2£'VX15"  when  supported  on 
its  narrow  side  as  when  supported  on  its  broad  side :  1\  X  2|  =*  6£, 
6iXl5=93TV  15X15  =  225,  225X2^=562$,  562^93TV=6,  or 
six  times  stronger. 


GLOSSARY  OF  NAMES  OF  SOME  NEW  MATERIALS 
USED  IN  BUILDING. 

ALASTER.     A  fire-proof  paint,  manufactured  by  the  National 

Fireproof  Paint  Corporation,  Chicago,  111. 
^EOLIPILE.     A  patent   damper   for  use   in  the   smoke-collar  of 

a  furnace,  manufactured  by  the  JSolipile  Co. ,  New  York. 
AB-LU-ENT.     A  paint  and  varnish  remover,  manufactured  by 

the  Detroit  White  Lead  Works,  Detroit,  Mich. 
ANHYDROSAL.     A  water-proof  coating  for  concrete  and  brick, 

manufactured  by  Toch  Bros.,  New  York. 
ASBESTOLITH.     A  plastic  sanitary  floor  covering,  manufactured 

by  the  Asbestolith  Co.,  New  York. 
ASBESTOSIDE.     A  siding  for  buildings,  manufactured  by  H.  W. 

Johns-Manville  Co. ,  New  York 
ALABASTINE.     An    interior-wall    paint,    manufactured    by   the 

Alabastine  Co.,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
ALPHADUCT.     A  flexible  conduit  for  electric  wires,  manufactured 

by  the  Alphaduct  Mfg.  Co.,  New  York. 
ASBESTINE.     A   fire-proof   paint,   manufactured   by  the  Alden 

Spears  Sons  Co. ,  New  York. 
ANAGLYPTA.     An   embossed-paper  wall   covering,   for  sale  by 

W.  H.  S.  Lloyd  Co.,  New  York. 


GLOSSARY  OF  NEW  BUILDING  MATERIALS.  693 

APADAC.     A  structural-meal  paint,  manufactured  by  the  Chil- 

ton  Paint  Co.,  New  York. 
BITULITHIC   PAVEMENT.     A  pavement  put  down  by  Warren 

Bros.,  New  York. 
BESSEMER  PAINT.     A  paint  for  the  protection  of  iron  and  steel, 

manufactured  by  Rinald  Bros. ,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
CARBOLINEUM  AVENARIUS.     A  wood-preserving  paint,   manu- 
factured by  the  Carbolineum  Wood-preserving  Co.,  New 

York. 
CEMENTICO.     A  cold-water  paint,  manufactured  by  the  U.  S. 

Gypsum  Co. 
CONSERVO.     A  wood   preservative,   manufactured   by   Samuel 

Cabot,  Boston,  Mass. 
CALSOM  FINISH.     A  kalsomine  for  interior  walls,  manufactured 

by  B.  Moore,  Chicago,  111. 
DULL-EINB.     A    dull    varnish,    manufactured    by    Samuel    F. 

Woodhouse,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
FLINTKOTE.     A  prepared  roof  covering,  manufactured  by  J.  A. 

Bird  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
FLINTOLINE.     A  floor  paint,  manufactured  by  F.  W.  Devoe  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 
FLU  ATE  (Lockpore).     A  coating  for  the  preservation  of  marble, 

stone,  terra-cotta,  etc.,  manufactured  by  Toch  Bros.,  New 

York. 
GRAINOLETTE.     A  transfer  graining  paper,  manufactured  by  the 

Stencil  Treasury,  209  E.  59th  St.,  New  York. 
HYDREX.     A  water-proofing  compound,  manufactured  by  F.  W. 

Bird  &  Son,  East  Walpole,  Mass. 
INDURINE.     A  cold-water  paint,  manufactured  by  L.  A.  Moore 

&  Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

JAP-A-LAC.     A  floor  finish  or  varnish,  manufactured  by  the  Gil- 
den  Varnish  Co. ,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
KALLIGRAIN.     A  transfer  graining  paper,  manufactured  by  Emil 

Majert,  New  York. 
KONKERIT  COATING.     A  water-proof  paint  for  concrete  or  brick 

walls,  manufactured  by  Toch  Bros.,  New  York. 
LINOFELT.     A  sheathing  fibre  felt,  manufactured  by  Union  Fibre 

Co.,  Winona,  Minn. 
LYTHITE.     A  white  enamel  paint,  manufactured  by  Frank  S. 

De  Ronde  Co.,  New  York. 
LETHEROID.     A  wool-felt  roof  covering,  manufactured  by  the 

Union  Paper  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


694    GLOSSARY  OP  NEW  BUILDING  MATERIALS. 

MARBELITHIC.  An  artificial  marble,  made  by  the  Marbelithic 
Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

MONOLITH.  A  sanitary  plastic  flooring,  base,  etc.,  manufac- 
tured by  the  American  Monolith  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

MALTHOID.  A  ready  roofing,  manufactured  by  the  Paraffine 
Paint  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

MIRAC.  A  varnish  and  paint  remover,  manufactured  by  J. 
Lucas  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

MURA-KALSO.  A  kalsomine,  manufactured  by  American  Lucol 
Co.,  New  York. 

METILE.  A  metal  wall  covering  in  imitation  of  tile,  manufac- 
tured by  Wisconsin  Mantel  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Novus  GLASS.  A  glass  wainscot,  etc.,  manufactured  by  the 
Penn- American  Plate  Glass  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

OKONITE.  A  brand  of  insulated  electric-light  wire,  manufac- 
tured by  the  Okonite  Co.,  Broadway,  New  York. 

PORCELITE.  A  white:enamel  paint,  manufactured  by  the 
Thomson  Wood  Finishing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

PHENOID.  A  varnish  and  paint  remover,  manufactured  by 
Ellis  Chambers,  Dedham,  Mass. 

ROOF-LEAK.  An  asphalt  roof  coating,  manufactured  by  the 
Elliot  Varnish  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

SUPERB  A.  A  cold-water  paint,  or  kalsomine  for  interior  walls, 
manufactured  by  the  Dry  Kalsomine  and  Paint  Works, 
New  York. 

SIAMLAC.  A  substitute  for  shellac,  sold  by  J.  B.  Moffett,  Minne- 
apolis, Minn. 

SILICATED  CARBON.  A  transparent  waterproofing  for  concrete 
and  brick,  manufactured  by  the  Standard  Specialty  Co., 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

SPHINX  GUM.  A  strengthener  to  add  to  flour  paste,  manufac- 
tured by  the  Arabol  Manufacturing  Co. ,  100  William  Street, 
New  York. 

SALSEE.  A  plastering  fibre  used  in  place  of  hair,  manufactured 
by  C.  R.  Weeks,  14th  Street,  New  York. 

SACKET'S  PLASTER  BOARD.  A  plaster  board  made  in  sheets 
32"X36"  and  nailed  to  the  studs,  and  then  finished  with 
a  coat  of  hard  plaster,  sold  by  the  Garden  City  Sand  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

SANITAS  A  cloth  wall  covering,  manufactured  by  the  Standard 
Table  Oil  Cloth  Co.,  New  York. 


GLOSSARY  OF  NEW  BUILDING  MATERIALS.  695 

TAPESTROLA.  A  burlap  decoration,  manufactured  by  Richter 
Manufacturing  Co.,  Tenafly,  N.  J. 

TITEKOTE.  An  iron-preservative  paint,  manufactured  by  the 
Barber  Asphalt  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

TEX-TA-DOR-NA.  A  burlap  wall  covering,  manufactured  by  the 
Tex-ta-dor-na  Manufacturing  Co.,  Columbus.  Ohio. 

TRANSITS.  A  fire-proof  lumber,  manufactured  by  H.  W.  Johns- 
Man  ville  Co. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Abacus 575 

Absorptive  power  of  brick 43 

granite 43 

limestone 43 

marble 43 

mortar 43 

sandstone 43 

slate 70 

Ab-u-lent 692 

Acid,  muriatic ' 686 

oxalic 686 

tests  for  iron  and  steel 426 

Activity  of  cement 128 

Adulteration  of  linseed-oil 397 

red  lead 403 

turpentine 399 

white  lead 402 

Aeolipile 692 

Aggregate  for  concrete 167 

Air-slaked  lime Ill 

Alabastine 692 

Alaster ; 692 

Alcohol 685 

Alphaduct 692 

Alum 682 

Aluminum,  weight  of 658 

to  solder 388 

Ammonia 684 

Ampere,  electric 480 

Anchors  to  beams,  etc 307 

Anchor-joist 260 

Anhydrosal 692 

Anaglypta 692 

Angle,  to  draw 535 

Angle-beads 293 

Angles  in  partitions 299 

Annealing,  steel 447 

Annulet 575 

697 


698  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Antimony  vermilion 403 

Apadac 693 

Apophyge 575 

Apothecaries,  measure,  liquid 578 

dry 578 

Arc 617 

area  of 619 

measurement  of 618 

of  circle 571 

to  draw  curve  of ; 572 

to  find  radius  of 617 

Arc  lamps 514 

Arc-lighting • 507 

Arch: 

brick  floor 194 

composed  of  two  arcs  of  circles 569 

concrete  floor 195 

drop 568 

elliptical,  not  level 570 

flat-pointed 567 

four-centre 569 

Gothic 567 

hearth 86 

inverted,  in  footings 27 

lancet  Gothic 567 

lintel 59 

lintel,  brick 85 

size  of  ring 622 

three-center 568 

to  find  thrust  of 622 

Tudor 569 

Arch  brick 74 

Architectural  terra-cotta .% . .   226 

Architecture,  orders  of 548 

table  of  orders 553 

Arcs  of  circles,  tangential 536 

Area: 

arc 619 

circles,  to  find 692 

circles 616 

cone 697 

cycloid 613 

cylinder 620 

ellipse 619 

frustum  of  cone  or  pyramid 620 

polygon 613 

pyramid 697 

sector 619 

segment 619 

sphere 621 

square 613 


INDEX.  699 


Area:  PAGE 

trapezium 613 

triangle 613 

Area  covered  by  concrete 144 

Artificial  foundations 9 

stone  sidewalks 180 

Asbestos 688 

paper 688 

Asbestolith 692 

Asbestoside 692 

Ash,  description  of 314 

Ash  boxes  and  pits 253 

Ashlar: 

backing  of 83 

coursed,  two  sizes  stone 49 

irregular  coursed 49 

joints  in 64 

level  and  broken 49 

random 50 

random  in  courses 50 

regular  coursed 49 

rusticated 51 

Asphalt  paper 688 

Asphaltum 684-688 

Astragal 575 

Atmosphere,  effects  on  stone 43 

tests  for  effects  on  stone 43 

Automatic  sprinklers 287 

Avoirdupois  measure 577 

Barrel,  contents  of 621 

size  of 692 

Basalt,  description  of 29 

Batter-boards 4 

Beams: 

belly-rod 675 

bending  moments  of 478 

deflection  of 478 

formula  on  iron  and  steel 476 

in  footings 21 

properties  of  I  beams 468 

roof  and  floor 439 

safe  load 463 

size  of 468 

steel 468 

strength  of  wooden 318 

to  find  stress  of  wooden 623 

various  loading  of 478 

weight  of 468 

wooden 306 

Bed  of  foundations 8 

Bench-marks 4 


700  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Beeswax -. 684 

Behrend  steel  sheet-piling 19 

Belly-rod  truss,  strength  of 675 

Bessemer  paint 693 

Bevel  for  backing  hip-rafters 555 

octagon  roof- 555 

Bevel  to  mitre  purlins 556 

Birch,  description  of 315 

Bitulithic  pavement 693 

Bituminous  rock 688 

Black  walnut,  description  of 315 

Blind  bond  in  brickwork 80 

Block  and  tackle,  power  of 623 

Block-tin  pipe 367 

Blue  black 405 

pigments 405 

lead 405 

sap 315 

Board  measure 322 

Boilers,  setting  of 245 

Bond  in  brickwork 79 

stonework 48 

Bolting  of  structural  iron  and  steel 427-440 

Bolts,  etc.,  in  woodwork 308 

Bond  iron  in  buildings 262 

Boneblack 405 

Boston  hip  in  shingling 299 

Boxes,  size  of 622 

Braces,  to  get  cut  of 560 

Brass: 

expansion  of 662 

rods,  weight  of 395 

specific  gravity  of 658 

weight  of  sheets 393 

weight  of  tubing 369 

Bremen  blue 405 

Bricks : 

absorptive  power 43-75  ' 

expansion  of  fire-brick 662 

fire-brick 76 

iron  in 73 

lime  in 73 

names  of 74 

quality  of 75 

shale  in 73 

size  of 74 

tests  of 75 

weight  of 75 

weight  and  strength  of 75 

working  strength 75 

vitrified 76 


INDEX.  701 


PAG5 

Brick-laying 76 

arch  lintels 85 

backing  up  ashlar 83 

beds  in  brickwork 78 

bond  in 79 

bond  course  to  mark 82 

bracing  of  walls 85 

chimneys 86 

efflorescence  on 100 

English  bond 81 

English  cross  bond 81 

estimating  of 100 

Flemish  bond 81 

floor-arches 194 

footings 26 

headers 83 

hearth-arches 86 

hollow  walls 86 

joints  in 78 

nogging 87 

pointing 98 

projecting  courses 84 

rules  for 87 

secrete  bond 80 

wall  ties  in 80 

washing  down 86 

wet  when  layed 76 

Brick-dust,  weight  of . .  . 661 

Brick  footings 26 

nogging 87 

British  thermal  unit  (B.T.U.) 524 

Bridging 298 

Broken-stone  drain 5 

Brown  colors 406 

Buckeye  fire-proof  floor  construction 210 

Building  paper 687 

Bushel,  weight  of 582 

Butternut,  description  of 315 

Buttresses 61 

Calcareous  stones 30 

Calking  joints  in  cast-iron  pipes 359 

Callarino 575 

Calson  finish 693 

Camber  in  joist 297 

Capping,  concrete 19 

granite 20 

Carbon  in  steel 426 

Carbolineum  avenarius 693 

Carpentry: 

anchorage  of  beams 307 


702  INDEX. 

Carpentry:  PAGE 

angles  in  partitions 299 

base,  fastening  of 305 

bracing,  etc 299 

bridging  floors 298 

partitions 298 

camber  in  joist 297 

description  of  woods 313 

doors 302 

doors,  hand  of 305 

to  hang 692 

fastening  finish,  etc 304 

finish,  nailing  of 303 

flag-pole,  to  make 302 

floor-strips 297 

grounds 298 

hardware,  placing  of 305 

joints  in  timber 565 

kerfing  of  mouldings 569 

lumber  measure 322 

metal  plugs 305 

mouldings,  nailing  of 303 

nailing  blocks : 303 

in  T.  C.  walls 304 

panels,  etc 303 

partitions 298 

pitch  of  ttairs 302 

reducing  timber  to  octagon 558 

sash 302 

securing  trim,  etc 303 

sheathing 302 

shingling 299 

strength  of  wood  columns 319 

of  beams 318 

transoms,  to  hang 692 

trimmer-beams 306 

wainscot,  fastening  of 305 

washstands,  height  of .' 692 

wood  beams,  etc 306 

frames 304 

Castings,  shrinkage  of 680 

Cast-iron  pipe,  safe  pressure. . 364 

Cast  iron : 

appearance  of 422 

color  of 422 

defects  in 421 

expansion  of 662 

fittings,  weight  of 368 

inspection  of  columns 422 

lintels 438 

malleable 423 

melting-point 423 


INDEX.  703 

Cast  iron :  PAGE 

pipes,  weight  of 380 

pressure  in  cast-iron  pipes 364 

sand-holes  in 421 

shrinkage  of 423 

specifications  for 423 

strength  of 423 

of  columns 424 

of  malleable 423 

weight  of 423 

Carving,  stone 61 

Cavetto 575 

Cedar. 314 

Cement: 

activity  of 128 

amount  for  test 3 

analysis  of  Portland 116 

of  various  brands  of  Portland 145 

color,  etc 116 

expansion  of 142 

Keene's -.  296 

Lafarge 296 

magnesia  in 116 

manufacturers'  guarantee 116 

natural 112 

non-staining 142 

notes  on 142 

porosity  of 142 

Portland 115 

Puzzolan v. 120 

use  of 121 

Rosendale 112 

silica 124 

size  of  sieves  for  testing  fineness 142 

slag 120 

strength  of  various  brands  of  Portland 147 

of  natural 146 

specifications  for 125 

Portland 117 

natural 113 

Puzzolan 122 

specific  gravity 143 

tests  of  various  brands  of  natural 146 

of  Portland 147 

tests  of 126 

for  expansion 142 

of  mortar 158-171 

for  soundness 142 

use  of,  in  freezing  weather 156 

weight  of 658 

weight,  etc.,  of  natural 112 

what  one  barrel  will  do 144 


704  INDEX. 

Cement:  PAGE 

water-proof  wash 154 

Cementico 693 

Centrifugal  pumps,  capacity  of 634 

revolutions  of 635 

Chain,  strength  of 675 

Chases  in  walls 85 

Channels,  properties  of 472 

safe  load 466 

sizes  of 472 

weights  of 472 

Cherry 315 

Chestnut,  description  of 315 

Chimneys,  flues,  etc.,  fire  protection  of 235 

height  of  flue-lining 235 

supports 240 

thickness  of  brick  walls 231 

wood  plugs  in 236 

and  flues  in  frame  buildings 231 

Chimneys 86 

Chord.' 615 

Chrome  yellow 404 

Cincture 575 

Circle: 

arc,  to  draw 572 

area,  to  find 616 

circumference  of 616 

involute  of 548 

heads,  to  lay  out 574 

measurements  of 616 

parts  of 615 

to  draw  diameter  when  chord  and  rise  of  arc  is  given 572 

to  find  centre 571 

to  draw  to  strike  three  given  points 570 

Circular  areas    590 

Circuit-breaker,  electric 506 

circular  measure 580 

Circumferences,  table  of 590 

Cisterns,  capacity  of 649 

Classification  of  brick 74 

of  fire-proof  structures 253 

Clay: 

carrying  power 10 

foundation 9 

in  concrete 168 

in  sand 110 

shrinkage  of 6 

Cleaning  of  brick  masonry 86 

of  granite 690 

of  marble 690 

of  stone  masonry 68 

of  paint 691 


INDEX  705 


PAGE 

Closets  as  fire-traps 235 

Coal-tar 688 

paint 417 

Cobalt  blue 405 

Coins,  weight  of 581 

Colors: 

compound 406 

contrast  in 418 

harmony  in 418 

to  mix 406 

Color  of  bricks 73 

Columbian  fire-proof  floor  construction 216 

Columns: 

cast-iron 424-436 

double 437 

encasing  of  steel 197 

entasis  of 574 

filling  with  concrete 480 

iron  and  steel 435 

names  of  parts 575 

wood 319 

Comparison  of  thermometric  scales 628 

Composite  order  of  architecture 549 

proportions  of 554 

Concentric  rings,  to  divide  circle 536 

Concrete : 

aggregate  for 167 

building  blocks 191 

compositions  for  various  uses 184 

construction 190 

defects  in 191 

depositing 174 

dry.  . , 164 

filling  hollow  columns 480 

floor-arches 194 

floor-arches,  tests  of 194 

floor  construction 194 

rules  for ; 194 

forms  for 190 

inspection  of 164 

lime 186 

mixing 165 

notes  on 187 

plastering,  composition  of 184 

proportions  of 168 

of  cinder 194 

protection  of  steel  by 173 

reinforced  construction 190 

salt  in 190 

sand  for 168 

sidewalks .180 


706  INDEX. 

Concrete:  PAGE 

sidewalks,  specifications  for 181 

strength  of 240 

specifications  for 175 

tests  of 171, 172 

of  mortar  in .    158 

voids  in 169 

volume  of 188 

wash 184 

weight  of 183 

wet 164 

Cone  or  pyramid,  frustum  of   620 

volume  of 620 

area  of 620 

Contents  of  pipes .....' 648 

of  irregular  body 622 

Conventional  signs  for  riveting 434 

Conserve 693 

Conductor,  electric 496 

Conduits,  electric 480 

interior  electric 513 

Corinthian  order  of  architecture 548 

proportions  of 554 

Cornices  of  fire-proof  structures 277 

Cornice,  plaster 295 

Corner  beads,  metal 293 

Corona 575 

Coping,  stone 61 

Copper  : 

amount  required  for  test 3 

capacity,  electrical , 494 

expansion  of 662 

nails 312 

rods,  weight  of 395 

roofing 384 

specific  gravity 658 

to  clean 690 

to  age 691 

weight  of  sheet 393 

wire,  resistance  of,  electric 482 

Covering  for  steam-pipes 522-524 

Creosote 688 

Crowds,  weight  of 681 

Cubic  measure. 577 

Cube  roots,  etc 590 

Cummings's  system  of  reinforced  concrete 219 

Curb,  stone 61 

Curbs,  to  set 67 

Cut-outs,  electric 506 

Curve  approximating  an  ellipse 338 

Cycloid 613 

area  of 613 


INDEX.  707 


PAGE 

Cylinder 620 

area  of '.  . 620 

volume  of 620 

Cymatium 575 

Cyma-recta 575 

Cypress,  description  of 314 

inspection  of 334 

Dam  measurements 635 

Decimals  of  a  foot. 610 

of  an  inch 611 

Defects  in : 

cast  iron 421 

concrete 191 

glass.  .... . . ... . . . . 420 

granite.  . '.' 29 

limestone 39 

plastering 293,  294 

sandstone 34 

steel 426 

timber 315 

wrought  iron 426 

Degrees  from  steel  square 564 

Diary,  superintendents 2 

Dismissal  of  workman 2 

Dodecahedron .-. 614 

Dome,  perpendicular  sheathing  on 558 

horizontal  sheathing  on 559 

Doors,  to  fit 692 

to  hang 692 

hand  of 342 

Doric  order  of  architecture 548 

proportions  of , 553 

Douglas  fir,  inspection  of , .  .  344 

Ducts  for  ventilation 385 

Drains,  tile 5 

broken-stone 5 

Drawing : 

arcs  of  circles,  tangential 536 

cycloid 545 

ellipse 537 

epicycloid 547 

hyperbola 545 

hypocycloid x. 547 

involute  of  circle 548 

Ionic  involute 543 

octagon 535 

oval 539 

parabola 545 

polygon 535 

spiral 540 


708  INDEX. 

Drawing:  PAGE 

spiral,  when  greatest  diameter  is  given 543 

stair  scroll    542 

tapering  scroll. 542 

triangle 533 

Drop  arch 568 

Ducts  for  ventilators 241 

Dull-ine 693 

Dutch  pink 404 

Duties  of  superintendent 1 

Echinus 575 

Efflorescence  on  brickwork 100 

concrete 189 

Electric  work: 

ampere 480 

amperes  per  lamp 485 

per  motor 492 

arc  lighting 507 

lamps 514 

automatic  cut-outs 508 

bends  in  conduits 480 

broken  circuit 480 

capacity  of  wire 494,  495 

circuit,  broken 480 

concealed  knob  work 512 

tube  work 512 

conduits 480 

conductors 496 

constant -potential  system 508 

cut-outs 506 

economy  coils 514 

electric  heaters 510 

terms 480 

equivalents  of  electrical  units 484 

fixtures 513 

flexible  cord 514 

grounded  circuit 480 

grounding  circuits 502 

ground  connections 502 

horse-power 484 

incandescent  lamps 508 

wiring  table 488,  489 

insulators 496 

interior  conduits 513 

low-potential  system 510 

moulding  work 511 

ohm 480 

resistance  of  wire 482,  483 

rules  for 499 

sockets 513 

soldering  fluid 514 


INDEX.  709 


Electric  work: 

switches 506-509 

transformers 502 

trolley  wires 501 

underground  conductors 504 

volt 484 

watt 484 

wires,  inside 503 

outside 499 

wiring  formula 497 

table 485 

Elevator  shafts 270 

Ellipse: 

curve  approximating 538 

draw  with  trammel 538 

foci  of 619 

joints  in  arch 561 

perimeter  of 619 

to  draw 536 

to  find  area 619 

Elliptical  arch,  joints  in 561 

English  bond  in  brickwork 81 

cross  bond  in  brickwork 81 

Entablature,  names  of  parts 575 

Entasis  of  column 574 

Encasing  of  columns 197 

Epicycloid 613 

to  draw 547 

Equivalents  of  electrical  units 484 

Estimate  of  superintendent 2 

Estimating  brickwork 100 

stonework 51 

Excavating 5 

shrinkage  of  material 6 

Expanded  metal  construction 198 

Expansion  of: 

brick,  fire 662 

brass 662 

cast  iron 662 

copper 662 

granite 662 

lead 662 

steel 448 

table  of 662 

tin 662 

wrought  iron 448 

wrought-iron  pipe 529 

zinc 662 

Facia 575 

Felt  paper 687 

Fencing,  grade  of  lumber 327 


710  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Ferroinclave  fire-proof  floor  system 211 

Fibre,  plastering 293 

Fillers,  wood 414 

Fillets 575 

Filling,  fire-proof  floor . 220 

around  walls 28 

Fineness  of  cement 142 

of  sieves 142 

Finishing  lumber,  sizes  of. 333 

Fire-brick 76 

weight  of 661 

Fire-clay,  weight  of 661 

Fire-escapes,  erection  of 288 

Fireproofing  of  columns 197 

Fire-proof  floor  construction: 

Buckeye 210 

Columbian 216 

Cummings 219 

expanded  metal 198 

tests  of 200 

ferroinclave 211 

filling  of 220 

Hennebique 214 

Herculean  arch 222 

International 207 

Johnston 220 

Kahn 210 

Kuhnes  sheet-metal 206 

Metropolitan 210 

Multiplex 217 

New  York  arch 220 

Ransome 214 

Renton 203 

Roebling 200 

terra-cotta 220 

Thacher 218 

vulcanite 211 

Fire  protection  of  buildings 229 

anchors,  etc 260 

ash-boxes  and  pits 253 

automatic  sprinklers 287 

boilers,  setting  of 245 

bond  iron  in  buildings 262 

bridging  in  partitions 236 

cement  mortar 278 

chimneys,  flues,  etc 235 

chimney  supports 240 

closets  as  fire-traps 235 

columns,  casing  of 267 

concrete  fire-proof  construction .   266 

aggregate  in 266 


INDEX.  711 


PAGE 

Fire  concrete,  preparing  and  placing 167-174 

cornices 277 

ducts  for  ventilators 241-243 

elevator  shafts 270 

encasing  of  columns 276 

fire-escapes,  erection  of 288 

fire-proof  structures  classified 253 

fire  protection  of  fire-proof  structures 262 

fire-resistant  devices 286 

fire-shutters,  address  concerning 281 

fire-stops  in  furred  walls 236 

stud  walls ". 238 

floor  construction  in  fire-proof  buildings 263 

flues,  etc 231 

flue  connections 244 

frame  house  protection 231 

furnaces,  setting  of 246 

hearths 233 

hearth  bottoms 233 

hollow-tile  construction 264 

mortar  in '. 264 

setting  tile 264 

shoe  tile 265 

wetting  tile 265 

hot-air  pipes,  etc 241-249 

in  walls 242 

lining,  height  of 235 

materials  probibited 266 

metal  frames .   278,  279 

sash 278,  279 

mill  or  slow-burning  construction 256 

National  Board  of  Underwriters'  rules 270 

cinder  filling  on  top 275 

concrete  arches 273 

encasing  of  beams 275 

of  columns 276 

fire-proof  buildings 270 

floor  filling 271 

hall  partitions 271 

hollow-tile  arches 272 

pipe  openings 275 

protection  against  freezing.    275 

strength  for  floors 275 

temporary  centring 275 

various  fillings.  . 273 

pipe  covering 244-251 

pipes,  wires,  etc 269 

plaster  of  Paris,  use  of,  in  ^re-proof  buildings ; 266 

plumbing  pipes 244 

pointing 277 

protection  against  hot  metal,  etc ,...,...,. 252 


712  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Fire  protection  of  buildings  from  outside  fires 276 

of  external  openings « 278 

ranges,  setting  of 246 

registers 251 

secrete  bond  in  brick  wall  of  buildings 277 

selection  of  materials 277 

shutters,  metal 278 

sills  and  lintels 277 

smoke-pipes 248 

smoke-pipe  shields 249 

stairways 269 

steam  and  hot-water  heating  pipes 250 

studded  fireplaces 234 

terra-cotta 277 

tile  partitions,  etc 267 

tower  fire-escapes,  erection  of „. 290 

trimmer-arches 239 

wall  ties 277 

wire-glass.  .'. 284 

wood-framing  for  fire  protection 237 

wood  in  fire-proof  structures 268 

plug  in  chimneys 236 

Fire-proof  structures  classified 253 

Fire  protection  of  fire-proof  structures 262 

Fire-resistant  devices 286 

Fire  shutters,  address  concerning 281 

stops  in  furred  walls 236 

Fittings,  weight  of  pipe 368 

Fixtures,  electric 513 

Flagpole,  to  make 302 

Flagging,  stone 61 

Flashing 384 

projecting  brick  courses 84 

Flat-pointed  arch • 567 

Flemish  bond  in  brickwork 81 

Fliutoline 693 

Flintkote 693 

Flitch  plate-girder 624 

Floor-arches,  tests  of 194 

Floor  construction  in  fire-proof  buildings 263 

Floors,  concrete 194 

Floor  levels,  to  check 4 

strips,  wood 297 

Flooring,  trough  plate 479 

Flow  of  water 641-643 

Fluate  (lockpore) 693 

Flue  linings,  height  of 235 

weight  of 371 

connections 244 

Flues,  testing  of 86 

etc 231 


INDEX.  713 


PAGE 

Flux  for  soldering 387 

Foot,  decimals  of 610 

Footing: 

inverted  arch  in 27 

brick 26 

courses 25 

spread 21 

calculations  of 22 

stone 25 

Forms  for  concrete,  wood  to  use 190 

Force-pump 651 

Force  of  wind 679 

Formulas : 

area  of  piston 653 

diameter  of  pipe 656 

diameter  of  pump  cylinder 653 

flow  of  gas  in  pipes • 409 

for  electric  wiring 497 

head  of  water 656 

horse-power  to  elevate  water 653 

inclination  of  pipe 556 

power  of  lever 623 

power  of  pulleys 623 

screw 622 

pressure  of  water 652 

prismoidal 613 

quantity  of  water  discharged 655 

size  or  arch  ring 622 

steel  beams 476 

strength  of  flitch  plate-girders 624 

of  stone  lintels 622 

of  wooden  beams 623 

stress  in  belly-rod  truss 625 

hog-chains 625 

thickness  of  cast-iron  water-pipe 367 

thrust  of  arch 622 

trusses,  strength  of  common 626 

stress  in  members  of 627 

Pratt 628 

Whipple 628 

velocity  of  water 656 

volume  of  water  discharged 655 

Foundations : 

artificial 9 

bed  of 8 

clay 9 

gravel 9 

laying  out 4 

pile 10 

rock 8 

sand.  .  9 


714  INDEX. 

Foundations:  PAGE 

silt,  etc 9 

walls 27 

Frame-house  fire  protection 231 

Frankfort  black 405 

Frieze 575 

Fronts,  iron 442 

Furnaces,  setting  of 246 

Furring,  metal 225 

Fusibility  of  metals 679 

Gallons  in  cisterns 649 

Galvanized  iron  sheets,  weight  of 391 

Gas-piping 371 

Gas  pipes,  capacity  of 373 

flow  in  pipes 373 

Gauges,  standard 674 

Gauge,  U.  S.  standard 389 

decimal  equivalents 389 

Geometrical  definitions 612 

Georgia  pine 313 

Girders : 

flitch  plate 624 

steel  and  iron 463 

wood 623 

Glass,  defects  in 420 

expansion  of 662 

how  made 420 

quality  of 420 

to  remove 691 

thickness  of 421 

weight  of 421 

Glazing 421 

Glue 683 

Gneiss 29 

Gothic  arch 567 

Grainolette 693 

Granite : 

absorptive  power 43 

amount  produced 33 

analysis  of 32 

buildings  used  in 30 

capping 20 

color  of 30 

defects  in 29 

description  of 28 

expansion  of 662 

strength 31 

to  clean 690 

weight  of 31 

working  strength 30 

Graphite 685 


INDEX.  715 


PAGE 

Graphite  paint 417 

Greek  orders  of  architecture 548 

Green  colors .   406 

Grillage  on  piles 19 

steel 16 

wood 19 

Grindstones,  weight  of 622 

Grounds,  plastering 298 

Grouting 163 

composition  of 177 

Gravel: 

carrying  power 10 

foundations 9 

shrinkage  of 6 

Gravity,  specific,  of  materials 658 

Gutters,  tin 386 

Gypsum 686 

Hair,  plastering 293 

Hand  of  doors 305 

Hardness  of  woods,  relative 352 

Hard-pan,  carrying  power 10 

Hardware,  placing  of 305 

Headers  in  brickwork 83 

stonework 48 

Hearth  bottoms  for  fire  protection 233 

arch • 86 

Hearths 233 

Heaters,  electric 510 

Heating: 

capacity  of  radiators 518 

comparison  of  thermometric  scales 528 

calculating  radiating  surface 518 

data  for  steam-heating 527 

on  hot-water  heating 516 

duty  of  steam-engines 527 

expansion  of  wrought-iron  pipes 529 

fuel  value  of  wood 526 

heating  furnaces  and  boilers 530 

location  of  radiators 516 

of  registers 516 

non-conductive  covering 522 

table  of 524 

outlets  of  vent  and  hot-air  pipes 515 

pipe  data 527 

pressure  of  systems 516 

ranges  and  stoves 531 

registers 531 

location  of 515 

resistance  to  flow  in  pipes 521 

rules  for  installing  heating  systems 530 


716  INDEX. 

Heating:  PAGE 

running  of  pipes,  hot-air 515 

steam  and  hot  water 567 

size  of  steam-mains 529 

steam,  data  on 524 

steam  or  hot-water  pipes 515 

systems 515 

steam,  rules  and  information  on 525 

testing 516 

value  for  horse-power 526 

Hemlock 313 

Hennebique  fire-proof  floor  construction 214 

Herculean  arch 222 

Hexagon  bay 561 

Hexahedron 614 

Hickory 314 

Hip-rafters,  bevels  for  backing 555 

Hog-chain  girders,  strength  of 675 

Hole  in  roof  for  pipes,  etc 563 

Hollow  walls 86 

Horse-power,  electric 484 

heating  value 520 

to  elevate  water 653 

Hot-air  pipes 241-249 

Hot-water  system  of  heating 515 

Hydraulics 634 

capacity  of  centrifugal  pumps 634 

cisterns,  capacity  of 649 

contents  of  pipes 648 

fire-streams 642 

flow  of  water 641-643 

gallons  hi  cisterns 649 

lift  of  pumps 651 

measurement  of  streams 637 

miners'  inch,  measurement  of 637 

pressure  of  water 638 

pump  data 651 

velocity  of  water 640 

revolution  of  centrifugal  pumps 635 

Water: 

boiling-point 605 

data  on 650 

discharge  in  pipes 655 

freezing-point 650 

heat  of 650 

loss  by  friction 645 

pressure  of 638 

pure 650 

sea- 650 

to  compute  velocity 656 

discharge 655 

head 656 


INDEX.  717 

PAGE 

Hydraulics — water:  to  compute  diameter  of  pipe 656 

to  find  pressure 652 

veloc'.ty  of 640 

weight  at  different  temperatures 652 

of  column 650 

of  cubic  foot 651 

of  gallon 650 

weir-dam  measurements 635 

Hydraulic  lime m 

Hydrex 693 

Hyperbola 615 

to  draw 545 

Hypocycloid 613 

to  draw. 547 

Icosahedron 614 

Incandescent  lamps 508 

wiring  table 488 

Inch,  decimals  of 611 

Incompetent  workman,  dismissal  of 2 

Indian  red 403 

Indigo  blue 405 

Indurine 693 

Insulators 496 

International  system  of  fireproofing 207 

Interpretations  of  specifications 3 

Inverted  arch 27 

Involute 613 

of  square 540 

of  circle 548 

Ionic  involute,  to  draw 543 

Ionic  order  of  architecture 548 

proportions  of 553 

Iron  in  brick.  . 73 

sheets,  weight  of 390-461 

Ironwork: 

annealing  of 447 

beams,  strength  of 463 

properties  of 468 

weight  per  foot 468 

cast-iron  pipe,  weight  of 368-380 

channels,  properties  of 472 

safe  load 466 

sizes  of 472 

weight  of 472 

expansion  of 448 

melting-point 448 

modulus  of  elasticity 664 

notes  on 447 

painting  of 408 

pipes,  weight  of  wrought-iron 376 


718  INDEX. 

Ironwork:  PAGE 

trough-plate  floors 479 

weight  of  sheets 390 

Iron,  structural: 

beams,  strength  of 463 

bolting  of 427-440 

cast-iron  columns 424 

columns 435 

connecting  of 439 

erection  of 427 

framing  of 439 

fronts 442 

girders 438 

inspection  of 426 

lintels,  cast-iron 438 

punching  of 446 

requirements  for 435 

riveting  of 427-440 

roof-beams 439 

skeleton  construction 435 

specifications  for 442 

strength  of  floor-beams 463 

tests  of 426 

trusses 441 

working  strength  of 449 

Iron,  wrought: 

strength  of 426 

specific  gravity  of 426 

weight  of 426 

working  strength 426 

Irregular  body,  to  find  contents  of 622 

Ivory -black 404 

Japalac 693 

Johnson  system  of  fire-proof  floors 220 

Joints  in: 

brickwork 78 

elliptical  arch 561 

stonework 64 

timber 565 

Joist: 

camber  in 297 

bevelling  ends  in  walls 297 

bridging  of 298 

levelling  of 297 

Kahn  system  of  fire-proof  floors 210 

Kalligrain 693 

Keene's  cement 296 

Kerfiag  of  mouldings 569 

King  s  yellow 404 

Knots: 

killing,  in  painting 407 


INDEX.  719 


Knots:  PAGE 

in  stone 29 

in  timber 315 

Konkerit  coating.  .  .  .-. 693 

Kuhne's  fire-proof  floor  construction 206 

Lafarge  cement : 296 

Lakes 404 

Land  measure 577 

Lampblack 404 

Lasting  quality  of  woods 217 

Latent  heat  of  steam 525 

Lathing: 

data  on 292 

metal 293 

nails  required 292 

Laying  out  work: 

approximating  roof  surface 555 

arc  of  circle 572- 

arc,  to  draw  curve  of 572 

Arch; 

drop <>...; 568 

elliptical,  not  level. 570 

flat-pointed 567 

four-centre ; 569 

Gothic - . . 567 

Gothic,  elliptical. t , 566 

lancet  Gothic 566 

'£* ....     to  give  rise  and  span 567 

of  two  arcs  of  circles 569 

three-centre 568 

Tudor 569 

braces,  cut  of > 560 

circle,  to  strike  three  given  points 570 

to  find  centre ; 571 

heads 574 

degrees  from  a  square 564 

diameter  of  circle  when  chord  and  rise  of  arc  are  given 571 

entasis  of  column 574 

foundations 4 

gambrel  roof 573 

hexagon  bay 561 

joints  in  elliptical  arch 561 

timber 565 

mansard  roof 573 

mitre  circle  and  straight  moulding 564 

octagon  bay 561 

ogee  bracket 562 

pipe  hole  in  roof 563 

plancher  for  conical  roof. .. 560 

privy  seat 563 

purlins,  to  mitre * 556 


720  INDEX. 

Laying  out  work:  PAGE 

rafters,  bevels  for  backing 555 

cripples,  lengths,  etc 556 

for  curve  roof : 559 

in  concave  roof 560 

in  convex  roof 560 

lengths  and  bevels 555,  556 

rake  mould,  to  lay  out v. .   558 

sheathing,  bevel  for 557 

on  dome  perpendicular 558 

horizontal 559 

ventilating  hole  in  privy  door 563 

Lead: 

expansion  of 662 

weight  of 658 

sheet 368 

sash-weights,  weight  of 682 

Leatheroid 693 

.Length  of  miles 581 

Level,  to  use 4 

line,  curve  of 565 

Lever,  power  of 623 

Liquid  measure 578 

Lime: 

amount  for  stonework 52 

air-slaked Ill 

concrete 186 

for  plastering 293 

hydrate  of Ill 

hydraulic Ill 

analysis  of 112 

in  brick 73 

mortar 150 

preservation  of Ill 

putty Ill 

quality  of Ill 

weight  of 660 

what  one  barrel  will  do Ill 

Limestone: 

analysis  of 40 

absorptive  power 43 

defects  in 39 

description  of 36 

production  in  the  U.  S 38 

strength  of 39 

weight  of 39 

Limnoria  terebrans 14 

Line 612 

Linear  measure 576 

Linofelt 693 

Linseed-oil 396 

amount  for  test     3 


INDEX.  721 

Linseed-oil :  PAGE 

boiled 396 

bung-hole  process 397 

raw 396 

substitutes  for 397 

tests  for 398 

Lintels: 

cast  iron 438 

strength  of  stone 622 

in  fire-proof  structures 277 

Litharge 689 

Load  on  roofs,  weight  of 677 

Locust 314 

Loam,  shrinkage  of 6 

carrying  power 10 

Logarithms „ 590 

Lumber: 

inspection  of  cypress 334 

of  Douglas  fir 344 

of  Eastern  Oregon  pine 337 

of  Oregon  pine 342 

of  redwood 349 

of  yellow  pine. 322 

measure 323 

woods,  where  found 350 

Lythite 693 

Magnesia  in  brick  clay 74 

cement 116 

Mahogany 315 

Malthoid 694 

Manila  rope,  strength  of 667 

Maple,  description  of 315 

Marble: 

absorptive  power  of 43 

analysis  of v 42 

anchors  for 69 

cutting 68 

description  of , 40 

dust,  weight  of 661 

expansion  of 662 

Georgia 41 

mosaic .^. 70 

polishing  of 68 

production  in  United  States 41 

setting.  , 68 

strength  of 42 

Terrazza 70 

to  clean 690 

weight  of 42 

Marbleithic 694 

Materials,  rejected 1 


722  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Materials,  rejected,  removal  of 1 

prohibited  in  fire-proof  structures , 266 

specific  gravity  of 658 

strength  of 663 

weight  of 658 

Measures  of  miscellaneous  weights 582 

Measurement  of — 

arcs  of  circles 618 

barrel 621 

brickwork 100 

circle 616 

ellipse 619 

miner's  inch 637 

roof 555 

sphere . . 620 

spherical  zone.  , 621 

stonework 51 

streams 637 

tapering  timber 621 

weir  dams 635 

Melting-point  of  metals 679 

cast  iron 448 

steel 448 

wrought  iron 448 

Mensuration: 

ale  or  beer 579 

apothecaries',  dry 578 

liquid 578 

avoirdupois 577 

circular 580 

cubic 577 

dry 579 

land 577 

linear 576 

liquid 578 

square 576 

standard  pound 578 

surveyors',  long 580 

square 579 

time 580 

troy 580 

value,  U.  S.  standard 581 

weight  of  coins 581 

wine 579 

Metals,  color  at  different  temperatures 679 

Metal  frames 278 

fronts 442 

sash 278 

Metals,  melting-point 679 

Metal  nailing  plugs 305 

Metals,  strength  of 664 


INDEX.  723 


PAGE 

Metals,  specific  gravity  of 658 

Metal  wall  ties 80 

Metile 694 

Metal  beams 225 

corner  beads 293 

furring 225 

lathing 293 

Metallic  paint 417 

Metal,  painting  of 408 

Metric  system 583 

common  equivalents 585 

equivalents .  .  .  - 584 

interchangeable  table 586 

Metropolitan  fire-proof  construction 210 

Mica 689 

Miles,  length  of  various 581 

Mill  construction 256 

Mineral  wool 689 

Mirac 694 

Miscellaneous  weights . 582 

Miscellaneous  materials : 

alcohol 685 

alum 682 

ammonia 684 

asbestos 688 

asphaltum 684-688 

beeswax 684 

bituminous  rocks 688 

building  papers 687 

coal-tar 688 

creosote 688 

glue 681 

graphite 685 

gypsum 686 

litharge 689 

mica 689 

mineral  wool 689 

muriatic  acid 686 

oxalic  acid 686 

pitch 688 

silicate  stone 687 

staff 687 

whiting 684 

Mitres,  to  find,  on  square 564 

Modelling-clay,  to  make 691 

Modulus  of  elasticity  of  metals 664 

Monolith 694 

Mouldings,  kerfing  of 569 

Mortar: 

absorptive  power  of ; 43-142 

cement 153 


724  INDEX. 

Mortar:  PAGE 

cement-lime 512 

cement : 

amount  for  plastering 144 

stonework 144 

brickwork 144 

strength  of 157 

coloring  of  cement 155 

effect  of  temperature  on 155 

for  press  brickwork 151 

grouting 163 

lime: 

amount  for  brickwork Ill 

stonework Ill 

plastering Ill 

lime 150 

mosaic,  marble 70 

lime  putty  in  cement. 152 

mixing 154 

sugar  in    151 

tests  of 158 

tests  of  cement 170 

use  of  in  freezing  weather 151 

volume  of 186 

water-tight 154 

Mouldings,  fastening  of 303 

Moulding,  kerfing  of 569 

Moulder's  table 680 

Mouldings,  to  mitre  straight  and  circle 564 

Multiplex  fire-proof  floor  construction 217 

Mura-kalso 694 

Muriatic  acid 686 

Nails: 

flooring,  number  required  to  lay 311 

lath,  number  required 292 

requirements  of 308 

resistance  of 309 

shingles,  number  required 301 

sheathing,  number  required 311 

siding,  number  required 311 

size,  length,  etc 311 

slate,  number  required 73 

term  of  penny 311 

tests  of  trength 310 

weight  of  copper 312 

Names  of  parts  of  a  column 575 

Naples  yellow 404 

National  Board  of  Underwriters'  rules 270 

Natural  cement 112 

tests  of 146 

New  York  terra-cotta  floor-arch 220 


INDEX.  725 


PAGE 

Non-conductive  pipe  covering 522-524 

Hogging,  brick 87 

Novous  glass 694 

Oak: 

black,  coloring  of 418 

coloring  of 418 

description  of 314 

red 314 

verde  finish 418 

weathered 418 

white 314 

Ochres 404 

Octahedron 614 

Octagon  bay 561 

to  draw 535 

when  base  is  given 536 

to  find  side 561 

diameter 562 

reduce  square  timber  to 558 

Ogee  bracket 562 

Ohm,  electric 480 

Oil.  linseed 396 

amount  for  testing 3 

Okonite 694 

Onyx 41 

Orders  of  architecture: 

composite 549 

Corinthian 548 

Doric 548 

Ionic 548 

Tuscan 549 

Oregon  pine,  description  of 313 

inspection  of 342 

Eastern 337 

Oval,  to  draw 539 

on  given  line 539 

Ovalo 575 

Oxalic  acid 686 

Oxide  of  iron 403 

Beds. 404 

P.  &  B.  paint. 417 

Paint,  to  remove  from  glass 691 

cleaning  of 691 

Painting: 

applying  paint 407 

antimony  vermilion 403 

adulteration  of  white  lead 402 

of  red  lead 403 

of  turpentine 399 

bituminous  paints 417 


726  INDEX. 

Painting:  PAGE 

birch-coloring  of , 416 

black  pigments. , . 404 

blue-black , 405 

boneblack 405 

blue  lead 405 

Bremen  blue ..'.......'..... 405 

brown  umber ; 406 

burnt  sienna . 406 

blue  pigments.  . 405 

cobalt  blue 405 

compound  colors .........  .........: 406 

cleaning  old  work 409 

coloring  oak 418 

coloring  birch 416 

contrast  in  colors 418 

chrome  yellow 404 

ceilings,  painting  of 408 

data  on  painting 417 

Dutch  pink 404 

filling  hardwoods 414 

finishing  redwood 410 

Frankfort  black 405 

greens 406 

harmony  in  colors 418 

Indian  red 403 

ivory-black 404 

indigo  blue 405 

ironwork,  painting  of 408 

King's  yellow 404 

Lake's 404 

lampblack 404 

litharge 689 

linseed-oil,  boiled ; ; 396 

bung-hole  process 397 

raw 396 

substitutes  for 397 

tests  for k 398 

materials  for 396 

metallic  paint 417 

Naples  yellow 404 

oxide  of  iron ^ 403 

reds 404 

ochres 404 

pumice 414 

Prince's  metallic  paint 417 

paint,  to  remove , .  . .  .  409 

Prussian  blue 405 

preparing  for 407 

rosin 414 

raw  Sienna.  ..    406 

red  lead,  adulterates  used '. 403 


INDEX.  727 

Painting:  PAGE 

red  lead,  tests  of 403 

removing  old  paint , 409 

sublimed  lead 401 

shellac 413 

stains 416 

scarlet  red 403 

turpentine,  adulteration  of 399 

tests  for 399 

to  mix  paints , 406 

tinwork,  to  paint 408 

ultramarine  blue 405 

vermilion 403 

Venetian  red 404 

varnish 409 

wood  fillers 414 

weathered  oak 418 

white  lead 402 

tests  of 402 

walls,  painting  of 408 

yellow  ochre 404 

zinc  white 402 

tests  for 403 

Paints: 

asphalt 417 

bituminous 417 

coal-tar .   417 

graphite 417 

lead  and  oil 406 

metallic 417 

ready-mixed   417 

Paper: 

asbestos 688 

asphalt 688 

building 687 

felt 687 

parchment 687 

tar 688 

Paper-hanging 422 

Parabola 615 

to  draw 545 

Parchment  paper 687 

Partitions : 

angles  in 299 

Berger . '. 225 

bracing  of 298 

expanded  metal 223 

fire-proof 223 

Metropolitan.  . 223 

Phrenix 225 

rabbit 223 

Roebling 223 


728  INDEX. 

Partitions:  PAGE 

wood 298 

Pattern-makers'  table 680 

Pavement,  bitulithic 693 

Paving : 

asphalt 107 

brick 102 

concrete  foundation  for 104 

cross-walks 109 

grouting  of 107 

gutters 103 

specifications  for 102 

Phenoid 694 

Piles: 

bearing  value 15 

capping  of 19 

concrete 16 

concrete  capping  of 19 

driving 13 

eaten  by  terredo 13 

limnoria 13 

for  foundations 10 

friestedt  sheet 18 

granite  capping 19 

grillage  on 19 

material  for 11 

pointing  of 12 

preserving  of 14 

Raymond 16 

sheet 17 

simplex 16 

specifications  for 10 

testing  of 14 

tests  of  concrete 16 

Wittekind  sheet 18 

Pitch,  paving 688 

Pipes: 

cast-iron,  weight  of 380 

contents  of 648 

covering 522 

data  on 527 

equation  of 657 

expansion  of 529 

fittings,  weight  of 368 

how  made 370 

in  fire-proof  structures 269 

running  of  steam-  and  hot-water 515 

resistance  to  flow  in  steam- 521 

size  and  weight  of  iron 376 

lead 366 

Plancher  in  conical  roof 560 

Plane  figure 612 


INDEX.  729 


PAGB 

Plans  as  guide 3 

Plaster,  weight  of 661 

Plaster  of  Paris '. '. 293 

in  fire-proof  structures 266 

Plastering: 

cement,  composition  of 153 

cornices  and  mouldings 295 

covering  capacity  of  patent 295 

lime 295 

data 295 

hair 293 

Keene's  cement 296 

Lafarge  cement 296 

lime  for 293 

outside  stucco 295 

patent  plasters 294 

protection  of  cement 295 

sand  for 293 

scagliola 295 

staff 687 

stucco 295 

weight  of  plaster 661 

Plinth. 575 

Plumbing: 

air-inlets 356 

block-tin  pipes 367 

conductors 361 

connecting  lead  and  iron  pipes 359 

drain  connections 354 

drain-pipes 358 

drain-pipes,  weight  of 358 

fall  of  soil-pipes 351 

fastening  of  pipes 351 

flow  of  water  in  pipes 363 

galvanized  boilers,  capacity  of 369 

gas,  flow  of,  in  pipes 374 

gas-pipes,  capacity  of 372,  373 

increase  of  pressure 372 

to  compute  pressure 372 


gas-piping. 


371 

hand-holes  in  traps 356 

house-drains 355 

joints  in  sewer-pipes 353 

soil-pipes 353 

latrines 361 

lead  pipe,  size  and  weight 366 

location  of  traps 356 

materials  used 354 

pressure  in  cast-iron  pipes 364 

rules  for 354 

sheet  lead 368 


730  INDEX. 

Plumbing:  PAGE 

.soil-pipes  a 356 

weight  of 368 

stop-cocks  in  pipes 354 

tests  of  pipes 353 

for  sewer-gas 690* 

vault,  privy, 362r 

wash-stands,  height  to  set 692* 

waste-pipes 357 

water-closets 360 

Plumb-lines,  radiating 565 

Point 612 

Pointing,  brickwork 98 

stonework 67 

walls  of  fire-proof  structures 277 

Pole  for  setting  stonework 66 

Polyhedrons 614 

Polygons 612 

to  draw 535 

Poplar,  description  of 315 

Porcelite 694 

Portland  cement 115 

analysis  of 145 

tests  of 147 

Posts,  party-wall 4J 

Pound,  standard 57£ 

Power  of  lever 623 

of  screw ...   622 

of  pulleys 623 

Pratt  truss 630 

Pressure  of  water 638 

of  wind  on  roofs 678 

of  heating  systems 516 

Pressures,  to  compute  various 372 

Prince's  metallic  paint 417 

Prismoidal  formula 613 

Privy-door  ventilating-hole 563 

Privy  seat,  to  lay  out 563 

Protection  of  buildings  from  outside  fires 276 

of  external  openings  of  fire-proof  buildings 278 

Prussian  blue 405 

Pulley,  power  of 623 

Pumice 414 

Purlins,  bevel  to  mitre 556 

Puzzolan  cement 120 

Quadrant 615 

Quadrilateral 612 

Quoins,  chamfered 51 

Radiation,  to  compute 518 

Radiators,  capactiy  of 518 

location  of 517 


INDEX.  731 


PAGE 

Radius  of  arc,  to  find „ 617 

Rafters : 

bevels  to  back  hips 555 

in  octagon  roof 555 

in  concave  roof 560 

convex  roof 560 

curve  roof 559 

length  of  cripples 556 

lengths,  bevels,  etc 556 

to  find  length  of 555 

Rake  moulding,  to  lay  out 558 

Random  range  stonework „ 47 

broken  courses 47 

coursed 47 

Ranges,  setting  of 246 

Ransome  system  of  concrete  construction 214 

Receipts,  etc.  : 

copper,  to  age 691 

to  clean 690 

glass,  to  remove 691 

marble,  to  clean 690 

modelling-clay,  to  make 691 

paint  on  glass,  to  remove 691 

rust-stains,  to  remove 692 

sewer-gas,  to  test  for 690 

stains  on  granite,  to  remove 690 

Reciprocals 590 

Rectangle 612 

Red  lead: 

adulteration  of 403 

amount  required  for  tests 3 

tests  for 403 

Red  oak 314 

Redwood 314 

finishing  of 410 

inspection  of 349 

Registers,  heating 531 

location  of 515 

Reinforced-concrete  construction 260 

Rejected  materials 2 

Renton  system  of  fire-proof  floor  construction 203 

Requirements  for  iron  and  steel 435 

Resistance    o  shearing  of  wood 317 

Rhomboid 612 

Rhombus 612 

Right  angle 612 

to  bisect 533 

Riveting 440 

careless 428 

instructural  steelwork 427 

of  structural  steel  and  iron 427-440 


732  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Riveting,  perfect 430 

signs  for 434 

"Rivets,  strength  of 432 

Rock  foundations 8 

Rock-carrying  power 10 

Roebling  fire-proof  floor  system 200 

Roman  orders  of  architecture 548 

Roofing,  etc.: 

angles  of  roofs 677 

copper 384 

flashing 384 

loads  on 678 

pressure  of  wind  on 678 

tin 382 

weight  of  covering 677 

zinc 384 

Roof,  to  measure 555 

Roof  leak 694 

Rope: 

information  on  wire 669 

strength  of  wire 665 

of  manila 667 

Rosendale  cement 112 

Rosin 414 

Rubble: 

stonework 46 

coursed 46 

random 46 

Rust-stains,  to  remove 692 

Sacket's  plaster-board 694 

Salsee 694 

Salt  in  cement  mortar 156 

concrete 190 

sand 110 

Sand: 

carrying  power  of 10 

clay  in 110 

for  concrete 168 

for  plastering 293 

salt  in 110 

shrinkage  of 6 

quality  of 110 

weight  of 660 

Sandstone: 

absorptive  power  of 43 

analysis  of 37 

buildings  used  in 34 

color  of 34 

defects  in 34 

description  of 30 


INDEX.  733 

Sandstone:  PAGB 

expansion  of 662 

production  in  United  States 35 

strength  of 35 

weight  of 36 

working  strength 35 

Sanitas 694 

Sash-cord,  strength  of  wire 667 

Sash,  to  fit 302 

Sash-weights,  weight  of  lead 682 

of  cast-iron 681 

size  of  cast-iron 681 

Scagliola 295 

Scarlet  red 403 

Scotia 575 

Screws,  length  and  number 313 

Screw,  power  of 622 

Screw-threads,  standard 683 

Sector 616 

area  of 619 

Segment 616 

area  of 619 

Sewers 353 

Sewer-gas,  test  for 690 

Sewers,  main,  laid 5 

Sewer-pipe,  weight  of 370 

Sheathing,  to  cut 557 

on  dome,  horizontal 559 

perpendicular '. 558 

Shearing,  resistance  to 633 

Sheet  lead,  weight  of 368 

Sheet-metal  gauge 389 

Shellac   413 

amount  for  testing 3 

Shingling: 

Boston  hip 300 

nails  required  for 301 

number  in  a  bundle 302 

number  per  square  of  roof 301 

sides  and  corners 301 

valleys 300 

Shrinkage  of  castings 680 

of  timber 316 

Shutters,  metal 278 

fire  address  concerning 281 

Siamlac 694 

Sidewalks: 

construction  of 180 

defects  in 181 

laid  in  freezing  weather 181 

hot  weather 181 

specifications  for .  181-183 


734  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Sienna 406 

burnt 406 

Silicated  carbon 694 

Silicious  stones 30 

Silt  foundations 9 

Sills  and  lintels  of  fire-proof  structures 277 

Silicate  stone 687 

Size  of  boxes 622 

Slate: 

•  absorptive  power  of 70 

laying  of 71 

nails  required  for 73 

roofing 70 

strength  of 72 

tests  of .' 70 

weight  of 72 

of  various  thicknesses 72 

Slow-burning  construction 256 

rules  for , 259 

Smoke-pipes 248 

Sockets,  electrical 513 

Soil; 

carrying  power  of 10 

foundations 9 

shrinkage  of 6 

testing  of 7 

Soil-pipe,  weight  of 368 

Solder,  composition  of 387 

to  test 387 

for  aluminum 388 

Soldering,  flux  for 387 

fluid  for  electric  wires 514 

Solid 612 

Specifications  for — 

concrete 175 

constructural  steel 444 

iron 442 

•    concrete  foundations,  etc 177 

natural  cement 113 

Portland  cement 117 

Puzzolan  cement 120 

reinforced  concrete  construction 191 

sidewalks 180-183 

piles 11 

structural  cast  iron 423 

Specific  gravity  of  substances. 658 

of  steam , 525 

Sphere,  area  of 620 

contents  of « > 621 

Spherical  zone 621 

contents  of.  .  .  .  .   621 


INDEX.  735 


Sphinx  gum 694 

Spikes,  length,  etc 312 

Spiral  composed  of  semicircles 540 

in  arithmetrical  progression 540 

of  any  number  of  turns 541 

of  one  turn 540 

Spiral,  to  draw  when  great  diameter  is  given 543 

Spread  footings 22 

Sprinklers,  automatic  fire- 287 

Spruce 313 

Square,  involute  of 540 

measure 576 

to  draw 533 

Squares,  etc.,  table  of 590 

Staff 687 

Stains 416 

Stairs,  pitch  of 302 

Stair  scroll,  to  draw 542 

Stairways  La  fire-proof  structures 269 

Standard  screw-threads 683 

Star,  to  draw 533 

Steam  and  hot-water  pipes  in  fire-proof  structures 250 

data  on 524 

latent  heat  of 525 

rules  and  information  on 518 

specific  gravity  of 525 

Steam-engine,  duty  of 527 

Steam-heating,  data  on 524 

system 515 

Steam-mains,  size  of 529 

Steam-pipes 515 

Steel : 

beams 439 

bending  moments  of 479 

deflection  of 479 

formula  for 476 

safe  load 563 

various  loading 479 

channels,  properties  of 472 

safe  load 466 

sizes  of 472 

weight  of 472 

columns 435 

expansion  of 448 

girders 438 

I  beams,  properties  of 468 

size  of 468 

strength  of 463 

weight  of 468 

melting-point 448 

modulus  of  elasticity 664 


736  INDEX 

Steel:  PAGE 

pipe,  how  made 379 

weight  of 376 

protection  of,  by  concrete 173 

sheets,  weight  of 390 

skeleton  construction 435 

specific  gravity 658 

specifications  for 442-444 

trusses 441 

weight  of  flat  bars 450 

of  round  bars 456 

of  square  bars 456 

of  sheet 461 

working  strength 448 

Steps,  stone 61 

to  set  stone 66 

Stone: 

cutting 52 

iron  in 33 

laying 46 

setting 62 

strength  of 664 

testing  of 41 

tests  and  analysis  of 44 

Stone-cutting : 

bush-hammered 54 

carving.  . .  , 61 

crandalled  work 54 

cross-crandalled  work 54 

defects  in 57 

drip  on  sills,  etc 58 

drove  work 55 

fine-pointed 52 

inspection  of 57 

lintels 59 

mouldings 57 

patent  hammered 54 

picked  work 54 

rock  face 55 

with  draft 55 

rough-pointed 55 

tools  used 52 

tooled  work 55 

template  for  droved  work 56 

wash  on  sills 58 

Stone  lintels,  strength  of 622 

Stone-setting: 

area  coping 61 

backing-up 63 

curbs 61 

flagging 67 

height  pole 66 


INDEX.  737 

Stone-setting:  PA.GE 

lead  filling  in  joints 65 

tool  for 65 

size  of  joints 64 

steps 66 

tool  for  slushing  joints 64 

wedges  used  for 62 

Stonework : 

amount  of  lime  and  sand  for 52 

area  coping 61 

ashlar,  coursed  two  sizes 49 

irregular  coursed 49 

level  and  broken 49 

random 50 

random  in  courses 50 

rusticated 51 

block -coursed 47 

buttresses 61 

chamfered  quoins 51 

coping 61 

curbs 61 

cut-stone  work 46 

flagging 61 

footings 25 

granite 28 

irregular  form  of 47 

joints  hi 64 

measurement  of 51 

natural  stones 28 

one-man  rubble 48 

pointing ' 67 

random  range 47 

coursed 47 

regular  coursed  ashlar 49 

rubble-work 46 

rubble,  coursed 46 

random 46 

washing  down 68 

Stone,  silicate 687 

Streams,  measurement  of 637 

Strength  of— 

brick 75 

cast  iron 423 

columns 424 

chains 675 

concrete 171,  172 

flitch-plate  girders 624 

granite 31 

hog-chains 675 

limestone 39 

malleable  cast  iron 423 

Manila  rope 667 


738  INDEX. 

Strength  of —  PAGE 

marble 42 

materials 663 

metals 664 

mortar 158 

rivets 432 

slate 72 

steel  beams 463 

wire 673 

stones 664 

timber,  working 317 

trusses 709-711 

wire  sash-cord 667 

rope 665 

wooden  beams 318 

columns 319 

wrought  iron 426 

Structural  steel  and  iron: 

annealing  of 447 

beams 439 

bolting  of 427-440 

columns 424 

connecting 439 

erection  of 427 

expansion  of 448 

framing  of 439 

girders 438 

inspection  of 426 

melting-point 448 

notes  on 447 

plates  in  joints 438 

punching 446 

requirements  for 435 

riveting  of ^27-440 

signs  for  riveting 434 

skeleton  construction 435 

specifications 442 

tests  of 426 

trough  plate  flooring 479 

trusses , 441 

working  strength 449 

Studded  fireplaces 234 

Stucco-work 295 

Sublimed  white  lead 401 

Substances,  expansion  of 662 

Sugar  in  mortar 151 

Superintendent 1 

decision  of 1 

diary  of ^ 2 

duties  of 1 

estimate  of 2 

personality  of . . , 1 


INDEX  739 


PAGE 

Superintendent:  plans  as  guide 3 

Superba 694 

Surface 612 

Surveyors'  measure,  long 580 

square 579 

Switches,  electric 506-509 

Syenite 29 

Tangents 616 

Tapestrola 695 

Tar  paper 688 

Tenia 575 

Terra-cotta : 

architectural 226 

balcony 229 

cornice 228 

fire-proof  floors 220 

flue  lining,  weight  of 371 

nailing  blocks  in 304 

pavilion 229 

Terrazza 70 

Terredo  navalis 13 

Tests,  amount  of  material  to  submit  for 3 

Testing  of — 

cement 126 

concrete 171 

granite 41 

limestone 41 

linseed-oil 398 

red  lead 403 

sandstone 41 

slate 70 

steel 426 

turpentine 399 

white  lead 402 

wrought  iron 426 

zinc 403 

Tetrahedron 614 

Tex-ta-dor-na 695 

Thacher  system  of  reinforced  concrete  floors 218 

Three-centre  arch „ 568 

Tile  drain 5 

Tiles,  weight  of  roof 677 

Timber: 

contents  of  tapering ......  621 

defects  in 315 

description  of 313 

dry  rot 315 

for  masts,  etc 316 

trusses,  etc 308 

heart-shakes  in,  .  . , . , . .  316 


740  INDEX. 

Timber:  PAGE 

inspection  of  cypress 334 

of  Douglas  fir 342 

of  Eastern  Oregon  pine. 337 

of  Oregon  pine 342 

of  redwood 349 

of  yellow  pine , 322 

knots  in 315 

lasting  qualities  of 317 

relative  strength  of 692 

rot  in 315 

sap  in 315 

seasoning  of 316 

shrinkage  of 316 

sound,  indication  of 316 

splits  in 316 

to  reduce  to  octagon 558 

wind-shakes 316 

working  strength  of 317 

Time  measure : : 580 

Tin  and  sheet -metal  work: 

double-lock  joint 383 

flashing 384 

flux  for  soldering 387 

gutters 386 

hot-air  pipes 385 

joints  in 383 

laid  between  strips 384 

method  of  laying 383 

painting  of 385 

single-lock  joint 384 

solder  for.  . 387 

soldering  aluminum 391 

standing  seam 383 

tin  plate 386 

ventilators 386 

Tin  plate: 

amount  for  test 3 

brand  of 386 

number  of  sheets  required 388-391 

size  and  weight  of  sheets 390 

thickness  of 386 

vent-pipes 385 

ventilators • 386 

weight  of 386 

Tin,  modulus  of  elasticity 664 

Titekote 695 

Torus 575 

Tower  fire-escapes 290 

Transoms,  to  hang 692 

Transit 695 

Transformers,  electric 502 


INDEX.  741 


PAGE 

Trapezium 612 

Trapezoid 612 

Trap-rock 29 

Triangle,  to  draw 533,  534 

Trough-plate  floors 479 

Trusses: 

iron 441 

pin-connected 441 

riveted 441 

steel 441 

strength  of  common 628 

stress  in  members  of  roof.  . 627 

Pratt 630 

Whipple 631 

Tudor  arch 569 

Tuscan  order  of  architecture 549 

proportions  of 551 

Turpentine : 

adulteration  of 399 

tests  for 399 

Two-centre  arch 568 

Ultramarine  blue 405 

Umber 406 

burnt 406 

Varnish 409 

amount  required  for  testing 3 

Velocity  of  water 640 

Venetian  red 404 

Ventilator 386 

Vent-pipes 250-385 

outlets  of 385 

and  ducts 251 

Vermilion 403 

Versed  sine 617 

Vitrified  brick 76 

Voids  in  broken  stone 169 

in  concrete 169 

Volume  of  concrete 188 

of  motar 186 

Volt,  electric 484 

Vulcanite  fire-proof  floor  system 211 

Walls,  foundation 27 

hollow 86 

Walnut,  black 315 

white 315 

Wall  ties,  metal 80 

in  brick  walls 80 

in  fire-proof  structures 277 

Wainscot,  fastening  of 305 


742  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Wash,  cement 184 

Wash-stands,  height  of 692 

Water: 

boiling-point  of 650 

data  on 650 

discharge  in  pipes 655 

elevated,  quantity  of 654 

expansion  of 662 

flow  of 643 

freezing-point 650 

heat  of 650 

loss  of  head  by  friction • 645 

pressure  of 638 

of  column 652 

pure 650 

sea- 650 

to  compute  the  diameter  of  pipes 655 

head  of 656 

inclination  of  pipes 656 

velocity 656 

volume  of 655 

to  find  pressure 652 

velocity  of 640 

weight  at  different  temperatures 651 

of  column 650 

of  cubic  foot 651 

of  gallon 650 

of  different  gallons 655 

Water-proof  wash  for  cement 154 

Watt,  electrical 484 

Wedge,  to  find  contents  of 613 

Wedges  used  to  set  stone 62 

Weight  of— 

aluminum 658 

beams,  1 468 

block-tin  pipe 367 

brass  rods ' 395 

sheets 393-461 

brick 75 

brick-dust 661 

bushel 582 

cast  iron 423 

cement   659-661 

cubic  yard 198 

channels. 4  72 

coins 581 

concrete 183 

copper  rods 395 

sheets 393-461 

crowds 681 

fire-brick.  .  661 


INDEX.  743 

Weight  of—  PAGE 

fire-clay 661 

flat  steel  bars 450 

flue  lining 371 

galvanized  sheets 391 

granite 31 

grindstone 622 

I  beams 468 

lead 743 

lead  pipe 366 

lime , 661 

marble-dust 661 

mineral  wool , . 689 

plaster , 661 

roof  covering 677 

round  steel  bars 455 

sash- weights,  lead , 682 

iron 681 

sewer-pipe •  • .  • 370 

sheet  brass 393 

copper 393 

iron  and  steel 390-461 

iron 461 

steel 461 

lead 368 

soil-pipes 368 

steel  wire 673 

square  steel  bars 455 

tin  per  box 392 

plates 386 

various  materials 658 

water 661 

woods 352 

wrought  iron 426-461 

weights,  various 582 

Weir-dam  measurement 635 

Whipple  truss 631 

White  lead: 

adulteration  of 402 

amount  required  for  testing 3 

tests  for 402 

White  oak 314 

pine 313 

walnut 315 

Whitewash 296 

Whiting 684 

Wind,  force  of 679 

pressure  of 678 

Wine  measure 579 

Wire: 

electric,  inside 503 

outside.  .  ,  .  .   499 


744  INDEX. 

Wire:  PAGB 

electrical  capacity  of 494 

resistance  of  copper 482 

ropes  for  inclined  planes 668 

rope,  general  information  on 669 

to  measure. . . .  .* 672 

strength  of 665 

sash-cord 667 

trolley 501 

weight,  etc.,  of  steel 673 

Wire-glass,  use  of 284 

Wiring,  electrical 480 

table 485 

formula 497 

Wood: 

beams,  etc.  .  „ 306 

blocking  for  nailing 303 

columns,  etc 319 

fuel  value  of 526 

hearth  bottoms 86 

trim,  securing  of 303 

Woods: 

description  of 313 

lasting  qualities 317 

strength  of 352 

weight  of. 352 

where  found 350 

Wrought  iron: 

defects  in 426 

melting-point 426 

specific  gravity 426 

strength,  working 426 

tests  for 426 

weight  of 426 

Yellow  ochre.  .  .  404 


pine. 


313 

inspection  of 322 

Zinc: 

amount  required  for  testing 3 

expansion  of 662 

roofing 384 

white 402 

tests  of 402 

weight  of 661 


A   C    r     Q     yf 


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